Tacheometric surveying uses a tacheometer to determine horizontal and vertical distances through angular measurements. A tacheometer is a theodolite fitted with stadia hairs and an anallatic lens. The tacheometric formula relates the staff intercept, focal length, stadia interval and additive constant to calculate horizontal distances. Methods include stadia, fixed/movable hair, and non-stadia techniques. Determining the tacheometer constant involves measuring distances and staff intervals at stations to solve equations. Errors arise from incorrect stadia intervals or graduations. Tacheometric surveying provides distances in rough terrain but with less precision than other methods.
Tacheometric surveying is a method of rapidly determining horizontal and vertical positions of points using optical measurements rather than traditional tape or chain measurements. A tacheometer, which is a transit theodolite fitted with a stadia diaphragm, is used to measure the horizontal and vertical angles to a stadia rod or staff held at survey points. Formulas involving the stadia interval, staff intercept readings, and calculated constants are used to determine horizontal distances and elevations from the instrument to points. Measurements can be taken with horizontal lines of sight or inclined lines of sight when the staff is held vertically or normal to the line of sight.
The document provides information about theodolites. It begins with an introduction stating that a theodolite is used to measure horizontal and vertical angles more precisely than a magnetic compass. It then discusses the main parts of a theodolite including the horizontal circle, vertical circle, telescope, and levels. The document also covers the history of theodolites from their early origins to modern electronic versions. It describes how to operate a transit vernier theodolite including terms like centering, transiting, swinging the telescope, and changing face. Finally, it discusses the permanent and temporary adjustments needed to ensure accurate theodolite measurements.
This document discusses methods for setting out simple circular curves in surveying. There are two main methods: linear and angular.
The linear method uses only a tape or chain and does not require angle measurement. It includes setting out curves by offsets from the long chord, by successive bisection of arcs, and by offsets from the tangents.
The angular method is used for longer curves and involves measuring deflection angles. It includes Rankine's method of tangential angles using a tape and theodolite to measure deflection angles from the back tangent to points on the curve. The two theodolite method also uses angle measurement between two theodolites.
This document provides information about tacheometry, which is a method of surveying that determines horizontal and vertical distances from instrumental observations. It discusses how tacheometry can be used when obstacles make traditional surveying difficult. The key aspects covered include:
- Defining tacheometry and the measurements it provides
- When tacheometry is advantageous over other surveying methods
- The instruments used, including tacheometers and levelling rods
- How horizontal and vertical distances are calculated using constants
- The different types of tacheometer diaphragms and telescopes
- The fixed hair method for taking readings
Curves are used in transportation routes to gradually change direction between straight segments. There are several types of curves including simple, compound, reverse, and transition curves. A simple circular curve connects two tangents with a single arc, and is defined by its radius or degree. Transition curves provide a gradual transition between tangents and circular curves to avoid abrupt changes in grade or superelevation that could cause vehicles to overturn. There are several methods for laying out circular curves, including using offset distances from the long chord between tangent points or measuring deflection angles from the initial tangent.
Tacheometry is a surveying method that uses optical instruments like a theodolite fitted with a stadia diaphragm to measure horizontal and vertical distances between points. It works on the principle that the ratio of distance from the instrument to the base of an isosceles triangle and the length of the base is constant. Distances are calculated using stadia intercept readings and multiplying constants based on the focal length of the instrument's objective lens. Tacheometry offers faster measurement compared to traditional chaining and is useful for surveys in difficult terrain like rivers, valleys, or undulating ground where conventional surveying would be inaccurate or slow.
The document provides information about theodolite surveying including:
1. A theodolite is an instrument used to measure horizontal and vertical angles which can also be used to prolong lines, measure distances indirectly, and for leveling.
2. Theodolite traversing involves establishing control points by measuring angles and distances between traverse stations to calculate positions.
3. Components of a theodolite include a telescope that can rotate vertically and a compass to determine direction, along with accessories like a tripod, rods, and tapes used in surveying.
Tacheometric surveying uses a tacheometer to determine horizontal and vertical distances through angular measurements. A tacheometer is a theodolite fitted with stadia hairs and an anallatic lens. The tacheometric formula relates the staff intercept, focal length, stadia interval and additive constant to calculate horizontal distances. Methods include stadia, fixed/movable hair, and non-stadia techniques. Determining the tacheometer constant involves measuring distances and staff intervals at stations to solve equations. Errors arise from incorrect stadia intervals or graduations. Tacheometric surveying provides distances in rough terrain but with less precision than other methods.
