This document describes various surveying methods including chain surveying. Chain surveying involves measuring lengths of lines marked in the field using tapes and measuring details using offsets and ties from these base lines. The field work involves selecting a framework of base lines and control points, measuring line lengths directly and setting right angles using offsets, determining bearings with a compass, booking measurements, and plotting the survey to produce a detailed map. The objectives are to train students on linear measurement, setting offsets, measuring bearings, booking, and plotting. Apparatus includes tapes, ranging rods, paint, square, compass, and booking board.
The document provides information about theodolites. It begins with an introduction stating that a theodolite is used to measure horizontal and vertical angles more precisely than a magnetic compass. It then discusses the main parts of a theodolite including the horizontal circle, vertical circle, telescope, and levels. The document also covers the history of theodolites from their early origins to modern electronic versions. It describes how to operate a transit vernier theodolite including terms like centering, transiting, swinging the telescope, and changing face. Finally, it discusses the permanent and temporary adjustments needed to ensure accurate theodolite measurements.
The document discusses theodolite traversing and defines key terms related to using a transit theodolite. It describes the main components of a transit theodolite including the telescope, vertical circle, plate bubbles, tribrach, and foot screws. It explains how to perform temporary adjustments like centering the theodolite over a station mark and leveling it using the tripod and foot screws. It also provides details on measuring horizontal and vertical angles with a vernier theodolite.
1) The document discusses different types of meridians and bearings used in surveying, including true, magnetic, and arbitrary meridians and the corresponding true, magnetic, and arbitrary bearings.
2) It explains how to convert between whole circle bearings (WCB) and quadrantal bearings (QB), and how to calculate fore and back bearings.
3) Methods are provided for calculating angles between lines based on their WCB or QB using formulas that add or subtract the bearings.
The document provides information about theodolite surveying including:
1. A theodolite is an instrument used to measure horizontal and vertical angles which can also be used to prolong lines, measure distances indirectly, and for leveling.
2. Theodolite traversing involves establishing control points by measuring angles and distances between traverse stations to calculate positions.
3. Components of a theodolite include a telescope that can rotate vertically and a compass to determine direction, along with accessories like a tripod, rods, and tapes used in surveying.
This document provides information about tacheometry, which is a method of surveying that determines horizontal and vertical distances from instrumental observations. It discusses how tacheometry can be used when obstacles make traditional surveying difficult. The key aspects covered include:
- Defining tacheometry and the measurements it provides
- When tacheometry is advantageous over other surveying methods
- The instruments used, including tacheometers and levelling rods
- How horizontal and vertical distances are calculated using constants
- The different types of tacheometer diaphragms and telescopes
- The fixed hair method for taking readings
This document describes three methods for measuring horizontal angles with a theodolite:
1) Ordinary Method: A horizontal angle is measured between points A and B by sighting each point and recording the vernier readings. The process is repeated by changing instrument faces and the average of readings gives the angle.
2) Repetition Method: A more accurate method where the angle is mechanically added several times by repeatedly sighting point A after sighting B.
3) Reiteration Method: Several angles are measured successively at a station, closing the horizon by resighting the initial point. Any error is distributed among the measured angles.
Traverse surveying involves using instruments to measure distance and direction to create a network of points. There are two main types of traverses - open and closed. Open traverses extend in one direction while closed traverses form a closed loop. Common surveying instruments and methods used in traverse surveying include chain, compass, theodolite, and plane table. Key terms in traverse surveying include bearings, meridians, and reductions of bearings. Traverse calculations involve adjusting angles or directions to ensure closure of the network of points. Sample problems are provided to demonstrate conversions between whole circle bearings, reduced bearings, and fore and back bearings.
The document provides information about theodolites. It begins with an introduction stating that a theodolite is used to measure horizontal and vertical angles more precisely than a magnetic compass. It then discusses the main parts of a theodolite including the horizontal circle, vertical circle, telescope, and levels. The document also covers the history of theodolites from their early origins to modern electronic versions. It describes how to operate a transit vernier theodolite including terms like centering, transiting, swinging the telescope, and changing face. Finally, it discusses the permanent and temporary adjustments needed to ensure accurate theodolite measurements.
The document discusses theodolite traversing and defines key terms related to using a transit theodolite. It describes the main components of a transit theodolite including the telescope, vertical circle, plate bubbles, tribrach, and foot screws. It explains how to perform temporary adjustments like centering the theodolite over a station mark and leveling it using the tripod and foot screws. It also provides details on measuring horizontal and vertical angles with a vernier theodolite.
1) The document discusses different types of meridians and bearings used in surveying, including true, magnetic, and arbitrary meridians and the corresponding true, magnetic, and arbitrary bearings.
2) It explains how to convert between whole circle bearings (WCB) and quadrantal bearings (QB), and how to calculate fore and back bearings.
3) Methods are provided for calculating angles between lines based on their WCB or QB using formulas that add or subtract the bearings.
The document provides information about theodolite surveying including:
1. A theodolite is an instrument used to measure horizontal and vertical angles which can also be used to prolong lines, measure distances indirectly, and for leveling.
2. Theodolite traversing involves establishing control points by measuring angles and distances between traverse stations to calculate positions.
3. Components of a theodolite include a telescope that can rotate vertically and a compass to determine direction, along with accessories like a tripod, rods, and tapes used in surveying.
This document provides information about tacheometry, which is a method of surveying that determines horizontal and vertical distances from instrumental observations. It discusses how tacheometry can be used when obstacles make traditional surveying difficult. The key aspects covered include:
- Defining tacheometry and the measurements it provides
- When tacheometry is advantageous over other surveying methods
- The instruments used, including tacheometers and levelling rods
- How horizontal and vertical distances are calculated using constants
- The different types of tacheometer diaphragms and telescopes
- The fixed hair method for taking readings
This document describes three methods for measuring horizontal angles with a theodolite:
1) Ordinary Method: A horizontal angle is measured between points A and B by sighting each point and recording the vernier readings. The process is repeated by changing instrument faces and the average of readings gives the angle.
