The document discusses theodolite traversing and defines key terms related to using a transit theodolite. It describes the main components of a transit theodolite including the telescope, vertical circle, plate bubbles, tribrach, and foot screws. It explains how to perform temporary adjustments like centering the theodolite over a station mark and leveling it using the tripod and foot screws. It also provides details on measuring horizontal and vertical angles with a vernier theodolite.
Theodolite traversing, purpose and principles of theodolite traversingDolat Ram
The document discusses theodolite traversing, which is a surveying method that uses a theodolite to measure angles and a chain or tape to measure distances between control points called traverse stations.
The theodolite is used to measure horizontal and vertical angles, and there are two main types - optical and electronic digital theodolites. The chain or tape is used to measure distances between traverse stations.
A traverse consists of straight lines connecting traverse stations, with known lengths and angles defined by theodolite measurements. Traverses can be open or closed loops. Theodolite traversing is used for area computation, surveying, data reduction, and indirect measurement of elevations, distances, and
This document provides information about tacheometry, which is a method of surveying that determines horizontal and vertical distances from instrumental observations. It discusses how tacheometry can be used when obstacles make traditional surveying difficult. The key aspects covered include:
- Defining tacheometry and the measurements it provides
- When tacheometry is advantageous over other surveying methods
- The instruments used, including tacheometers and levelling rods
- How horizontal and vertical distances are calculated using constants
- The different types of tacheometer diaphragms and telescopes
- The fixed hair method for taking readings
The document provides information about theodolites. It begins with an introduction stating that a theodolite is used to measure horizontal and vertical angles more precisely than a magnetic compass. It then discusses the main parts of a theodolite including the horizontal circle, vertical circle, telescope, and levels. The document also covers the history of theodolites from their early origins to modern electronic versions. It describes how to operate a transit vernier theodolite including terms like centering, transiting, swinging the telescope, and changing face. Finally, it discusses the permanent and temporary adjustments needed to ensure accurate theodolite measurements.
This document discusses the use of a theodolite for surveying. It begins by explaining that a theodolite is needed to precisely measure horizontal and vertical angles, unlike a compass. It then defines theodolite surveying as surveying that measures angles using a theodolite. The document goes on to classify theodolites based on their horizontal axis and method of angle measurement. It describes the basic parts of a transit vernier theodolite and explains terms used in manipulating one. Finally, it discusses methods for measuring horizontal angles, including the general, repetition, and reiteration methods.
This document discusses contouring and contour maps. It defines a contour line as a line connecting points of equal elevation. The vertical distance between consecutive contours is called the contour interval, which depends on factors like the nature of the ground and the map scale. Contour maps show the topography of an area and can be used for engineering projects, route selection, and estimating earthworks. Methods of plotting contours include direct methods using levels or hand levels, and indirect methods like gridding, cross-sectioning, and radial lines. Characteristics of contours provide information about the landscape.
1. Levelling is used to determine the relative heights of points and establish a common datum. It involves using a level instrument and staff to obtain precise elevation readings.
2. Key terms include benchmarks, backsight, foresight, and intermediate sight readings. Common level instruments are the dumpy level, tilting level, wye level, and automatic level.
3. Levelling methods include simple, differential, fly, check, profile, cross, and reciprocal levelling used for different applications such as construction works. Precise setup and focusing of the instrument are required before taking readings.
The document provides information about theodolite surveying including:
1. A theodolite is an instrument used to measure horizontal and vertical angles which can also be used to prolong lines, measure distances indirectly, and for leveling.
2. Theodolite traversing involves establishing control points by measuring angles and distances between traverse stations to calculate positions.
3. Components of a theodolite include a telescope that can rotate vertically and a compass to determine direction, along with accessories like a tripod, rods, and tapes used in surveying.
1. Levelling is used to determine relative heights and elevations of points and establish points at required elevations. It involves using instruments like levels and staffs.
2. There are different types of levels (dumpy, tilting, wye, automatic) and staffs (self-reading, target). Precise levelling is done to establish permanent benchmarks.
3. Adjustments must be made to level instruments during setup and permanently. Methods like differential, profile and cross levelling are used depending on the task. Reciprocal levelling involves backsight-foresight exchange to check for errors.