Tacheometric surveying is a method of rapidly determining horizontal and vertical positions of points using optical measurements rather than traditional tape or chain measurements. A tacheometer, which is a transit theodolite fitted with a stadia diaphragm, is used to measure the horizontal and vertical angles to a stadia rod or staff held at survey points. Formulas involving the stadia interval, staff intercept readings, and calculated constants are used to determine horizontal distances and elevations from the instrument to points. Measurements can be taken with horizontal lines of sight or inclined lines of sight when the staff is held vertically or normal to the line of sight.
The document provides information about theodolites. It begins with an introduction stating that a theodolite is used to measure horizontal and vertical angles more precisely than a magnetic compass. It then discusses the main parts of a theodolite including the horizontal circle, vertical circle, telescope, and levels. The document also covers the history of theodolites from their early origins to modern electronic versions. It describes how to operate a transit vernier theodolite including terms like centering, transiting, swinging the telescope, and changing face. Finally, it discusses the permanent and temporary adjustments needed to ensure accurate theodolite measurements.
This document discusses methods for setting out simple circular curves in surveying. There are two main methods: linear and angular.
The linear method uses only a tape or chain and does not require angle measurement. It includes setting out curves by offsets from the long chord, by successive bisection of arcs, and by offsets from the tangents.
The angular method is used for longer curves and involves measuring deflection angles. It includes Rankine's method of tangential angles using a tape and theodolite to measure deflection angles from the back tangent to points on the curve. The two theodolite method also uses angle measurement between two theodolites.
This document provides information about tacheometry, which is a method of surveying that determines horizontal and vertical distances from instrumental observations. It discusses how tacheometry can be used when obstacles make traditional surveying difficult. The key aspects covered include:
- Defining tacheometry and the measurements it provides
- When tacheometry is advantageous over other surveying methods
- The instruments used, including tacheometers and levelling rods
- How horizontal and vertical distances are calculated using constants
- The different types of tacheometer diaphragms and telescopes
- The fixed hair method for taking readings
Curves are used in transportation routes to gradually change direction between straight segments. There are several types of curves including simple, compound, reverse, and transition curves. A simple circular curve connects two tangents with a single arc, and is defined by its radius or degree. Transition curves provide a gradual transition between tangents and circular curves to avoid abrupt changes in grade or superelevation that could cause vehicles to overturn. There are several methods for laying out circular curves, including using offset distances from the long chord between tangent points or measuring deflection angles from the initial tangent.
Tacheometry is a surveying method that uses optical instruments like a theodolite fitted with a stadia diaphragm to measure horizontal and vertical distances between points. It works on the principle that the ratio of distance from the instrument to the base of an isosceles triangle and the length of the base is constant. Distances are calculated using stadia intercept readings and multiplying constants based on the focal length of the instrument's objective lens. Tacheometry offers faster measurement compared to traditional chaining and is useful for surveys in difficult terrain like rivers, valleys, or undulating ground where conventional surveying would be inaccurate or slow.
The document provides information about theodolite surveying including:
1. A theodolite is an instrument used to measure horizontal and vertical angles which can also be used to prolong lines, measure distances indirectly, and for leveling.
2. Theodolite traversing involves establishing control points by measuring angles and distances between traverse stations to calculate positions.
3. Components of a theodolite include a telescope that can rotate vertically and a compass to determine direction, along with accessories like a tripod, rods, and tapes used in surveying.
1) Levelling is the process of determining the relative elevations of points on or near the earth's surface. It is important for engineering projects to determine elevations along alignments.
2) Levelling is used to prepare contour maps, determine altitudes, and create longitudinal and cross sections needed for projects.
3) Key terms include bench mark, datum, reduced level, line of collimation, and height of instrument. Different types of levelling include simple, differential, fly, longitudinal, and cross-sectional levelling.
This document describes different methods of trigonometric leveling to determine the elevation of points. Trigonometric leveling uses vertical angles measured with a theodolite and distances to calculate elevations. There are methods to determine elevations when the base is accessible and inaccessible, and when instrument stations and objects are in the same or different vertical planes. Calculations use trigonometric functions and relationships between angles and distances in triangles formed by the instrument stations and object.
Metric Chain : It Consists of galvanized mild steel wire of 4mm diameter known as link.
It is available in 20m, 30m, 50m length which consists of 100 links.
Gunter’s Chain : A 66 feet long chain consists of 100 links, each of 0.66 feet, it is known as Gunter’s chain.
This chain is suitable for taking length in miles.
Engineer’s Chain : A 100 feet long chain consisting of 100 links each of 1 feet is known as engineer’s chain.
This chain is used to measure length in feet and area in sq.yard.
Revenue Chain : it is 33 feet long chain consisting of 16 links.
This chain is used for distance measurements in feet & inches for smaller areas.
Compass traversing involves both linear and angular measurements to determine the directions of survey lines. There are two main types: closed traverses which form a complete circuit back to the starting point, and open traverses which do not return to the starting point. The principal methods of compass traversing are chain traversing using only linear measurements to determine angles, loose needle traversing using a compass at each station, fast needle traversing using a theodolite, and measuring angles directly between successive lines using a theodolite.