2) Repetition Method: A more accurate method where the angle is mechanically added several times by repeatedly sighting point A after sighting B.
3) Reiteration Method: Several angles are measured successively at a station, closing the horizon by resighting the initial point. Any error is distributed among the measured angles.
Traverse surveying involves using instruments to measure distance and direction to create a network of points. There are two main types of traverses - open and closed. Open traverses extend in one direction while closed traverses form a closed loop. Common surveying instruments and methods used in traverse surveying include chain, compass, theodolite, and plane table. Key terms in traverse surveying include bearings, meridians, and reductions of bearings. Traverse calculations involve adjusting angles or directions to ensure closure of the network of points. Sample problems are provided to demonstrate conversions between whole circle bearings, reduced bearings, and fore and back bearings.
The document discusses theodolites, which are surveying instruments used to precisely measure horizontal and vertical angles. Theodolites have three leveling screws and an optical plummet or prism, and can be used to establish straight and curved lines, measure distances, and establish elevations. Modern electronic theodolites have digital readouts and can measure angles more precisely than older optical theodolites. The document also describes how to set up a theodolite and take angle measurements, as well as techniques for prolonging measurement lines past obstacles using triangulation or offsets.
This document discusses contouring and contour maps. It defines a contour line as a line connecting points of equal elevation. The vertical distance between consecutive contours is called the contour interval, which depends on factors like the nature of the ground and the map scale. Contour maps show the topography of an area and can be used for engineering projects, route selection, and estimating earthworks. Methods of plotting contours include direct methods using levels or hand levels, and indirect methods like gridding, cross-sectioning, and radial lines. Characteristics of contours provide information about the landscape.
Chapter 6 area & volume measurement, Digital PlanimeterAbhay Abhale
This document discusses the components, uses, and measurement process of a digital planimeter. It describes the main components of a digital planimeter which include a roller, tracing arm, tracing magnifier, tracing point, and function keys. It then explains the various function keys and their purposes. Finally, it outlines the step-by-step process for measuring the area of a shape using a digital planimeter, which involves selecting a scale, marking a starting point, tracing the outline while holding the tracing point, and reading the area measurement from the display.
Metric Chain : It Consists of galvanized mild steel wire of 4mm diameter known as link.
It is available in 20m, 30m, 50m length which consists of 100 links.
Gunter’s Chain : A 66 feet long chain consists of 100 links, each of 0.66 feet, it is known as Gunter’s chain.
This chain is suitable for taking length in miles.
Engineer’s Chain : A 100 feet long chain consisting of 100 links each of 1 feet is known as engineer’s chain.
This chain is used to measure length in feet and area in sq.yard.
Revenue Chain : it is 33 feet long chain consisting of 16 links.
This chain is used for distance measurements in feet & inches for smaller areas.
The theodolite is an instrument used to measure horizontal and vertical angles that is more precise than a magnetic compass. It can measure angles to an accuracy of 10-20 seconds whereas a compass is only accurate to 30 minutes. The theodolite is used to measure horizontal and vertical angles when objects are at a distance or elevation where more precise measurements are needed. The method of surveying that uses a theodolite to measure angles is called theodolite surveying. The theodolite can be used to measure angles, bearings, distances, elevations, set out curves, and for mapping and construction applications.
This document discusses several types of setting out works including:
1. Setting out a foundation plan using a center line plan and batter boards. Batter boards are used to accurately transfer the center line onto the work site.
2. Setting out a sewer line by fixing stakes along the proposed center line and excavating the trench to the desired width and depth. Cross heads and sight rails are also used to maintain proper gradient and alignment.
3. Setting out a culvert involves marking points along the center lines X1 and Y1 based on given distances from the origin point O. Pegs are placed at the intersection of the points using two tapes held at equal distances between assistants. The culvert is then set
Hydrographic surveying involves measuring depths of water bodies. Soundings are depth measurements below the water surface. Ranges are lines along which soundings are taken, perpendicular to the shore. Shore signals mark each range line. Equipment includes a sounding boat, rods/poles, lead lines, and echo sounders. Soundings can be located by conning the boat along ranges and noting times, or by measuring angles from shore with a theodolite or sextant. Modern methods use electronic distance measurement from shore stations to a reflector on the boat.
Tacheometric surveying is a method of surveying that determines horizontal and vertical distances optically rather than through direct measurement with a tape or chain. It uses an instrument called a tacheometer fitted with a stadia diaphragm to rapidly measure distances. The key principles are that the ratio of perpendicular to base is constant in similar triangles, allowing horizontal distance and elevation to be calculated from observed angles and staff intercept readings. Common tacheometric systems include fixed hair stadia, subtense stadia, and tangential methods. Distance and elevation formulas are derived for horizontal, inclined, and depressed line of sights depending on staff orientation. Tacheometric surveying is well-suited for difficult terrain where direct measurement is challenging
Theodolite traversing, purpose and principles of theodolite traversingDolat Ram
The document discusses theodolite traversing, which is a surveying method that uses a theodolite to measure angles and a chain or tape to measure distances between control points called traverse stations.
The theodolite is used to measure horizontal and vertical angles, and there are two main types - optical and electronic digital theodolites. The chain or tape is used to measure distances between traverse stations.
A traverse consists of straight lines connecting traverse stations, with known lengths and angles defined by theodolite measurements. Traverses can be open or closed loops. Theodolite traversing is used for area computation, surveying, data reduction, and indirect measurement of elevations, distances, and
1) Levelling is the process of determining the relative elevations of points on or near the earth's surface. It is important for engineering projects to determine elevations along alignments.
2) Levelling is used to prepare contour maps, determine altitudes, and create longitudinal and cross sections needed for projects.
3) Key terms include bench mark, datum, reduced level, line of collimation, and height of instrument. Different types of levelling include simple, differential, fly, longitudinal, and cross-sectional levelling.
