BBOC407 Module 1.pptx Biology for Engineers

BBOC407 – Biology for Computer Engineers
RNS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
(AICTE Approved, VTU Affiliated and NAAC ‘A+’ Accredited)
(UG programs – CSE, ECE, ISE, EIE and EEE are Accredited by NBA up to 30.06.2025)
Channasandra, Dr. Vishnuvardhan Road, Bengaluru – 560 098, Karnataka
Dr. S Sathish Kumar
Professor, Dept. of EIE
RNSIT, Bengaluru

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Module – 1
Cell: Basic Unit of Life.
1. Introduction:
2. Cell: Structure and its functions
3. Stem cells: and their application.
4. Carbohydrates: Properties and Functions
5. Nucleic Acids: Properties and Functions
6. Proteins: Properties and Functions
7. Lipids: Properties and Functions
8. Importance of special biomolecules: Enzymes, Vitamins and Hormones: Properties and Functions
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BBOC407 - Biology for Engineers - Module 1
Biomolecules:
Biomolecules are organic molecules that are essential for life.
Biomolecules play important roles in various biological processes.
• Metabolism: E.g: Carbohydrates  Glucose  ATP(Adenosine triphosphate) – Catabolism
E.g: Amino acids  Proteins – Anabolism
• Growth and Development: E.g.: Protein  New Tissue formation + Tissue repair
• Reproduction: E.g.: Nucleic acids  carry genetic information
• Overall functioning of cells: E.g.: Lipids  structure & functioning of cell membranes.
Biomolecules
Carbohydrates Nucleic Acids Proteins Lipids

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1. Carbohydrates:
1.1 Introduction:
 Carbohydrates serve as vital source of energy for living organisms.
 They are organic molecules that are made up of oxygen, carbon and hydrogen.
 The general formula is (CH2O)n where n – no. of carbon atoms in a molecule
 The Carbon:Hydrogen:Oxygen ratio usually is 1:2:1
 They are found in grains, vegetables, fruits, legumes, in milk and in dairy products.
Classification of Carbohydrates: based on their size and structure.
Carbohydrates
Monosaccharides
E.g. Glucose,
Fructose, Galactose
Disaccharides
E.g. Sucrose,
Lactose, Maltose
Polysaccharides
E.g. Starch,
Glycogen, Cellulose

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1. Carbohydrates:
1.1 Introduction (Contd..):
Monosaccharides:
 The simplest form of saccharides or sugars. (CH2O)n where n = 3 to 7
 They are easily soluble in water & cannot be further broken down into smaller sugar units.
 They are the primary source of energy for the body.
 E.g: Glucose, Fructose, Galactose
 Chemical formula of Glucose – C6H12O6
Disaccharides:
 Disaccharides - double sugar  2 monosaccharides joined together by glycosidic bond.
 They can be hydrolyzed by enzymes into their constituent monosaccharides.
Sucrose + H2O → Glucose + Fructose. The enzyme is sucrose.
 E.g: Sucrose, Lactose, Maltose
 Chemical formula of Sucrose
– C12H22O11
Glucose : the blood sugar
Fructose : the fruit sugar
Galactose: less sweet
Sucrose : the cane sugar
Lactose : the milk sugar
Maltose: the malt sugar
Open
chain Ring
Hexagonal
ring

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1. Carbohydrates:
Polysaccharides:
 Many sugars  multiple monosaccharide units joined together by glycosidic bonds.
 They are often referred to as polymers- large molecules composed of monomers.
 They can be hydrolyzed by enzymes into their constituent monosaccharides.
Starch + Water → Glucose monomers. The enzyme is amylase.
 Energy storage: Plants in the form of starch. Animals in the form of glycogen
E.g: Starch, Glycogen, Cellulose
 Cellulose provides structure and support
in plant cell walls.
Starch – potatoes, rice, wheat, corn, and legumes.
Glycogen – stored in the liver and skeletal muscles.
Cellulose – cotton, hemp, jute, wood, etc

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1. Carbohydrates:
1.2 Properties of Carbohydrates:
Chemical Composition: Carbohydrates are composed of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and
oxygen (O) atoms in the ratio of 1:2:1. The general chemical formula for carbohydrates is
(𝐶𝐻2𝑂)𝑛, where 𝑛 represents the number of carbon atoms in the molecule.
Structural Diversity: Carbohydrates exhibit structural diversity, ranging from simple sugars
(monosaccharides) to complex polymers (polysaccharides).
Isomerism: Carbohydrates exhibit structural isomerism, where molecules with the same
chemical formula have different structural arrangements.
Solubility: Many carbohydrates, particularly monosaccharides and disaccharides, are
water-soluble due to their hydrophilic nature.
Sweetness: Carbohydrates vary in their degree of sweetness. Monosaccharides like glucose
and fructose are sweet-tasting, while disaccharides such as sucrose (table sugar) and
lactose (milk sugar) also exhibit sweetness, but to different degrees.