This document provides information about circular curves used in highways and railways. It discusses the different types of curves including simple, compound, and reverse curves. It defines key elements of circular curves such as radius, deflection angle, tangent length, and mid-ordinate. It presents the relationships between radius and degree of curvature. Finally, it describes various methods for setting out circular curves in the field, including linear methods using offsets and angular methods using a theodolite.
unit I
Introduction and Basic Concepts: Introduction, Objectives, classification and principles of
surveying, Scales, Shrinkage of Map, Conventional symbols and Code of Signals, Surveying
accessories, phases of surveying.
Measurement of Distances and Directions
Linear distances- Approximate methods, Direct Methods- Chains- Tapes, ranging, Tape corrections.
Prismatic Compass- Bearings, included angles, Local Attraction, Magnetic Declination and dip.
This document discusses control surveying and triangulation. It notes that control surveying must account for the curvature of the Earth and refraction, as lines of sight are not entirely straight. It distinguishes between plane and geodetic surveying, with the latter accounting for the spherical shape of the Earth. The document then discusses establishing control points through triangulation, including different classes of triangulation, steps in triangulation like selecting stations, and erecting signals and towers.
This document discusses the use of a theodolite for surveying. It begins by explaining that a theodolite is needed to precisely measure horizontal and vertical angles, unlike a compass. It then defines theodolite surveying as surveying that measures angles using a theodolite. The document goes on to classify theodolites based on their horizontal axis and method of angle measurement. It describes the basic parts of a transit vernier theodolite and explains terms used in manipulating one. Finally, it discusses methods for measuring horizontal angles, including the general, repetition, and reiteration methods.
1. The document presents information from a slideshow on tacheometric surveying. It discusses various methods of tacheometric surveying including fixed hair, movable hair, tangential, and subtense bar methods.
2. Formulas are provided for calculating horizontal distance, vertical distance, and elevation of points using these different tacheometric surveying methods under various sighting conditions such as inclined or depressed lines of sight.
3. The document also discusses tacheometric constants, anallatic lenses, and procedures for conducting field work in a tacheometric survey including selecting instrument stations, taking observations of vertical angles and staff readings, and shifting to subsequent stations.
Surveying is an important part of Civil engineering. Various part like theodolite, plane table surveying, computation of area and volume are useful for all university examination and other competitive examination
This document discusses triangulation, which is a surveying technique used to establish horizontal control networks over large areas. It involves measuring angles and lengths within networks of triangles. There are different orders of triangulation based on accuracy and area covered, including primary, secondary, and tertiary triangulation. Key aspects discussed include triangulation station layout and design, angle and distance measurements, controlling errors, and computation of unknown lengths and directions within triangles.
The document discusses different types of traverses and methods for conducting traverse surveys. It describes two types of traverses: open traverses that begin and end at points of known and unknown positions, and closed traverses that begin and end at points of known positions, including closed-loop traverses that begin and end at the same point. It also outlines four methods for determining directions during traversing: chain angle method, free needle method, fast needle method, and measuring angles between lines. Finally, it discusses instruments used for measuring angles like compasses and theodolites, and defines different types of bearings including true, magnetic, and arbitrary bearings.
This document discusses contouring and contour lines. It defines a contour line as an imaginary line connecting points of equal elevation. The vertical distance between two consecutive contours is called the contour interval, which can vary depending on factors like terrain and map scale. Contouring methods are either direct, involving determining elevations of individual points, or indirect, using calculations in the field that are less accurate but faster.
Definition of Surveying
Objects of Surveying
Uses of Surveying
Primary Divisions of Surveying
Principles of Surveying
List of Classification of Surveying
Definitions : Plan and Map, scales :Plain Scale and Diagonal Scale,
This document discusses contouring and contour maps. It defines a contour line as a line connecting points of equal elevation. The vertical distance between consecutive contours is called the contour interval, which depends on factors like the nature of the ground and the map scale. Contour maps show the topography of an area and can be used for engineering projects, route selection, and estimating earthworks. Methods of plotting contours include direct methods using levels or hand levels, and indirect methods like gridding, cross-sectioning, and radial lines. Characteristics of contours provide information about the landscape.
Introduction to surveying, ranging and chainingShital Navghare
This presentation contains the complete introduction of surveying. It also includes all the instrucments used in linear measurement and the terms related to Ranging and Chaining
Distance Measurements, Principle and Methodsrizwan53440
1. There are direct and indirect methods for measuring linear distances in surveying. Direct methods include pacing, chaining, and using instruments like tapes and odometers. Indirect methods involve using a clinometer or known elevation differences.