Surveying is an important part of Civil engineering. Various part like theodolite, plane table surveying, computation of area and volume are useful for all university examination and other competitive examination
Compass surveying involves measuring directions of survey lines using a magnetic compass and measuring lengths using a chain or tape. It is used when the area is large, undulating and has many details. In compass surveying, a series of connected lines are established through traversing. The magnetic bearing of each line is measured using a prismatic compass or surveyor's compass, and the distance is measured using a chain. Compass surveying is recommended for large and undulating areas without suspected magnetic interference. The key principles are measuring bearings using a compass and distances using a chain to establish connected lines through traversing without requiring triangulation.
This ppt presentation covers compass surveying, which explains principal of compass surveying, Types of compass, Difference between compass, Bearing, Definitions related to compass surveying etc.
The document provides information about lectures on surveying topics including:
- Classification of theodolites as transit, non-transit, vernier, and micrometer theodolites.
- Uses of theodolites for measuring horizontal and vertical angles, locating points, and other surveying tasks.
- Terms used in manipulating a transit vernier theodolite such as centering, transiting, swinging the telescope, and changing face.
- Bearings and the rules for converting whole circle bearings to quadrantal/reduced bearings.
- Definitions of open and closed traverses and the formula to check the interior angles of a closed traverse.
- An example problem on calculating
This document provides an overview of trilateration and triangulation surveying methods. It discusses the principles, classifications, strengths, and layouts of triangulation networks. Trilateration involves measuring all three sides of triangles and computing angles, while triangulation measures baseline lengths and all interior angles. Triangulation networks can be classified based on their intended accuracy and purpose. The strength of a triangulation network depends on factors like triangle shape and angle sizes. Satellite stations may be used to improve triangle conditions and visibility.
This document discusses control surveying and triangulation. It notes that control surveying must account for the curvature of the Earth and refraction, as lines of sight are not entirely straight. It distinguishes between plane and geodetic surveying, with the latter accounting for the spherical shape of the Earth. The document then discusses establishing control points through triangulation, including different classes of triangulation, steps in triangulation like selecting stations, and erecting signals and towers.
Compass surveying involves measuring directions of survey lines using a magnetic compass and measuring lengths using a chain or tape. It is used when the area is large, undulating and has many details. In compass surveying, a series of connected lines are established through traversing. The magnetic bearing of each line is measured using a prismatic compass or surveyor's compass, and the distance is measured using a chain. Compass surveying is recommended for large and undulating areas without suspected magnetic interference. The key principles are measuring bearings using a compass and distances using a chain/tape through traversing connected lines.
Compass surveying involves measuring the direction of survey lines using a magnetic compass. It is used when the survey area is large, undulating, and crowded with details, making chain surveying difficult. In compass surveying, the directions of connected survey lines are measured with a compass, while the lengths are measured with a tape. The magnetic bearing of each line is recorded. Prismatic and surveyor's compasses are used to measure bearings in whole circle bearing or quadrantal bearing systems. Bearings are designated as fore, back, included, or exterior angles based on survey direction and line intersections. Compass surveying is not suitable for areas with magnetic interference.
The document discusses theodolites, which are surveying instruments used to precisely measure horizontal and vertical angles. Theodolites have three leveling screws and an optical plummet or prism, and can be used to establish straight and curved lines, measure distances, and establish elevations. Modern electronic theodolites have digital readouts and can measure angles more precisely than older optical theodolites. The document also describes how to set up a theodolite and take angle measurements, as well as techniques for prolonging measurement lines past obstacles using triangulation or offsets.
This document discusses contouring and contour maps. It defines a contour line as a line connecting points of equal elevation. The vertical distance between consecutive contours is called the contour interval, which depends on factors like the nature of the ground and the map scale. Contour maps show the topography of an area and can be used for engineering projects, route selection, and estimating earthworks. Methods of plotting contours include direct methods using levels or hand levels, and indirect methods like gridding, cross-sectioning, and radial lines. Characteristics of contours provide information about the landscape.
Chapter 6 area & volume measurement, Digital PlanimeterAbhay Abhale
This document discusses the components, uses, and measurement process of a digital planimeter. It describes the main components of a digital planimeter which include a roller, tracing arm, tracing magnifier, tracing point, and function keys. It then explains the various function keys and their purposes. Finally, it outlines the step-by-step process for measuring the area of a shape using a digital planimeter, which involves selecting a scale, marking a starting point, tracing the outline while holding the tracing point, and reading the area measurement from the display.
Metric Chain : It Consists of galvanized mild steel wire of 4mm diameter known as link.
It is available in 20m, 30m, 50m length which consists of 100 links.
Gunter’s Chain : A 66 feet long chain consists of 100 links, each of 0.66 feet, it is known as Gunter’s chain.
This chain is suitable for taking length in miles.
Engineer’s Chain : A 100 feet long chain consisting of 100 links each of 1 feet is known as engineer’s chain.
This chain is used to measure length in feet and area in sq.yard.
Revenue Chain : it is 33 feet long chain consisting of 16 links.
This chain is used for distance measurements in feet & inches for smaller areas.
The theodolite is an instrument used to measure horizontal and vertical angles that is more precise than a magnetic compass. It can measure angles to an accuracy of 10-20 seconds whereas a compass is only accurate to 30 minutes. The theodolite is used to measure horizontal and vertical angles when objects are at a distance or elevation where more precise measurements are needed. The method of surveying that uses a theodolite to measure angles is called theodolite surveying. The theodolite can be used to measure angles, bearings, distances, elevations, set out curves, and for mapping and construction applications.
This document discusses several types of setting out works including:
1. Setting out a foundation plan using a center line plan and batter boards. Batter boards are used to accurately transfer the center line onto the work site.
2. Setting out a sewer line by fixing stakes along the proposed center line and excavating the trench to the desired width and depth. Cross heads and sight rails are also used to maintain proper gradient and alignment.