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1. Carbohydrates:
1.2 Functions of Carbohydrates:
Energy source: Carbohydrates are a primary source of energy for living organisms. When
broken down through cellular respiration, carbohydrates are converted into ATP, the energy
currency of cells, which fuels cellular processes and metabolic activities.
C6H12O6 (glucose) + 6O2 (oxygen) → 6CO2 (carbon dioxide) + 6H2O (water) + ATP (energy)
Structural support: Carbohydrates contribute to the structure and function of cells and
tissues. Polysaccharides like cellulose provide structural support and rigidity to plant cell walls.
Energy Storage: Carbohydrates serve as energy storage molecules in the form of glycogen (in
the liver and muscles) in animals and starch (in roots, tubers and seeds) in plants.
Transport of Energy: Carbohydrates like sucrose facilitate the transport of energy in the
form of sugars within plants.
Quick energy release: The rapid breakdown of glucose through glycolysis allows cells to
quickly generate ATP and provide energy for essential cellular processes.
Blood sugar regulation: Carbohydrates play a central role in blood sugar regulation, ensuring
a steady supply of energy to cells and tissues while maintaining blood glucose levels within a
narrow range.

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5. Nucleic acids:
5.1 Introduction:
 Nucleic acids are biopolymers essential to all known forms of life.
 They play a crucial role in the storage and transmission of genetic information in all living
organisms.
 Nucleic acids are polynucleotides – they are long complex macromolecules composed of
smaller units called nucleotides.
 Nucleotides are organic molecules composed of three main components: a
nitrogenous base (or nucleobase), a five-carbon sugar, and a phosphate group.
Types of Nucleic acids:
Nucleic acids
DNA
Deoxyribose
Nucleic acid
RNA
Ribose Nucleic
acid
Nucleotide

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5. Nucleic acids:
Deoxyribose nucleic acid (DNA):
 DNA carries genetic instructions for the development,
functioning, growth and reproduction of all living
organisms.
 DNA is a polymer composed of two polynucleotide
strands that are coiled together to form a double helix.
 Each nucleotide in DNA is composed of one of four
nitrogen containing nucleobases (cytosine [C],
guanine [G], adenine [A] or thymine [T]), a sugar
called deoxyribose, and a phosphate group.
 Each strand in DNA is composed of a sugar-phosphate
backbone and the bases extend from the backbone and
pair with their complementary bases in the opposite
DNA strand.
 Base pair : A with T, C with G

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5. Nucleic acids:
Ribose nucleic acid (RNA):
 RNA functions in converting genetic information from
genes of DNA into the amino acid sequences of proteins.
 RNA is a polymer assembled as a chain of nucleotides,
but unlike DNA, RNA is single strand rather than a
paired double strand.
 Each nucleotide in RNA is composed of one of four
Nitrogen containing nucleobases (cytosine [C],
guanine [G], adenine [A] or uracil [U]), a sugar
called ribose, and a phosphate group.
 Base pair: A with U and C with G
 RNA is synthesized from DNA on an as-needed basis.
Types of RNA:
i) mRNA, ii) tRNA, iii) rRNA

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2. Lipids:
2.1 Introduction:
 Lipids are a broad group of organic compounds that are insoluble in water but soluble
in organic solvents such as ether, chloroform, or benzene.
 The fundamental component of lipids is fatty acids. Lipids are broken down into fatty acids
and used as a fuel for cellular processes.
 They are found in nuts and seeds, oily fish, coconut oil, dairy products, eggs, meat and
poultry, plant oils, etc.
Properties:
 Hydrophobicity: Lipids are generally hydrophobic or insoluble in water.
 Solubility: Lipids are soluble in organic solvents like chloroform, ether, and benzene.
 Energy storage: Lipids (triglycerides) store energy in the form of long term fuel reserves.
 Membrane structure: Phospholipids serve as the structural component of cell membranes.
 Insulation: Lipids beneath the skin provide thermal insulation (i.ereduces heat loss) to body.
 Signaling molecules: Sphingolipids function as signaling molecules in cell communication.
 Structural diversity: Each type of lipid has a unique structure and function.

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2. Lipids:
2.1 Introduction:
Types of Lipids:
Fatty acids: are the simplest form of lipids.
They consist of a long hydrocarbon chain with
a carboxylic acid group (-COOH) at one end.
Fatty acids play vital roles in the body,
including providing energy, supporting cell
structure, assisting in hormone production,
aiding nutrient absorption, contributing to
brain function and insulation.
Glycerides: are esters formed from glycerol reacting with fatty acids.
Esterification: Alcohol + Acid = Ester + Water
1) Neutral glycerides: E.g: Triglycerides: are the primary form of energy storage in the body
and are found in adipose tissue. They are composed of three fatty acids bonded to a
glycerol backbone.
2) Phospho glycerides: E.g: Phospholipids: are the major components of cell membranes.
They consist of a glycerol backbone, two fatty acid chains, and a phosphate group.