2. The horizontal distance between two points is measured along a horizontal plane, while the slope distance follows the surface of the earth. Slope distance can be converted to horizontal distance using the slope angle or elevation differences.
3. Proper selection of a distance measuring method depends on factors like terrain, intended use of data, and available equipment. The most important factor is ensuring the method provides data suitable for the project needs.
TOTAL STATION: THEORY, USES AND APPLICATIONS. Ahmed Nassar
TOTAL STATION: THEORY, USES AND APPLICATIONS.
The total station, (also known as electronic tacheometer) is an instrument that can measure horizontal and vertical angles together with slope distance and can be considered as combined EDM plus electronic theodolite. In common with other electronic surveying equipment, total stations are operated using a multi-function keyboard which is connected to a microprocessor built into the instrument. The microprocessor not only controls both the angle and distance measuring systems but is also used as a small computer that can calculate slope corrections, vertical components, rectangular coordinates and, in some cases, can also store observations directly using an internal memory. Nowadays surveying systems are available which can be use in an integrated manner with Global Positioning System (GPS). so, future total stations may have integrated GPS receivers as part of the measurement unit.
1) Levelling is the process of determining the relative elevations of points on or near the earth's surface. It is important for engineering projects to determine elevations along alignments.
2) Levelling is used to prepare contour maps, determine altitudes, and create longitudinal and cross sections needed for projects.
3) Key terms include bench mark, datum, reduced level, line of collimation, and height of instrument. Different types of levelling include simple, differential, fly, longitudinal, and cross-sectional levelling.
This document describes different methods of trigonometric leveling to determine the elevation of points. Trigonometric leveling uses vertical angles measured with a theodolite and distances to calculate elevations. There are methods to determine elevations when the base is accessible and inaccessible, and when instrument stations and objects are in the same or different vertical planes. Calculations use trigonometric functions and relationships between angles and distances in triangles formed by the instrument stations and object.
Metric Chain : It Consists of galvanized mild steel wire of 4mm diameter known as link.
It is available in 20m, 30m, 50m length which consists of 100 links.
Gunter’s Chain : A 66 feet long chain consists of 100 links, each of 0.66 feet, it is known as Gunter’s chain.
This chain is suitable for taking length in miles.
Engineer’s Chain : A 100 feet long chain consisting of 100 links each of 1 feet is known as engineer’s chain.
This chain is used to measure length in feet and area in sq.yard.
Revenue Chain : it is 33 feet long chain consisting of 16 links.
This chain is used for distance measurements in feet & inches for smaller areas.
Compass traversing involves both linear and angular measurements to determine the directions of survey lines. There are two main types: closed traverses which form a complete circuit back to the starting point, and open traverses which do not return to the starting point. The principal methods of compass traversing are chain traversing using only linear measurements to determine angles, loose needle traversing using a compass at each station, fast needle traversing using a theodolite, and measuring angles directly between successive lines using a theodolite.
This document provides information about circular curves used in highways and railways. It discusses the different types of curves including simple, compound, and reverse curves. It defines key elements of circular curves such as radius, deflection angle, tangent length, and mid-ordinate. It presents the relationships between radius and degree of curvature. Finally, it describes various methods for setting out circular curves in the field, including linear methods using offsets and angular methods using a theodolite.
unit I
Introduction and Basic Concepts: Introduction, Objectives, classification and principles of
surveying, Scales, Shrinkage of Map, Conventional symbols and Code of Signals, Surveying
accessories, phases of surveying.
Measurement of Distances and Directions
Linear distances- Approximate methods, Direct Methods- Chains- Tapes, ranging, Tape corrections.
Prismatic Compass- Bearings, included angles, Local Attraction, Magnetic Declination and dip.
This document discusses control surveying and triangulation. It notes that control surveying must account for the curvature of the Earth and refraction, as lines of sight are not entirely straight. It distinguishes between plane and geodetic surveying, with the latter accounting for the spherical shape of the Earth. The document then discusses establishing control points through triangulation, including different classes of triangulation, steps in triangulation like selecting stations, and erecting signals and towers.
This document discusses the use of a theodolite for surveying. It begins by explaining that a theodolite is needed to precisely measure horizontal and vertical angles, unlike a compass. It then defines theodolite surveying as surveying that measures angles using a theodolite. The document goes on to classify theodolites based on their horizontal axis and method of angle measurement. It describes the basic parts of a transit vernier theodolite and explains terms used in manipulating one. Finally, it discusses methods for measuring horizontal angles, including the general, repetition, and reiteration methods.
1. The document presents information from a slideshow on tacheometric surveying. It discusses various methods of tacheometric surveying including fixed hair, movable hair, tangential, and subtense bar methods.