3. Setting out a culvert involves marking points along the center lines X1 and Y1 based on given distances from the origin point O. Pegs are placed at the intersection of the points using two tapes held at equal distances between assistants. The culvert is then set
Hydrographic surveying involves measuring depths of water bodies. Soundings are depth measurements below the water surface. Ranges are lines along which soundings are taken, perpendicular to the shore. Shore signals mark each range line. Equipment includes a sounding boat, rods/poles, lead lines, and echo sounders. Soundings can be located by conning the boat along ranges and noting times, or by measuring angles from shore with a theodolite or sextant. Modern methods use electronic distance measurement from shore stations to a reflector on the boat.
Tacheometric surveying is a method of surveying that determines horizontal and vertical distances optically rather than through direct measurement with a tape or chain. It uses an instrument called a tacheometer fitted with a stadia diaphragm to rapidly measure distances. The key principles are that the ratio of perpendicular to base is constant in similar triangles, allowing horizontal distance and elevation to be calculated from observed angles and staff intercept readings. Common tacheometric systems include fixed hair stadia, subtense stadia, and tangential methods. Distance and elevation formulas are derived for horizontal, inclined, and depressed line of sights depending on staff orientation. Tacheometric surveying is well-suited for difficult terrain where direct measurement is challenging
Theodolite traversing, purpose and principles of theodolite traversingDolat Ram
The document discusses theodolite traversing, which is a surveying method that uses a theodolite to measure angles and a chain or tape to measure distances between control points called traverse stations.
The theodolite is used to measure horizontal and vertical angles, and there are two main types - optical and electronic digital theodolites. The chain or tape is used to measure distances between traverse stations.
A traverse consists of straight lines connecting traverse stations, with known lengths and angles defined by theodolite measurements. Traverses can be open or closed loops. Theodolite traversing is used for area computation, surveying, data reduction, and indirect measurement of elevations, distances, and
1) Levelling is the process of determining the relative elevations of points on or near the earth's surface. It is important for engineering projects to determine elevations along alignments.
2) Levelling is used to prepare contour maps, determine altitudes, and create longitudinal and cross sections needed for projects.
3) Key terms include bench mark, datum, reduced level, line of collimation, and height of instrument. Different types of levelling include simple, differential, fly, longitudinal, and cross-sectional levelling.
Surveying is an important part of Civil engineering. Various part like theodolite, plane table surveying, computation of area and volume are useful for all university examination and other competitive examination
Compass surveying involves measuring directions of survey lines using a magnetic compass and measuring lengths using a chain or tape. It is used when the area is large, undulating and has many details. In compass surveying, a series of connected lines are established through traversing. The magnetic bearing of each line is measured using a prismatic compass or surveyor's compass, and the distance is measured using a chain. Compass surveying is recommended for large and undulating areas without suspected magnetic interference. The key principles are measuring bearings using a compass and distances using a chain to establish connected lines through traversing without requiring triangulation.
This ppt presentation covers compass surveying, which explains principal of compass surveying, Types of compass, Difference between compass, Bearing, Definitions related to compass surveying etc.
The document provides information about lectures on surveying topics including:
- Classification of theodolites as transit, non-transit, vernier, and micrometer theodolites.
- Uses of theodolites for measuring horizontal and vertical angles, locating points, and other surveying tasks.
- Terms used in manipulating a transit vernier theodolite such as centering, transiting, swinging the telescope, and changing face.
- Bearings and the rules for converting whole circle bearings to quadrantal/reduced bearings.
- Definitions of open and closed traverses and the formula to check the interior angles of a closed traverse.
- An example problem on calculating
This document provides an overview of trilateration and triangulation surveying methods. It discusses the principles, classifications, strengths, and layouts of triangulation networks. Trilateration involves measuring all three sides of triangles and computing angles, while triangulation measures baseline lengths and all interior angles. Triangulation networks can be classified based on their intended accuracy and purpose. The strength of a triangulation network depends on factors like triangle shape and angle sizes. Satellite stations may be used to improve triangle conditions and visibility.
This document discusses control surveying and triangulation. It notes that control surveying must account for the curvature of the Earth and refraction, as lines of sight are not entirely straight. It distinguishes between plane and geodetic surveying, with the latter accounting for the spherical shape of the Earth. The document then discusses establishing control points through triangulation, including different classes of triangulation, steps in triangulation like selecting stations, and erecting signals and towers.
Compass surveying involves measuring directions of survey lines using a magnetic compass and measuring lengths using a chain or tape. It is used when the area is large, undulating and has many details. In compass surveying, a series of connected lines are established through traversing. The magnetic bearing of each line is measured using a prismatic compass or surveyor's compass, and the distance is measured using a chain. Compass surveying is recommended for large and undulating areas without suspected magnetic interference. The key principles are measuring bearings using a compass and distances using a chain/tape through traversing connected lines.
Compass surveying involves measuring the direction of survey lines using a magnetic compass. It is used when the survey area is large, undulating, and crowded with details, making chain surveying difficult. In compass surveying, the directions of connected survey lines are measured with a compass, while the lengths are measured with a tape. The magnetic bearing of each line is recorded. Prismatic and surveyor's compasses are used to measure bearings in whole circle bearing or quadrantal bearing systems. Bearings are designated as fore, back, included, or exterior angles based on survey direction and line intersections. Compass surveying is not suitable for areas with magnetic interference.
The document provides information about a Surveying and Geomatics course at Matrusri Engineering College. It includes the course objectives, which are to study basic surveying concepts and principles, field applications of leveling surveys and contouring, the use of theodolites and total stations, trigonometric leveling, and applications of GPS and remote sensing. The course outcomes are listed as understanding basic surveying principles, performing computations of lengths, areas and bearings from field work, understanding principles of instruments, and basic concepts of photogrammetry, remote sensing and GPS.
1) Compass surveying involves measuring the magnetic bearing of connected survey lines using a prismatic or surveyor's compass. It is used for large, undulating areas with many details where chain or triangulation surveying is not suitable.