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2. Lipids:
2.1 Introduction:
Types of Lipids (Contd..):
Non glyceride lipids: are a diverse group of
lipids that do not contain a glycerol backbone
like triglycerides and phosphlipids.
E.g: Steroids: encompass a wide range of
compounds such as sex hormones, cholestrol,
bile acids, and certain vitamins.
Cholesterol is a waxy, fat-like substance that is
found in the cells of the body. It is produced
by the liver. It is a vital component of cell
membranes.
Lipoproteins: Cholesterol travels through the bloodstream in small packages called
lipoproteins.
Low-Density Lipoprotein (LDL) often referred to as "bad" cholesterol carries cholesterol from
the liver to the cells.
High-Density Lipoprotein (HDL) known as "good" cholesterol helps remove excess cholesterol
from the bloodstream and carries it back to the liver for disposal.

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21BE45 - Biology for Engineers - Module 1
2. Lipids:
2.2 Biodiesel:
Biodiesel is a form of diesel fuel derived from plants or animals.
 Lipids can be a source for biodiesel
 Biodiesel is renewable, environmentally friendly alternative to traditional petroleum-based
diesel fuel.
 Biodiesel is derived from organic sources such as vegetable oils, animal fats, and recycled
cooking oils.
 Biodiesel from lipids is produced through a process called tranesterification.
 Transesterification: the lipids are reacted
with an alcohol (usually methanol) and a
catalyst to break down the triglycerides
present in the oils or fats into
fatty acid methyl esters(FAME)
Transesterification
reaction

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Dept. of EIE, RNSIT
2. Lipids:
2.2 Biodiesel (Contd..):
Benefits of biodiesel:
 renewable because it is derived from renewable sources.
 reduces dependence on fossil fuels and can be produced locally from domestic sources.
 reduced greenhouse gas emissions because it has low CO2
 biodegradable and less toxic than petroleum diesel.
 provides an alternative market for agricultural crops.

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2. Lipids:
2.2 Biodiesel (Contd..):
Biodiesel Production:
 Feedstock selection: To prepare feedstock like
Vegetable oils – soybean, canola, or palm oils
Animal fats – beef tallow, pig lard.
Recycled cooking oil.
 Pretreatment: is done to remove impurities
such as water, solids, or free fatty acids.
 Transesterification: The cleaned and dried
feedstock is then made to react with an
alcohol such as methanol or ethanol and a
catalyst such as NaOH or KOH in a reactor
vessel. The reaction breaks down the
Triglycerides in the feedstock into fatty acid
methyl Fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) and
Glycerol. FAME is the main component of
biodiesel
Biodiesel
Production

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2. Lipids:
2.2 Biodiesel (Contd..)
Biodiesel Production (Contd..):
 Separation: the mixture is allowed to settle in a
settling tank, separating the glycerol layer from
the Biodiesel.
 Washing: The biodiesel contains impurities,
such as excess alcohol, catalyst, or soap and
needs to be washed using water.
 Drying: The fuel is then dried to remove any
remaining water using a vacuum or a desiccant.
Biodiesel
Production

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2. Lipids:
2.3 Detergents:
Detergents are substances used for cleaning purposes. They are designed to remove dirt,
grease, and stains from surfaces such as fabrics, dishes, floors, and household items.
Surfactants are chemical compounds that decrease the surface tension or interfacial tension
between two liquids or between a liquid and a solid.
 By reducing surface tension, surfactants allow water to spread more easily, penetrate
materials, and interact with substances like dirt and grease.
 Detergents are products that typically contain surfactants as their active cleaning agents
along with other additives.
 Surfactants, short for surface-active agents, are compounds that have both hydrophilic
(water-loving) and hydrophobic (water-repelling) properties.
 Phospholipids are a type of surfactant.

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2. Lipids:
2.3 Detergents (Contd..):
 Phospholipids are a major component of cell membranes
 Phospholipids have a hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tail.
 Hydrophilic head readily interacts with water molecule.
 Hydrophobic tail repel water but readily interact with substances like oils, fats, and dirt.
 In water, phospholipid molecules spontaneously arrange themselves into structures known
as bilayers, with the hydrophilic heads facing the water and the hydrophobic tails facing
inward, shielded from the water.
 When the detergent, comes into contact
with dirt and oil on the surface,
the hydrophobic tails face inward,
shielding the oil and dirt from water,
while the hydrophilic heads face outward,
forming a water-soluble exterior.

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Dept. of EIE, RNSIT
2. Lipids:
2.3 Detergents (Contd..):
 The dual nature of phospholipids allows them
to surround and encapsulate oil and dirt
particles, forming structures called micelles.
 When we rinse the surface treated with a phospholipid-based detergent, the micelles are
easily removed with water, taking away the encapsulated oil and dirt along with them.