2. Formulas are provided for calculating horizontal distance, vertical distance, and elevation of points using these different tacheometric surveying methods under various sighting conditions such as inclined or depressed lines of sight.
3. The document also discusses tacheometric constants, anallatic lenses, and procedures for conducting field work in a tacheometric survey including selecting instrument stations, taking observations of vertical angles and staff readings, and shifting to subsequent stations.
Surveying is an important part of Civil engineering. Various part like theodolite, plane table surveying, computation of area and volume are useful for all university examination and other competitive examination
This document discusses triangulation, which is a surveying technique used to establish horizontal control networks over large areas. It involves measuring angles and lengths within networks of triangles. There are different orders of triangulation based on accuracy and area covered, including primary, secondary, and tertiary triangulation. Key aspects discussed include triangulation station layout and design, angle and distance measurements, controlling errors, and computation of unknown lengths and directions within triangles.
The document discusses different types of traverses and methods for conducting traverse surveys. It describes two types of traverses: open traverses that begin and end at points of known and unknown positions, and closed traverses that begin and end at points of known positions, including closed-loop traverses that begin and end at the same point. It also outlines four methods for determining directions during traversing: chain angle method, free needle method, fast needle method, and measuring angles between lines. Finally, it discusses instruments used for measuring angles like compasses and theodolites, and defines different types of bearings including true, magnetic, and arbitrary bearings.
This document discusses contouring and contour lines. It defines a contour line as an imaginary line connecting points of equal elevation. The vertical distance between two consecutive contours is called the contour interval, which can vary depending on factors like terrain and map scale. Contouring methods are either direct, involving determining elevations of individual points, or indirect, using calculations in the field that are less accurate but faster.
Definition of Surveying
Objects of Surveying
Uses of Surveying
Primary Divisions of Surveying
Principles of Surveying
List of Classification of Surveying
Definitions : Plan and Map, scales :Plain Scale and Diagonal Scale,
This document discusses contouring and contour maps. It defines a contour line as a line connecting points of equal elevation. The vertical distance between consecutive contours is called the contour interval, which depends on factors like the nature of the ground and the map scale. Contour maps show the topography of an area and can be used for engineering projects, route selection, and estimating earthworks. Methods of plotting contours include direct methods using levels or hand levels, and indirect methods like gridding, cross-sectioning, and radial lines. Characteristics of contours provide information about the landscape.
Introduction to surveying, ranging and chainingShital Navghare
This presentation contains the complete introduction of surveying. It also includes all the instrucments used in linear measurement and the terms related to Ranging and Chaining
Distance Measurements, Principle and Methodsrizwan53440
1. There are direct and indirect methods for measuring linear distances in surveying. Direct methods include pacing, chaining, and using instruments like tapes and odometers. Indirect methods involve using a clinometer or known elevation differences.
2. The horizontal distance between two points is measured along a horizontal plane, while the slope distance follows the surface of the earth. Slope distance can be converted to horizontal distance using the slope angle or elevation differences.
3. Proper selection of a distance measuring method depends on factors like terrain, intended use of data, and available equipment. The most important factor is ensuring the method provides data suitable for the project needs.
TOTAL STATION: THEORY, USES AND APPLICATIONS. Ahmed Nassar
TOTAL STATION: THEORY, USES AND APPLICATIONS.
The total station, (also known as electronic tacheometer) is an instrument that can measure horizontal and vertical angles together with slope distance and can be considered as combined EDM plus electronic theodolite. In common with other electronic surveying equipment, total stations are operated using a multi-function keyboard which is connected to a microprocessor built into the instrument. The microprocessor not only controls both the angle and distance measuring systems but is also used as a small computer that can calculate slope corrections, vertical components, rectangular coordinates and, in some cases, can also store observations directly using an internal memory. Nowadays surveying systems are available which can be use in an integrated manner with Global Positioning System (GPS). so, future total stations may have integrated GPS receivers as part of the measurement unit.
Given:
Sloped distance (S) = 156.77 m
Slope angle (α) = 15°
To find:
Horizontal distance (H)
Solution:
cos 15° = Horizontal distance/ Sloped distance
cos 15° = H/156.77
H = 156.77 * cos 15°
H = 156.77 * 0.9659
H = 151.5 m
Therefore, the horizontal distance is 151.5 m.
The document discusses tacheometric surveying, which is a method of angular surveying that determines horizontal and vertical distances from instrumental observations alone, eliminating chaining operations. It is well-suited for hilly, broken, or inaccessible areas. The key principles are described, including the use of a tacheometer instrument fitted with stadia wires, and a stadia rod. The two main methods - fixed hair and movable hair - are outlined. Errors and precautions for tacheometric surveying are also provided.