2) A prismatic compass has a magnetic needle that points north, a graduated circle to measure bearings, and a sighting system to observe bearings. A surveyor's compass is similar but without the sighting prism.
3) The magnetic bearing is the angle between the magnetic meridian and the survey line, measured clockwise. Reduced bearings are also used and range from 0-90 degrees.
This document discusses various components and uses of compasses in civil engineering. It describes the key parts of a prismatic compass and surveyor's compass. It also explains different types of angular measurements including magnetic bearings, true bearings, arbitrary bearings and grid bearings. The document discusses how bearings are measured in the whole circle system and quadrant system, and how to convert between the two. It also provides information on magnetic declination and variations in declination.
1. A compass is an instrument that contains a magnetized pointer to indicate magnetic north and measure bearings. The two main types are the prismatic compass and surveyor's compass.
2. A prismatic compass is used for navigation and surveying to determine direction and calculate bearings. A surveyor's compass was used for measuring horizontal angles but has been replaced by the theodolite.
3. There are four types of bearings - true, magnetic, grid, and arbitrary - which are the horizontal angles measured from different reference lines or meridians.
Compass surveying involves measuring the magnetic bearing of survey lines using a prismatic or surveyor's compass. It is recommended when the survey area is large, undulating, and crowded with details. The magnetic bearing is measured in a clockwise direction from the magnetic north. A series of connected lines are established through traversing. The lengths are measured with a chain or tape while directions are measured with the compass. This process is known as compass traversing.
Compass surveying involves measuring magnetic bearings of survey lines using a compass and measuring distances using a chain or tape. There are two main types of compasses used: prismatic compasses and surveyor's compasses. Prismatic compasses have a magnetic needle, graduated circle, prism for sighting bearings, and other parts. Surveyor's compasses are similar but without a prism. Magnetic bearings are measured clockwise from magnetic north between 0-360 degrees in the whole circle system or 0-90 degrees with quadrant specification in the quadrantal system. Compass surveying is well-suited for large, irregular areas.
This document discusses angular measurement in surveying. It describes the instruments used - compass, theodolite, total station - and how they are used to measure horizontal angles between survey lines in traversing. Traversing involves measuring linear distances with a tape and horizontal angles with a compass or theodolite. The document focuses on compass surveying, where magnetic bearings are measured with a prismatic compass and distances with a chain. It does not require triangulation networks and interior details are located by offsets from main lines. Finally, it describes the components and use of the prismatic compass.
The document discusses compass traversing and the components of a prismatic compass used for surveying. It describes open and closed traverses, different types of meridians (true, magnetic, arbitrary), concepts of bearing (whole circle, quadrantal, fore, back), and components of the prismatic compass including the magnetic needle, graduated circle, prism, object vane, eye vane, and glass cover. The document is intended to teach basic surveying concepts and the use of a prismatic compass for taking measurements in the field.
In Compass survey chain or tape is used for linear measurements and compass is used for fixing direction.
In compass freely suspended magnetic needle directs to north- south and the bearing of line is obtained by line of sight.
When large area are involved, compass surveying is used.
There are mainly two methods of land measurement.
Triangulation survey
Traverse survey
This document discusses various topics related to surveying including: the objectives and processes involved in surveying like decision making, fieldwork, data processing, mapping, and stakeout; different types of surveys like plane, geodetic, topographic, route, hydrographic, land, and military surveys; instruments used like theodolites, tacheometers, planes tables, and compasses; and concepts like bearings, meridians, and reducing bearings. The key aspects covered are the goal of producing maps, the consideration or disregard of earth's curvature depending on survey type, and classification based on area, instruments, or purpose.
This document provides an overview of basic surveying principles and methods:
1) Surveying works from establishing overall control points before measuring details. Control points are established through precise primary networks of triangles or traverses.
2) Secondary control networks further divide the primary network for less precise work. Survey of details then uses the established control points. This minimizes error accumulation.
3) A traverse connects lines whose lengths and directions are measured to establish a framework. Traverses can be open or closed, with closed traverses returning to the starting point.
4) The direction of lines is defined by their bearing from a reference meridian using different systems like true, magnetic, or arbitrary meridians.
Compass surveying is a type of surveying in which the directions of surveying lines are determined with a magnetic compass, and the length of the surveying lines are measured with a tape or chain or laser range finder. The compass is generally used to run a traverse line.
The document discusses compass traversing, which involves measuring both linear distances and angular measurements between survey lines. There are two types of traverses: closed traverses that return to the starting point, and open traverses that extend without closing. Instruments for measuring angles include compasses and theodolites. Bearings are specified using either whole circle bearings from 0-360 degrees or quadrantal bearings indicating clockwise/counterclockwise direction from the meridian. Local attraction from metal objects can affect compass readings and must be corrected. The document provides examples of bearing conversions and corrections.
This document discusses chain surveying methods. It begins by defining land surveying and its purposes. It then describes the two main methods of surveying - triangulation and traversing. Chain surveying is introduced as a simpler method that uses triangulation but measures sides directly without angles. Key aspects of chain surveying covered include survey stations, base lines, check lines, tie lines, and taking offsets. The document provides details on setting out right angles and booking field notes. Chain surveying is performed through reconnaissance, marking stations, reference sketches, running survey lines, and locating details using offsets.
This document provides information on compass surveying and the different types of compasses used. It describes the prismatic compass, which consists of a metal box containing a magnetic needle attached to a graduated ring that can be read through a prism. It also describes the surveyor's compass, which is similar but reads angles directly against the needle. When using a prismatic compass for surveying, it must be centered precisely over the station using a plumb bob and levelled so the graduated ring is horizontal. Compass surveying is used for preliminary surveys where speed is important, and it determines directions while a tape is used to measure distances.
Any line has a length and direction that can be measured using instruments like a chain, tape, or theodolite. A compass is used to measure direction with reference to magnetic north. There are two main types of compasses: the prismatic compass and the surveyor's compass. A compass contains a magnetic needle that points to magnetic north and allows the user to determine bearings by aligning the needle with an orienting arrow on a rotating housing marked with degrees.