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Dr. Manohar P, Dept. of EIE,

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Dept. of EIE, RNSIT
3. Proteins:
3.1 Introduction:
 Proteins are large complex molecules that play many critical roles in the body.
 Proteins are required for the structure, function and regulation of cells and organisms.
 Protein is a long chain of amino acids which are linked together in a specific sequence
dictated by the genetic information encoded in DNA.
 The long chains of amino acids are folded into complex three-dimensional structures
 Most amino acids have a central carbon atom bonded to one
amino (N2 containing group) and one carboxylic acid group.
The carbon also has one hydrogen atom and a sidechain which
is unique to each amino acid.
 Proteins are found in variety of foods such as meat, poultry,
seafood, dairy products, legumes, soy, nuts, seeds, grains, etc

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Dept. of EIE, RNSIT
3. Proteins:
 There are 20 amino acids commonly found in proteins.
 Non essential amino acids: 5 – Alanine, Asparagine, Aspartic acid, Glutamic acid, Serine.
The human body can produce these amino acids on its own, so they are not considered
essential to obtain from the diet.
 Conditionally essential a. a : 6 – Argenine, Cysteine, Glutamine, Glycine, Proline, Tyrosine.
Under certain conditions, the body may not be able to produce these amino acids in
sufficient quantities, making them conditionally essential.
 Essential amino acids: : 9 – Histidine, Isoleucine, Leucine, Lysine, Methonine, Phenylalanine,
Threonine, Tryptophan, Valine
Essential amino acids are amino acids that cannot
be synthesized by the human body and must be
obtained through the diet.
 A complete protein refers to a food source that
contains all nine essential amino acids in adequate
amounts required for the body.

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Dept. of EIE, RNSIT
3. Proteins:
 Dietary proteins: are proteins that are obtained through the diet by consuming various
food sources.
 Dietary protein is broken down through a process called Proteolysis.
 Animal-based protein sources include meat, poultry, fish, eggs, dairy products (such as
milk, cheese, and yogurt), and seafood. They contain all essential amino acids in
sufficient amounts.
 Plant-based protein sources include legumes (such as beans, lentils, and chickpeas),
grains (such as rice, wheat, and oats),
nuts, seeds, and some vegetables
(such as spinach, broccoli, and brussels
sprouts). Plant proteins are often
incomplete, meaning they may lack
certain essential amino acids. However,
by combining different plant protein
sources, it is possible to obtain all the
essential amino acids.

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Dept. of EIE, RNSIT
3. Proteins:
Functions of Proteins:
 Structural support: Fibrous proteins provide structure,
strength and elasticity to cells and tissues.
E.g: Keratin, Elastin, Collagen
Collagen is a fibrous protein that forms a scaffold for
connective tissues such as skin, tendons, and bones.
 Enzymatic catalysis: Proteins act as catalysts and
facilitate biochemical reactions in cells.
E.g: Amylase, Protease
E.g: Digestive enzymes like amylase break down
complex carbohydrates such as glycogen
into smaller sugar molecules such as glucose which can
be readily absorbed by the body.

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Dept. of EIE, RNSIT
3. Proteins:
Functions of Proteins (Contd..):
 Transport: Proteins facilitate the movement of molecules
and ions across cell membranes and throughout the body.
E.g: Hemoglobin, Albumin
E.g: Hemoglobin, found in red blood cells, transports
oxygen from the lungs to tissues.
 Immune defense: Proteins recognize and eliminate foreign
substances such as pathogens.
E.g: Antibodies
Antibodies are specialized protein that recognize and bind
to specific antigens, marking them for destruction by
other immune cells.

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Dept. of EIE, RNSIT
3. Proteins:
Functions of Proteins (Contd..):
 Regulation: Hormones regulate and coordinate
various physiological processes.
E.g: Insulin, Growth harmone
E.g: Insulin is a hormone that plays a crucial
role in regulating glucose metabolism in the
body.
 Movement: Proteins are involved in muscle
contraction and movement.
E.g: Actin, Myosin
E.g: Myosin is the primary motor protein
responsible for the contraction of muscle fibers
 As a Food: Protein is an essential micronutrient
for building and repairing tissues in the body.
Nuts and seeds, vegetables, legumes, grains,
soy foods

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Dept. of EIE, RNSIT
3. Proteins:
3.2 Plant based proteins: are proteins derived from plants.
 serve as an alternative to animal based proteins.
 are lower in saturated fat and cholesterol
 are also rich in dietary fiber, antioxidants, vitamins and minerals.
 linked with lower risk of cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes.
 associated with decreased risk of certain types of cancer and stroke.
 Legumes, Nuts and Seeds, Grains, Vegetables, Soy products

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Dept. of EIE, RNSIT
3. Proteins:
3.3 Whey Protein Analogs:
Whey protein is a type of protein derived from milk.
 Whey protein is a complete protein
 It is a rapidly digesting protein. It is highly regarded for its nutritional value.
 It is well-known for its ability to promote muscle protein synthesis (MPS).
 Used as a dietary supplement and is often consumed by athletes and body builders.
Disadvantages:
 Whey protein contains lactose, and individuals who are lactose intolerant may have
difficulty digesting it properly.
 Whey protein is derived from milk, and individuals with milk allergies may experience
allergic reactions when consuming whey protein.
 Compared to other protein sources, whey protein can be relatively expensive.