This document discusses the principles and classification of triangulation, which is a surveying method used to determine distances based on geometry. It describes three orders or classifications of triangulation: primary, secondary, and tertiary. Primary triangulation establishes the most precise control points over large areas. Secondary triangulation uses smaller triangles within the primary framework, while tertiary triangulation establishes intermediate control for detailed surveys using even smaller triangles. Specifications for each order are provided, such as average triangle size, expected errors, and instrumentation precision.
There are several radiographic and non-radiographic methods to determine working length described in the document. The radiographic methods include Ingle's technique, Grossman's method, Kuttler's method, and the radiographic grid method. Electronic apex locators and tactile sense are two non-radiographic methods mentioned. The document recommends that a combination of an electronic apex locator and Ingle's radiographic technique provides the most accurate determination of working length. It advises against relying solely on non-radiographic methods.
This document provides an overview of trilateration and triangulation surveying methods. It discusses the principles, classifications, strengths, and layouts of triangulation networks. Trilateration involves measuring all three sides of triangles and computing angles, while triangulation measures baseline lengths and all interior angles. Triangulation networks can be classified based on their intended accuracy and purpose. The strength of a triangulation network depends on factors like triangle shape and angle sizes. Satellite stations may be used to improve triangle conditions and visibility.
The document discusses triangulation and trilateration methods for horizontal control surveys. It defines triangulation as establishing a network of triangles using measured baselines and calculated angles to determine station positions. Trilateration measures baseline lengths directly using EDM instead of calculating from angles. The document categorizes triangulation into three orders based on accuracy and describes ideal triangle configurations. It also discusses evaluating figure strength to maintain precision and defines well-conditioned triangles that minimize angular error effects.
The document discusses triangulation surveying. It begins by explaining that a triangulation system consists of a series of triangles connected by shared sides. It describes the key steps in a triangulation survey, including reconnaissance to select station locations, erecting signals, measuring angles and base lines, and performing computations. It also discusses corrections that must be applied to base line measurements, including for the steel tape's absolute length, temperature, and slope. Sample problems demonstrate computing corrections to determine a base line's true length.
The document discusses geodetic surveying techniques, specifically triangulation. It defines triangulation as measuring angles and distances to determine positions of points using networks of triangles. The key aspects covered are:
- Triangulation establishes horizontal control networks over large areas by measuring angles and occasional distances between stations.
- Triangles are arranged in different configurations like single chains, double chains, braced quadrilaterals, and centered polygons.
- The routine of triangulation involves reconnaissance, erecting signals, measuring baselines and angles, and office computations.
Chain surveying involves measuring distances between stations using a chain or tape. Only linear measurements are taken between stations to form a network of triangles. Key aspects include:
- Distances are directly measured between stations using a chain or tape, with no angular measurements
- The area is divided into a network of triangles connected by measured sides
- Instruments include chains, tapes, ranging rods, and cross staffs for laying out right angles
- Sources of error include chain/tape length errors from temperature/tension and mistakes in chaining must be minimized.
This document contains a report from a group of civil engineering students at the University of Malaysia Pahang on a theodolite traversing exercise. The group conducted a traverse survey within the university campus to establish control networks and locate survey stations. They measured bearing and length between stations using a total station. Their report includes an introduction, objectives, equipment used, procedures, field book, scaled drawing of the survey, and analysis. The traverse was completed within specifications for angular and linear closure errors.
This document contains field data from a closed traverse survey conducted over three iterations. It includes horizontal angle measurements, vertical angle measurements, and distance measurements between stations A, B, C and D. The objective was to determine coordinates of each station through angular and linear field measurements. Field data tables provide the raw readings which need to be adjusted to calculate accurate coordinates and check for angular error of closure.
This document summarizes a student's lab report on measuring horizontal distances between two points using a tape measure. It introduces different methods for measuring distances and their accuracy. It then describes the equipment used, the procedure, calculations, and results of measuring the distance between two points labeled A and B. The distance measured was 214.99 meters with an error of 0.02 meters between the two measurements.
The document summarizes a group project conducting a tacheometric survey to produce topographic plans and detail maps of a proposed area. Key steps included setting up theodolite stations and taking horizontal angle, distance, and height readings of features. Potential sources of error discussed were incorrect staff readings, tilting, environmental conditions, and instrumental errors. The objectives were to produce survey plans and check measured distances. Upon completing observations and analyzing the data in software, contours were produced to determine ground levels and suitability for construction.
LINEAR MEASUREMENT techniques in civil engineeringUjasPandya2
Methods of distance measurement in surveying include direct chaining using tools like chains, tapes, arrows, and rods. Chains can be metric, Gunter's, engineer's, or revenue chains of varying lengths. Tapes like cloth, fiber, metallic, steel, and invar tapes provide more accurate measurements. Accessories such as arrows, ranging rods, offset rods, pegs, and plumb bobs aid in chaining operations and marking points. Errors in surveying can be mistakes, systematic errors due to instruments and conditions, or accidental errors of measurement. Care is required to minimize errors from sources like instruments, natural effects, and human limitations.