Process furnaces are widely used in petroleum refineries and petrochemical plants to generate heat through the combustion of fuels. This heat is transferred to process fluids inside coil tubes and can range from a few thousand to a few million MW. Common applications include crude distillation units and reaction heaters containing catalysts. Furnaces come in various designs like vertical cylindrical, box type, or cabin furnaces and must maximize heat transfer while minimizing emissions and fuel consumption. Burners, refractory, insulation and controls are important components that require consideration for optimal furnace performance.
The document outlines 40 duties of a safety officer which include:
1) Monitoring hazardous situations and making recommendations to avoid risks.
2) Ensuring personnel safety, developing protective measures, and ensuring safe equipment operation.
3) Correcting unsafe acts, conducting investigations, and enforcing safety regulations.
The safety officer is responsible for a wide range of health and safety tasks including hazard identification, safety training, accident investigation, and ensuring compliance with regulations. Their overall goal is to maintain a safe work environment and protect all employees and visitors from injury.
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Angular measurement
1.
2. Introduction
• There are two methods for angular
measurement:
• 1) Triangulation Survey
• 2) Traverse Survey
3. Triangulation Survey
In the past it was difficult to accurately measure very long
distances, but it was possible to accurately measure the angles
between points many kilometres apart, limited only by being
able to see the distant beacome. This could be anywhere from
a few kilometres, to 50 kilometres or more. Triangulation is a
surveying method that measures the angles in a triangle
formed by three survey control points. Using trigonometry and
the measured length of just one side, the other distances in
the triangle are calculated.
4. Traverse Survey
DEFINITION:- Traversing is that type of survey in which a
number of connected survey lines form the framework and
the directions and lengths of the survey lines are measured
with the help of an angle measuring instrument and a tape or
chain respectively.
TYPES OF SURVEYING
There are two types of traverse surveying. They are:
• Closed traverse: When the lines form a circuit which ends
at the starting point, it is known as closed traverse.
• Open traverse : When the lines form a circuit ends
elsewhere except starting point, it is said to be an open
traverse.
6. Checks on traverse: Closed traverse
• Check on closed traverse:
– Sum of the measured interior angles (2n-4) x 90°
– Sum of the measured exterior angles (2n+4) x 90 °
– The algebric sum of the deflection angles should be equal
to 360°. Right hand deflection is considered +ve, left hand
deflection –ve
• Check on linear measurement
– The lines should be measured once each on two different
days (along opposite directions). Both measurement
should tally.
– Linear measurement should also be taken by the stadia
method. The measurement by chaining and stadia method
should tally.
7. Checks on traverse: Open traverse
• Taking cut-off lines: measured
the bearings and lengths of cut
off lines after plotting and tally
with actual values.
• Taking an auxiliary point: Take P
permanent point as auxiliary
point measured bearings and
lengths of P from each traverse
point. If survey is accurate,
while plotting all the measured
bearing of P should meet at P.
8. Compass
• A compass is a small instrument essentially
consisting of a graduated circle, and a line of
sight.
• The compass can not measures angle between
two lines directly but can measure angle of a
line with reference to magnetic meridian at
the instrument station point is called magnetic
bearing of a line.
9. Types of compass
• There are two types of magnetic compass they
are as follows:-
• The Prismatic Compass
• The Surveyor’s Compass
• The Transit Compass
12. Elements of prismatic compass
• Cylindrical metal box: Cylindrical metal box is having diameter of 8to 12 cm. It protects the
compass and forms entire casing or body of the compass. It protect compass from dust, rain etc.
• Pivot: pivot is provided at the center of the compass and supports freely suspended magnetic
needle over it.
• lifting pin and lifting lever: a lifting pin is provided just below the sight vane. When the sight vane
is folded, it presses the lifting pin. The lifting pin with the help of lifting lever then lifts the magnetic
needle out of pivot point to prevent damage to the pivot head.
• Magnetic needle: Magnetic needle is the heart of the instrument. This needle measures angle of a
line from magnetic meridian as the needle always remains pointed towards north south pole at two
ends of the needle when freely suspended on any support.
• Graduated circle or ring: This is an aluminum graduated ring marked with 0ᴼ to 360ᴼ to measures
all possible bearings of lines, and attached with the magnetic needle. The ring is graduated to half a
degree.
• Prism : prism is used to read graduations on ring and to take exact reading by compass. It is placed
exactly opposite to object vane. The prism hole is protected by prism cap to protect it from dust
and moisture.
13. • Object vane: object vane is diametrically opposite to the prism and eye
vane. The object vane is carrying a horse hair or black thin wire to sight
object in line with eye sight.
• Eye vane: Eye vane is a fine slit provided with the eye hole at bottom to
bisect the object from slit.
• Glass cover: its covers the instrument box from the top such that needle
and graduated ring is seen from the top.
• Sun glasses: These are used when some luminous objects are to be
bisected.
• Reflecting mirror: It is used to get image of an object located above or
below the instrument level while bisection. It is placed on the object vane.
• Spring brake or brake pin: to damp the oscillation of the needle before
taking a reading and to bring it to rest quickly, the light spring brake
attached to the box is brought in contact with the edge of the ring by
gently pressing inward the brake pin
14. Temporary adjustment of prismatic
compass
• The following procedure should be adopted after fixing the prismatic
compass on the tripod for measuring the bearing of a line.
• Centering : Centering is the operation in which compass is kept exactly
over the station from where the bearing is to be determined. The
centering is checked by dropping a small pebble from the underside of the
compass. If the pebble falls on the top of the peg then the centering is
correct, if not then the centering is corrected by adjusting the legs of the
tripod.
• Leveling : Leveling of the compass is done with the aim to freely swing the
graduated circular ring of the prismatic compass. The ball and socket
arrangement on the tripod will help to achieve a proper level of the
compass. This can be checked by rolling round pencil on glass cover.