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Dept. of EIE, RNSIT
3. Proteins:
3.3 Whey Protein Analogs (Contd..):
Production of Whey protein:
 Pasteurization: is a process of heating the milk to kill harmful bacteria.
 Coagulation: an enzyme rennet is added to the pasteurized milk which causes it to curdle.
 Curd separation: the curds is separated from the liquid whey through filtration.
 Microfiltration: further purification removes fats, carbohydrates , lactose and water.
 Drying: the water content is removed to obtain protein powder.
Whey Protein Analogs: refers to proteins that are designed to mimic the properties and
functions of whey protein but are not derived from milk or diary.
E.g: Pea protein, Soy protein, Rice protein, Hemp protein, Synthetic proteins
 Whey protein analogs are made from plant based sources
 They provide similar nutritional benefits as whey protein
 They are a high source of protein, easily digestible and absorbed by the body.
 They serve as a dietary supplement for those who are lactose intolerant, vegan.
 Serves those who have dietary restrictions that prevent them from consuming whey protein.

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Dept. of EIE, RNSIT
3. Proteins:
3.3 Whey Protein Analogs (Contd..):
Pea protein: is a plant based protein that is derived from yellow split peas
 A complete protein and also an alternative to whey protein
 A good source of iron and is lactose free.
 Free from all of the most common allergens like lactose and gluten
 Easily digestible and absorbed by the body
 Lower in fat and carbohydrates than whey protein

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Dept. of EIE, RNSIT
3. Proteins:
3.4 Meat Protein Analogs:
Meat protein refers to the protein content found in meat.
 Proteins are derived from animal tissues, including muscle, connective tissue, and organs.
 Meat protein is a complete protein
 It is a source of vitamins and minerals such as iron, zinc, vitamin B12, and vitamin D.
 Meat can be more difficult to digest compared to plant-based foods.
 Many meat products, tend to be high in saturated fat and cholesterol.
 Meat products can be more expensive compared to plant-based protein sources

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Dept. of EIE, RNSIT
3. Proteins:
3.4 Meat Protein Analogs (Contd..):
Meat Protein Analogs: also known as meat substitutes,
are products designed to mimic the flavor, texture, and
appearance of real meat while being entirely plant-based
or made from other alternative protein sources.
i) Plant based meat alternatives:
 mimics the flavor, texture and appearance of real meat.
 are made from a combination of plant proteins, such as soy, wheat, peas, or other legumes.
 are fortified with vitamins and minerals to provide a nutritional value that is similar to meat
 have lower levels of saturated fat and cholesterol compared to animal-based meats.
 offer an animal-friendly alternative by eliminating the need for animal slaughter .
 provide options for individuals who follow vegetarian, vegan, or flexitarian diets
 can be used in a variety of dishes and recipes.

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Dept. of EIE, RNSIT
3. Proteins:
i) Plant based meat alternatives:
Steps involved in plant-based meat analog production

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Dept. of EIE, RNSIT
3. Proteins:
ii) Cultured meat: is a type of meat that is produced by culturing animal cells in a laboratory
instead of raising and slaughtering whole animals.
 It is also called lab-grown meat, cell-based meat, or cultivated meat.
 It eliminates the need for raising and slaughtering animals.
 It is produced using tissue engineering techniques.
 this technology is still in its early development stage.
Cultured Meat Production:
Cell isolation: A small sample of animal cells, is taken from
a living animal. E.g: muscle cells, stem cells
Cell Culture: The isolated cells are then placed in a nutrient
rich culture medium, that provides the necessary growth
factors, hormones, and nutrients for the cells to multiply
and thrive.
Cell proliferation: Over time, the cells multiply forming larger
populations in a bioreactor.
Tissue Formation: The multiplied cells are stimulated to
differentiate into muscle cells which then forms tissues.

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Dept. of EIE, RNSIT
4. Enzymes:
4.1 Introduction:
Enzymes are proteins that act as catalysts in various biochemical
reactions in living organisms.
 They play an essential role in metabolism – the set of all
chemical reactions that takes place in cells to maintain life.
 Enzymes initiate and accelerate the rate of biochemical reaction.
 Enzymes lower the activation energy required for a chemical reaction to occur. Higher
activation energy typically results in slower reaction rates.
 They are made of long chains of amino acids that fold into complex 3D structures. This
folding creates a pocket in the enzyme called active site.
 The specific sequence of amino acids in an enzyme, determines its shape and its catalytic
activity.
 Enzymes are not used up during the catalytic process. Once the
reaction is complete, the enzyme is released from the products and is
free to bind to and catalyze more substrate molecules.