This document summarizes a presentation on analyzing the influence of epistemic uncertainty on the seismic vulnerability of Indian code-compliant reinforced concrete (RC) frame buildings. The presentation discusses how stochastic analysis reveals up to a 10-13% increase in the likelihood of complete damage states compared to deterministic analysis. It also finds that accounting for uncertainty increases the estimated probability of collapse for the 4-story RC frame building studied to over 10% in seismic demands. The presentation concludes that considering material variability and other uncertainties more accurately captures the nonlinear response and failure mechanisms of structures during earthquakes.
1. Bridges are structures built to span obstacles like bodies of water, valleys, or roads. Their design depends on their function, the terrain, materials used, and available funds.
2. Common bridge types include beam, truss, and suspension bridges. Beam bridges have horizontal beams supported at each end. Truss bridges use connected elements under tension or compression. Suspension bridges are suspended from cables between towers.
3. Forces on bridges include compression, tension, bending, torsion, and shear. Compression pushes while tension pulls. Bending causes curvature. Torsion causes twisting. Shear results in sliding forces. Engineers must consider these forces during bridge design.
applications asf as asf fa afsf af asfasfKrish Bhavsar
This document discusses various applications of powder x-ray diffraction including qualitative analysis, quantitative analysis, crystal structure determination, measurement of crystallite size, microstrain, and residual macrostresses. It provides examples of using powder diffraction to identify unknown materials by comparing diffraction patterns to a database, measuring residual stress through peak shifting, and analyzing thin films. Additional applications mentioned include studies of crystallinity, phase diagrams, chemical reactions, grain size, and preferred orientation.
Intze Tankd s sad sa das dsjkj kkk kds s kkkskKrish Bhavsar
The document describes the design of an Intze tank. It consists of a top dome, cylindrical wall, and bottom consisting of a conical dome and spherical dome. Key steps in design include: designing each component for stresses; sizing reinforcement in domes, ring beams, and wall; and designing the foundation to support the tank. An example is given for the design of an Intze tank with specific dimensions, following the given design procedure and equations for calculating stresses in each component.
The document provides 9 rules for new faculty members to work with moderation when teaching. The rules advise to pause before writing or talking to reflect, begin teaching before feeling fully ready, prepare and present material in brief regular sessions to avoid burnout, stop teaching in a timely manner, moderate attachment to content and reactions to criticism, moderate negative thinking, let others help with some work, moderate classroom incivilities through compassionate teaching, and remember that teaching should reinforce respect for learning and others. The overall message is that teaching effectively involves experience arranged in a balanced, sustainable way.
This document discusses the design of continuous beams. It notes that continuous beams must be designed to resist hogging moments at supports in addition to sagging moments in spans. An example three-span continuous beam is then designed. The beam has a total factored load of 80.57 kN/m and 6.1m spans. Elastic analysis finds maximum moments of 239.94 kN.m in end spans and -299.80 kN.m at interior supports. The beam is designed with a depth of 530mm and reinforcement is checked for bending, shear, development length, and deflection requirements.
The 17th Symposium on Earthquake Engineering was held at the Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee. The symposium focused on earthquake engineering and brought together experts in the field to discuss recent developments and challenges. The multi-day event featured presentations and discussions around advancing seismic safety and mitigating earthquake risks.
We have designed & manufacture the Lubi Valves LBF series type of Butterfly Valves for General Utility Water applications as well as for HVAC applications.
Impartiality as per ISO /IEC 17025:2017 StandardMuhammadJazib15
This document provides basic guidelines for imparitallity requirement of ISO 17025. It defines in detial how it is met and wiudhwdih jdhsjdhwudjwkdbjwkdddddddddddkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwioiiiiiiiiiiiii uwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwhe wiqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqq gbbbbbbbbbbbbb owdjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjj widhi owqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqq uwdhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhwqiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiw0pooooojjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjj whhhhhhhhhhh wheeeeeeee wihieiiiiii wihe
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Online train ticket booking system project.pdfKamal Acharya
Rail transport is one of the important modes of transport in India. Now a days we
see that there are railways that are present for the long as well as short distance
travelling which makes the life of the people easier. When compared to other
means of transport, a railway is the cheapest means of transport. The maintenance
of the railway database also plays a major role in the smooth running of this
system. The Online Train Ticket Management System will help in reserving the
tickets of the railways to travel from a particular source to the destination.
Data Communication and Computer Networks Management System Project Report.pdfKamal Acharya
Networking is a telecommunications network that allows computers to exchange data. In
computer networks, networked computing devices pass data to each other along data
connections. Data is transferred in the form of packets. The connections between nodes are
established using either cable media or wireless media.