• Focusing : the prism is moved up or down in its slide till the graduations
on the aluminum ring are seen clear, sharp and perfect focus. The position
of the prism will depend upon the vision of the observer.
15. Observing Bearing of Line
• Consider a line AB of
which the magnetic
bearing is to be taken.
• By fixing the ranging rod
at station B we get the
magnetic bearing of
needle wrt north pole.
• The enlarged portion
gives actual pattern of
graduations marked on
ring.
NORTH
OBJECT B
A
SOUTH
LINE OF
SIGHT
90
180
270
0
16. The Surveyor`s Compass
• It is similar to a prismatic compass except that
it has a only plain eye slit instead of eye slit
with prism and eye hole.
• This compass is having pointed needle in place
of broad form needle as in case of prismatic
compass.
17.
18. Working of Surveyor`s Compass
• 1) CENTERING
• 2) LEVELING
• 3) OBSERVING THE BEARING OF A LINE
• First two observation are same as prismatic
compass but third observation differs from that.
• 3) OBSERVING THE BEARING OF A LINE : in this
compass ,the reading is taken from the top of
glass and under the tip of north end of the
magnetic needle directly. No prism is provided
here.
19. Meridian
• Bearing of a line is always measured clockwise wrt some reference line or
direction. This fixed line is known as meridian.
• There three types of meridian:
• 1) Magnetic meridian: The direction shown by a freely suspended needle which is
magnetized and balanced properly without influenced by any other factors is
known as magnetic meridian.
• 2) True meridian : True meridian is the line which passes through the true north
and south. The direction of true meridian at any point can be determined by either
observing the bearing of the sun at 12 noon or by sun’s shadow.
• 3) Arbitrary meridian: In case of small works or in places where true meridian or
magnetic meridian cannot be determined, then ,any direction of a prominent
object is taken as a reference direction called as arbitrary meridian.
20. BEARINGS
• The bearing of a line is the horizontal angle which it makes with a
reference line(meridian).
• Depending upon the meridian , there are four type of bearings they are as
follows:
• 1) True Bearing: The true bearing of a line is the horizontal angle between
the true meridian and the survey line. The true bearing is measured from
the true north in the clockwise direction.
• 2) Magnetic Bearing: the magnetic bearing of a line is the horizontal angle
which the line makes with the magnetic north.
• 3) Grid Bearing: The grid bearing of a line is the horizontal angle which the
line makes with the grid meridian.
• 4) Arbitrary Bearing: The arbitrary baring of a line is the horizontal angle
which the line makes with the arbitrary meridian.
22. Designation of bearing
• The bearing are designated in the following
two system:-
• 1) Whole Circle Bearing System.(W.C.B)
• 2) Quadrantal Bearing System.(Q.B)
23. Whole circle bearing system(W.C.B.)
• The bearing of a line measured with respect to
magnetic meridian in clockwise direction is
called magnetic bearing and its value varies
between 0ᴼ to 360ᴼ.
• The quadrant start from north an progress in a
clockwise direction as the first quadrant is 0ᴼ
to 90ᴼ in clockwise direction , 2nd 90ᴼ to 180ᴼ
, 3rd 180ᴼ to 270ᴼ, and up to 360ᴼ is 4th one.
25. Quadrantal bearing system(Q.B.)
• In this system, the bearing of survey lines are
measured wrt to north line or south line
which ever is the nearest to the given survey
line and either in clockwise direction or in anti
clockwise direction.
27. Reduced bearing (R.B)
• When the whole circle bearing is converted
into Quadrantal bearing , it is termed as
“REDUCED BEARING”.
• Thus , the reduced bearing is similar to the
Quadrantal bearing.
• Its values lies between 0ᴼ to 90ᴼ, but the
quadrant should be mentioned for proper
designation.
28. conversion of WCB to RB.
Line W.C.B Between Rule For R.B Quadrant
AB 0◦ and 90◦ R.B=W.C.B NE
AC 90◦ and 180◦ R.B=180◦-W.C.B SE
AD 180◦ and 270◦ R.B=W.C.B-180◦ SW
AF 270◦ and 360◦ R.B=360◦-W.C.B NW
conversion of RB to WCB .
Line R.B Rule For R.B Quadrant
AB Nq1E R.B=W.C.B 0◦ and 90◦
AC Sq2E W.C.B=180◦-R.B 90◦ and 180◦
AD Sq3E W.C.B=180◦+R.B 180◦ and 270◦
AF Nq4W W.C.B=360◦-R.B 270◦ and 360◦
29. Fore bearing and Back bearing
• The bearing of a line measured in the forward
direction of the survey lines is called the ‘fore
bearing’(F.B.) of that line.
• The bearing of a line measured in direction
backward to the direction of the progress of
survey is called the ‘back bearing’(B.B.) of the
line.
30. FB of line AB
BB of line AB
A
NORTH
NORTH
Θ1 Θ2
B
FB of AB = Θ1(from A to B)
BB of AB= Θ2(from B to A)
Remembering following points:
1) In the WCB system ,the differences
b/n the FB and BB should be exactly
180ᴼ. Remember the following
relation :
BB=FB+/-180ᴼ
+ is applied when FB is <180ᴼ
- is applied when BB is >180ᴼ
2) In the reduced bearing system the FB
and BB are numerically equal but the
quadrants are just opposite.
31. Computation of Angles
• Observing the bearing of the
lines of a closed traverse, it is
possible to calculate the
included angles, which can be
used for plotting the traverse.
• At the station where two
survey lines meet, two angles
are formed-an exterior angles
and an interior angles. The
interior angles or included
angle is generally the smaller
angles(<180ᴼ).
A
B
C
D
32. • Magnetic declination: The horizontal angle between the
magnetic meridian and true meridian is known as magnetic
declination.
• Dip of the magnetic needle: If the needle is perfectly
balanced before magnetisation, it does not remain in the
balanced position after it is magnetised. This is due to the
magnetic influence of the earth. The needle is found to be
inclined towards the pole. This inclination of the needle with
the horizontal is known as dip of the magnetic needle.