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Dept. of EIE, RNSIT
4. Enzymes:
4.1 Introduction:
 The substrate refers to the specific molecules that enzyme acts upon during a chemical
reaction.
 The active site is the region of an enzyme where substrate binds and undergoes a chemical
reaction. The active site of an enzyme is highly specific, meaning it binds to a particular
substrate and catalyze a specific reaction.
 Products are the molecules formed as a result of the chemical reaction of the substrate
within the active site of the enzyme.

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4. Enzymes:
Glucose Oxidase:
Glucose oxidase is an enzyme that catalyzes the oxidation of glucose to produce gluconic acid
and hydrogen peroxide.
 Glucose oxidase is naturally found in certain organisms, primarily in fungi and bacteria.
Blood Glucose monitoring systems:
 Glucose oxidase based tests are commonly used by people with Diabetes to monitor their
blood glucose levels.
 The enzyme reacts with the glucose in blood sample, producing hydrogen peroxide which is
then detected by a color change or other indicator.
 At a positive potential, hydrogen peroxide can be oxidized, producing oxygen gas and
releasing electrons.
 The resulting current is proportional to the concentration of hydrogen peroxide in the
sample.

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4. Enzymes:
4.2 Glucose Oxidase in a Biosensor:
Glucose Amperometric Biosensor: is a device that measures the concentration of glucose in a
blood sample using an amperometric (current-based) method.
 Test Strip: The glucometer uses disposable test strip that contains a small amount of glucose
oxidase. The enzyme reacts with glucose in the blood sample.
 Blood Sample: A small drop of blood is obtained by pricking the skin with a lancet. The
blood sample is then applied to the test strip, which has small electrodes embedded in it.
 Enzymatic Reaction: The glucose in the blood sample reacts with the enzyme on the test
strip. This reaction produces hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and gluconic acid.
 Current Measurement: The amperometric sensor in the glucometer measures the electrical
current generated by the oxidation of H2O2 at the electrode surface. The presence of
glucose in the blood sample is directly proportional to the current generated.
 Signal Processing: The electrical current signal is amplified and processed by the
glucometer's circuitry. The device converts the current into a glucose reading, typically
displayed in milligrams per deciliter (mg/dL) or millimoles per liter (mmol/L) on a screen.
 Display: The glucose measurement is shown on the display of the glucometer.

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4. Enzymes:
4.2 Glucose Oxidase in a Biosensor (Contd..):
Glucose Amperometric Biosensor or Glucometer (Contd..):

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4. Enzymes:
4.3 Lignolytic Enzymes in Bio-bleaching:
Lignolytic enzymes: are a group of enzymes that have the ability to degrade lignin.
 Lignin is a complex polymer that is a major component of the cell walls of plants. It is
responsible for the yellowish color of the paper and it needs to be removed during bleaching
process to produce high quality white paper.
 Lignin is a complex and highly resistant polymer found in plant cell walls, and its
degradation is essential for the recycling of carbon in forest ecosystems.
 Lignolytic enzymes are produced by certain microorganisms, mainly fungi and bacteria that
have the ability to break down lignin. They are involved in the decay of wood debris.
Types of Lignolytic enzymes:
1. Laccases: are copper-containing enzymes that catalyze the oxidation of phenolic
compounds, which are the major components of lignin.
2. Peroxidases: are enzymes that require hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) as a co-substrate to break
down lignin.
3. Manganese peroxidases: are enzymes that require manganese ions for their activity and
are capable of oxidizing both lignin and aromatic compounds.

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Dept. of EIE, RNSIT
4. Enzymes:
Biobleaching: refers to the process of using biological agents or environmentally friendly
methods to whiten materials, particularly fibers such as paper, textiles, and pulp.
 In biobleaching, enzymes are employed to break down the lignin and other pigments
present in the materials, resulting in a brighter and whiter appearance.
 It is an alternative to traditional chemical bleaching methods, which often involve the use of
chlorine-based compounds that can be harmful to the environment.
 Biobleaching with lignolytic enzymes offer several advantages over conventional bleaching
techniques. They are more environmentally friendly because they reduce or eliminate the
use of toxic chemicals, reduce water pollution, require less energy and improved paper
quality.
 As a result, lignolytic enzymes have the potential to revolutionize the paper industry by
providing a more sustainable and cost effective approach to paper production.