Better Builder Magazine brings together premium product manufactures and leading builders to create better differentiated homes and buildings that use less energy, save water and reduce our impact on the environment. The magazine is published four times a year.
Cricket management system ptoject report.pdfKamal Acharya
The aim of this project is to provide the complete information of the National and
International statistics. The information is available country wise and player wise. By
entering the data of eachmatch, we can get all type of reports instantly, which will be
useful to call back history of each player. Also the team performance in each match can
be obtained. We can get a report on number of matches, wins and lost.
Covid Management System Project Report.pdfKamal Acharya
CoVID-19 sprang up in Wuhan China in November 2019 and was declared a pandemic by the in January 2020 World Health Organization (WHO). Like the Spanish flu of 1918 that claimed millions of lives, the COVID-19 has caused the demise of thousands with China, Italy, Spain, USA and India having the highest statistics on infection and mortality rates. Regardless of existing sophisticated technologies and medical science, the spread has continued to surge high. With this COVID-19 Management System, organizations can respond virtually to the COVID-19 pandemic and protect, educate and care for citizens in the community in a quick and effective manner. This comprehensive solution not only helps in containing the virus but also proactively empowers both citizens and care providers to minimize the spread of the virus through targeted strategies and education.
3. Tachometry
Tachometry is a branch of surveying in which the
horizontal distances and the difference in elevations
are determined by optical means without the use of a
chain or tape.
Tacheometry is also known as tachymetry or
telemetry.
The method is more rapid though less accurate as
compared with chaining
4. Situation
1. In rough country, both horizontal and vertical
measurements are tedious and chaining is in accurate,
slow and difficult.
2. when obstacles such as steep and broken ground,
stretches of water or swamps are net with.
3. In locating contours and filling in detail in a topographic
survey, this method is usually the quickest & best.
4. when area to be surveyed is very large and accuracy
required is less.
5. Characteristics
1. horizontal angles and vertical elevations are
measured with tacheometry.
2. The horizontal and vertical distance between two
points is calculated from the observations taken by
tacheometer.
3. For tacheometric survey, only tacheometer and
stadia rod are required.
4. Use of chain is completely eliminated.
5. Accuracy is less compared with chaining or
6. Applications
1. Preparation of topographic maps which require both
horizontal distances and elevations.
2. Survey work in difficult terrain where direct
methods are inconvenient.
3. Filling details in a traverse.
4. location surveys for highways, railways, canals, etc.
5. hydrographic surveys.
7. Stadia method
1. In this methods, stadia interval is kept
constant.
2. In this methods, the staff intercept on the
staff varies depending upon the horizontal
distance between the instrument station
and the staff.
3. This method is most commonly used in
practices as it is convenient to take the
staff readings speedily.
4. Tacheometer and stadia rod are used.
1. In this method, the stadia hairs are
adjusted by micrometer screws such that
upper hair bisects the upper target and the
lower hair bisects the lower target.
2. In this method, the staff intercept is kept
constant.
3. This method is generally not used, as it is
inconvenient to measure the stadia
interval.
4. substance theodolite and target staff are
used.
Movable hair methodsFixed hair methods
8. Both angles are angles of elevation
D = S
(tan ∝1 - tan ∝2)
V = S tan ∝2
(tan ∝1 - tan ∝2)
9. Both angles are angles of depression
D = S
(tan ∝1 + tan ∝2)
V = S tan ∝2
( tan ∝1 + tan ∝2)
10. Both angles are angles of depression
D = S
(tan ∝2 - tan ∝1)
V = S tan ∝2
(tan ∝2 - tan ∝1)
11. 1. As two vertical angles have to be measured, it takes
more time as compared with stadia method.
2. The error will occur if the instrument gets disturbed
between the two observations which will cause error.
3. There may be changes in atmospheric refraction in the
period between the two observation which will cause
error.
4. The readings are not easily reduced to the horizontal
distance and vertical intercept.
Disadvantages of tangential method
12. Error in tacheometry
Like in other survey methods, tacheometry can also have the
following errors :
1. Instrumental errors
2. Personal errors
3. Errors due to natural causes
High degree of accuracy in tacheometric observations can be
achieved by :
● Taking proper care in manipulating the instrument.
● Limiting the length of sights.
● Using instruments of good quality.
● working in favourable atmospheric condition.
13. Standards of precision
1. The error in single horizontal distance(D) should
not exceed 1 in 500.
2. The linear error of closure in traversing can be
computed from c√p metres, where c varies from
0.03 to 0.06 and P is the perimeter of the
traverse in meters.
3. The permissible closing error in levelling in a
bench mark may be taken as 0.003√l metres,
where l is the total length traversed.
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