• Local Attraction
• Method of correction for traverse:
– First method: Sum of the interior angle should be equal to
(2n-4) x 90. if not than distribute the total error equally to
all interior angles of the traverse. Then starting from
unaffected line the bearings of all the lines are corrected
using corrected interior angles.
– Second method: Unaffected line is first detected. Then,
commencing from the unaffected line, the bearing of other
affected lines are corrected by finding the amount of
correction at each station.
33. Problems:
• Convert the following WCBs to QBs
– (a) WCB of AB = 45°30’
(Ans 45°30’)
– (b) WCB of BC = 125°45’
(Ans 180- 125°45’ = 54° 15’)
• Fore bearing of the following lines are given. Find back bearing
– AB=S 30°30’ E
– BC=N 40°30’ W
• The magnetic bearing of a line AB is 135°30’ what will be the true bearing, if the
declination is 5°15’ W.
35. Problems
Included angle at A= 280-180-40=60
=FB of DA-180-FB of AB
Included angle at B= 40+180-70= 150
=FB of AB+180-FB of BC
Included angle at C= 70+180-210
=FB of BC+180-FB of CD
Formula: FB of previous line+/-180-
FB of next line
36.
37. CHAIN SURVEYING
• SUMMARY & ABSTRACT:
• Chain (Tape) surveying is the simplest form of
detail surveying. In this method the lengths of
lines marked on the field are measured, while the
details are measured by offsets and ties from
these lines. This field work will continue for 3
field hours. Every group is expected to submit a
detailed report besides the final plan of the area
surveyed.
38. OBJECTIVES:
• This field work aimed to train the student on the
following process:
• Selection of a frame work (chain or base lines)
and control points.
• Direct method of linear measurements
(horizontal distance measurement).
• Setting out right angles (offsets).
• Determining the direction of any line in the field
with respect to magnetic north "bearing".
• Booking Method.
• Plotting Method.
40. PROCEDURE:
• Make a reconnaissance of the area and select a suitable framework
(chain lines) and stations based on the criterion given in Note 1.
• Mesure all the chain (based) lines once in each direction using the
direct measurement method. See Note 2.
• Measure the offsets/or ties from every necessary point on the
detail to the corresponding base line. Use the procedure explained
in Note 3.
• You may need some measurements on the details (on the building
sides…).
• Measure the bearing of one of the chain lines by using the prismatic
compass. See Note 4.
• Record all the information and measurements properly in the
booking papers as explained in Note 5.
• Make the necessary calculations and corrections.
• Draw the details in a suitable scale to produce a detailed map of the
area. See Note 6.
41. • Note 1: CHAIN LINES & STATIONS SELECTIONS
•
• To locate a suitable stations and chain lines, a reconnaissance of the
area should be undertaken by walking around the area required to
be surveyed. Any obstacles should be noticed. The selected stations
should produce a well formed linked triangles or braced
quadrilaterals.
• The principles to be considered are:
• Few long lines should be used.
• Avoid any obstacles to ranging or chaining.
• Angles should be > 30o & <120o.
• Make check lines when possible to detect errors when plotting.
• The lines should be closed to the details (Avoid long offsets (>10m)
and ties.
• After selection of the framework you should draw sketch of the
area and mark the stations by wooden pegs or marker paints, and
give a number for each station.
42. NOTE 2: DIRECT DISTANCE MEASUREMENT
• For measuring any distance between A and B, especially when it is
longer than the tape length, the following ranging is needed:
"ranging by eye".
• The ranging rode should be placed at the beginning point A and the
end point B. The first man should place the tape zero point at A.
• The second man holding the third raging rod and the tape should
move to the direction of B to a point of the end of the tape length.
Then he should hold the ranging rod vertically.
• The first man at point A lines up the ranging rod with that on point
B. "by sighting as low as possible".
• Then, the second man should straighten the tape and mark this
point.
• Both men move ahead repeat the whole steps beginning from the
first mark.
• As measurements processes, the second man should record the
length.
43. Note 3: SETTING THE OFFSET
• Any point on the detail can be related to the chain line by offset or
ties. This is accomplished by measuring all X's and Y's as shown in
the figure.
• To set out offsets, a prism square can be used. To locate the point at
which a 1 from any point on the feature would meet the chain line
(say AB) you can follow the following steps:
• One man should hold the ranging pole at the given point, while the
other pole is placed at any point on the chain line AB.
• The observer holds the instrument and walk along the line AB until
he see both poles coincide in each other. Then the distance to this
point along the chain line can be measured beside the length of the
perpendicular.
• Another method can be used by holding the zero point of the tape
at the given point and swinging tape over the chain line and mark
the point on the chain line at minimum reading.
44. NOTE 4: MEASURING THE BEARING OF A LINE
• To measure the angle that any line makes with the
magnetic direction, you can use a prismatic compass.
The procedure is as follow:
• Place the ranging pole vertically at point B.
• Place the prismatic compass over its tripod at point A
and level it using the bubble and screws.
• Rotate the compass until it is directed to the pole
and read the angle.
• Repeat the whole procedure for point B.
45. NOTE 5: BOOKING
• The field book should be neat and consistent:
• Each chain line is represented by double line
drawn through the corner of the page.
• Entries start at the bottom of the page.
• Detail that is on the right-hand side of the line
is booked on the right-hand side of the page
and voice versa.
• The lengths from the beginning of the line are
written inside the double lines while the offset
lengths outside.
46. NOTE 6: PLOTTING
• A. Plot the framework of chain lines by:
• Draw the longest line according to its bearing.
• Build up the other chain lines by using beam
compasses.
• Draw the check lines, and if there are any errors,
check the drawn lines in the incorrect triangles.
(You may need to measure them in the field).
•
• B. Draw the detail for each chain line based on
offsets and ties information. Then connect these
points to get the details.