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Dept. of EIE, RNSIT
4. Enzymes:
Biobleaching (Contd..):
Lignolytic enzymes particularly laccases and
peroxidases are able to catalyze the oxidation
of lignin leading to the breakdown of lignin
into smaller more soluble compounds that can
be removed from the pulp.
Lignin degradation by Lignolytic enzymes

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5. Nucleic acids:
5.1 Introduction:
 Nucleic acids are biopolymers essential to all known forms of life.
 They play a crucial role in the storage and transmission of genetic information within
In all living organisms.
 Nucleic acids are polynucleotides – they are long complex macromolecules composed of
smaller units called nucleotides.
 Nucleotides are organic molecules composed of three main components: a
nitrogenous base (or nucleobase), a five-carbon sugar, and a phosphate group.
Types of Nucleic acids:
Nucleic acids
DNA
Deoxyribose
Nucleic acid
RNA
Ribose Nucleic
acid
Nucleotide

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5. Nucleic acids:
Deoxyribose nucleic acid (DNA):
 DNA carries genetic instructions for the development,
functioning, growth and reproduction of all living
organisms.
 DNA is a polymer composed of two polynucleotide
strands that are coiled together to form a double helix.
 Each nucleotide in DNA is composed of one of four
nitrogen containing nucleobases (cytosine [C],
guanine [G], adenine [A] or thymine [T]), a sugar
called deoxyribose, and a phosphate group.
 Each strand in DNA is composed of a sugar-phosphate
backbone and the bases extend from the backbone and
pair with their complementary bases in the opposite
DNA strand.
 Base pair : A with T, C with G

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5. Nucleic acids:
Ribose nucleic acid (RNA):
 RNA functions in converting genetic information from
genes of DNA into the amino acid sequences of proteins.
 RNA is a polymer assembled as a chain of nucleotides,
but unlike DNA, RNA is single strand rather than a
paired double strand.
 Each nucleotide in RNA is composed of one of four
Nitrogen containing nucleobases (cytosine [C],
guanine [G], adenine [A] or uracil [U]), a sugar
called ribose, and a phosphate group.
 Base pair: A with U and C with G
 RNA is synthesized from DNA on an as-needed basis.
Types of RNA:
i) mRNA, ii) tRNA, iii) rRNA

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5. Nucleic acids:
Vaccine is a biological preparation that is used to stimulate the body's immune response to
provide protection against specific infectious diseases.
 A vaccine contains an antigens, which are parts of the pathogen that trigger an immune
response.
 When a vaccine is administered, the antigens in the vaccine mimic the presence of the
actual pathogen without causing the disease itself.
 The immune system recognizes these antigens as foreign substances and mounts a
response to eliminate them.
 β cells of the immune system produce specialized proteins called antibodies that
specifically target and neutralize the antigens.
 Additionally, immune cells such as T-cells are activated to identify and destroy cells
infected with the pathogen.
 After the initial exposure to the vaccine, the immune system "learns" from this
encounter. It remembers the pathogen's antigens so that if the person is exposed to the
actual pathogen later, their immune system can mount a faster and effective response.

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5. Nucleic acids:
Nucleic acid Vaccines: Nucleic acid vaccines utilize genetic material from a disease causing
virus or bacterium to trigger an immune response against it.
 DNA vaccines – E.g: DNA vaccine for Rabies
 RNA vaccines – E.g.: RNA vaccine for COVID 19

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5. Nucleic acids:
5.2 DNA vaccine for Rabies:
Rabies: Rabies is a viral disease that affects the central nervous
system of mammals, including humans.
 It is caused by the rabies virus, which is usually transmitted
through the bite or scratch of an infected animal.
 Saliva from an infected animal can also transmit rabies if the
saliva comes into contact with the eyes, mouth, or nose.
DNA vaccine: is a type of vaccine that transfects a specific
antigen-coding DNA sequence into the cells of an organism as a
mechanism to induce an immune response against the specific
pathogen.
DNA vaccine uses a small piece of DNA that encodes for a specific antigen. Antigen is a
protein found on the surface of the virus. When the DNA vaccine is injected into the body,
the cells take up the DNA and use it to produce the antigen, which then triggers the immune
response.
Rabies Virus

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5. Nucleic acids:
5.2 DNA vaccine for Rabies (Contd..):
Plasmid: is a small, extrachromosomal DNA molecule within a
cell of bacteria that is physically separated from chromosomal
DNA and can replicate independently.
DNA vaccine development:
 Antigen Selection: Identify the antigens from
the pathogen (rabies virus) that will elicit an
immune response. The identified antigen is
called vaccine construct.
 DNA Plasmid Design: A plasmid is engineered
to carry the vaccine construct.
 Plasmid Production: The DNA plasmid carrying
the desired genes is produced in large
quantities using bacterial or yeast cell cultures.

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5. Nucleic acids:
DNA vaccine development (Contd..):
 Vaccine Administration: The DNA vaccine is
typically delivered through injection, usually
into the muscle cells of the individual.
 Uptake by Cells: Once inside the cells, the DNA
plasmid is taken up by the cell nucleus.
 Gene expression: The DNA is released inside
the nucleus. The host cell's own machinery
reads the DNA sequence and produces the
antigens encoded by the vaccine construct.
 Antigen Presentation: The antigens produced
by the host cells are displayed on their surface,
which enables the immune system to recognize
them as foreign.

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5. Nucleic acids:
DNA vaccine development (Contd..):
 Immune Response Activation: The
presentation of antigens triggers an immune
response. β cells are stimulated to produce
antibodies that can bind to and neutralize the
pathogen, while T cells activate β cells to
produce more antibodies and remove infected
cells.
 Immune Memory: If the vaccinated individual
encounters the pathogen in the future, the
immune system can quickly recognize and
mount a strong and rapid response to
eliminate the threat.

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5. Nucleic acids:
5.3 RNA vaccine for Covid-19
Corona Virus: COVID-19 is a contagious disease caused by the virus severe acute
respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2).
 COVID-19 transmits when infectious particles are
breathed in or come into contact with the eyes, nose,
or mouth.
 The risk is highest when people are in close proximity.
RNA vaccine: is a type of vaccine that uses a small piece of
the virus's genetic material, (specifically the messenger
RNA or mRNA) to trigger an immune response against a
specific pathogen.
mRNA: is a type of RNA that plays a crucial role in the
process of protein synthesis in cells.

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5. Nucleic acids:
5.3 RNA vaccine for Covid-19 (Contd..)
mRNA vaccine development:
 mRNA synthesis: The spike protein on the surface of the SARS-CoV-2 virus is the target
antigen for the vaccine. Scientists generate the mRNA sequence encoding the spike
protein. This mRNA carries the instructions for the synthesis of the spike protein.
 Lipid encapsulation: The synthesized mRNA is
encapsulated in lipid nanoparticles to protect
it and facilitate its delivery into cells. These
lipid nanoparticles help the mRNA cross the
cell membrane.
 Vaccine administration: The mRNA vaccines
are administered via injection into the muscle
tissue, typically in the arm. Once injected, the
lipid-coated mRNA particles are taken up by
cells at the injection site.

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5. Nucleic acids:
mRNA vaccine development (Contd..):
 Uptake by cells: Once inside the cells, the lipid nanoparticles release the mRNA. The
cells recognize the mRNA as instructions to produce the spike protein.
 Spike protein synthesis: The ribosomes in the
cells read the mRNA and use it as a template
to produce the spike protein. These proteins
are identical or very similar to the spike
proteins found on the surface of the SARS-
CoV-2 virus.
 Antigen presentation: The newly synthesized
spike proteins are displayed on the surface of
the vaccinated cells. This presentation serves
as a signal for the immune system to
recognize the spike protein as foreign.

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5. Nucleic acids:
mRNA vaccine development (Contd..):
 Immune response activation: The presence of
the spike protein on the cell surface activates
the immune system. Specialized immune cells,
such as β cells and T cells, recognize the spike
protein as an invader.
 Antibody production: β cells are activated to
produce specific antibodies that bind to the
spike protein. These antibodies help neutralize
the virus and prevent it from infecting healthy
human cells. T cells help eliminate infected
cells.
 Immune memory: The immune system
"remembers" the spike protein and maintains
a memory of how to respond to it in the
future.

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5. Nucleic acids:
5.4 DNA fingerprinting in forensic:
DNA fingerprinting: also known as DNA profiling or genetic fingerprinting, is a forensic
technique used to identify individuals by analyzing their unique DNA profiles.
 The unique characteristics of an individual's DNA are the basis for DNA fingerprinting.
 The DNA sequence is highly specific to each individual.
 DNA printing has become an important tool in criminal investigations.
 DNA printing is highly accurate and can be used to link suspects to crimes, exonerate
innocent individuals and to identify victims of crime.
 DNA printing is also used in paternity testing and medical diagnosis.
Process of DNA finger printing:
 Sample collection: A sample containing DNA is collected from the individual or the crime
scene. This can be done using various sources such as blood, saliva, hair, semen, or tissue.
 DNA extraction: The DNA is extracted from the collected sample using chemical and
mechanical methods. This step separates the DNA from other components of the cell.

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5. Nucleic acids:
5.4 DNA fingerprinting in forensic (Contd..):
Process of DNA finger printing (Contd..):
 Gel electrophoresis: The amplified DNA is then
subjected to a technique called gel
electrophoresis. In this step, the DNA fragments
are separated based on their size and
electrical charge by applying an electric current
through a gel matrix. The result is a distinctive
pattern of DNA bands, which forms the DNA
fingerprint.
 Analysis: The resulting DNA pattern is unique
to each individual. The DNA fingerprint is then
analyzed by comparing the banding patterns
between different samples or potential suspects.
Amplified DNA separated bands
 Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR): The PCR technique is used to amplify specific regions
of the DNA. This process makes millions of copies of the DNA segment of interest,
increasing its number for analysis.

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