Theodolite traversing, purpose and principles of theodolite traversingDolat Ram
The document discusses theodolite traversing, which is a surveying method that uses a theodolite to measure angles and a chain or tape to measure distances between control points called traverse stations.
The theodolite is used to measure horizontal and vertical angles, and there are two main types - optical and electronic digital theodolites. The chain or tape is used to measure distances between traverse stations.
A traverse consists of straight lines connecting traverse stations, with known lengths and angles defined by theodolite measurements. Traverses can be open or closed loops. Theodolite traversing is used for area computation, surveying, data reduction, and indirect measurement of elevations, distances, and
This document provides information about tacheometry, which is a method of surveying that determines horizontal and vertical distances from instrumental observations. It discusses how tacheometry can be used when obstacles make traditional surveying difficult. The key aspects covered include:
- Defining tacheometry and the measurements it provides
- When tacheometry is advantageous over other surveying methods
- The instruments used, including tacheometers and levelling rods
- How horizontal and vertical distances are calculated using constants
- The different types of tacheometer diaphragms and telescopes
- The fixed hair method for taking readings
The document provides information about theodolites. It begins with an introduction stating that a theodolite is used to measure horizontal and vertical angles more precisely than a magnetic compass. It then discusses the main parts of a theodolite including the horizontal circle, vertical circle, telescope, and levels. The document also covers the history of theodolites from their early origins to modern electronic versions. It describes how to operate a transit vernier theodolite including terms like centering, transiting, swinging the telescope, and changing face. Finally, it discusses the permanent and temporary adjustments needed to ensure accurate theodolite measurements.
This document discusses the use of a theodolite for surveying. It begins by explaining that a theodolite is needed to precisely measure horizontal and vertical angles, unlike a compass. It then defines theodolite surveying as surveying that measures angles using a theodolite. The document goes on to classify theodolites based on their horizontal axis and method of angle measurement. It describes the basic parts of a transit vernier theodolite and explains terms used in manipulating one. Finally, it discusses methods for measuring horizontal angles, including the general, repetition, and reiteration methods.
This document discusses contouring and contour maps. It defines a contour line as a line connecting points of equal elevation. The vertical distance between consecutive contours is called the contour interval, which depends on factors like the nature of the ground and the map scale. Contour maps show the topography of an area and can be used for engineering projects, route selection, and estimating earthworks. Methods of plotting contours include direct methods using levels or hand levels, and indirect methods like gridding, cross-sectioning, and radial lines. Characteristics of contours provide information about the landscape.
1. Levelling is used to determine the relative heights of points and establish a common datum. It involves using a level instrument and staff to obtain precise elevation readings.
2. Key terms include benchmarks, backsight, foresight, and intermediate sight readings. Common level instruments are the dumpy level, tilting level, wye level, and automatic level.
3. Levelling methods include simple, differential, fly, check, profile, cross, and reciprocal levelling used for different applications such as construction works. Precise setup and focusing of the instrument are required before taking readings.
The document provides information about theodolite surveying including:
1. A theodolite is an instrument used to measure horizontal and vertical angles which can also be used to prolong lines, measure distances indirectly, and for leveling.
2. Theodolite traversing involves establishing control points by measuring angles and distances between traverse stations to calculate positions.
3. Components of a theodolite include a telescope that can rotate vertically and a compass to determine direction, along with accessories like a tripod, rods, and tapes used in surveying.
1. Levelling is used to determine relative heights and elevations of points and establish points at required elevations. It involves using instruments like levels and staffs.
2. There are different types of levels (dumpy, tilting, wye, automatic) and staffs (self-reading, target). Precise levelling is done to establish permanent benchmarks.
3. Adjustments must be made to level instruments during setup and permanently. Methods like differential, profile and cross levelling are used depending on the task. Reciprocal levelling involves backsight-foresight exchange to check for errors.
1. The document provides information on theodolite traversing and describes the parts and functions of a transit vernier theodolite. It discusses how to set up the theodolite over a station and level it up, which are important temporary adjustments.
2. The theodolite is used to measure horizontal and vertical angles precisely and for various surveying applications. It has parts like the telescope, vertical circle, standards, and upper and lower plates.
3. Proper temporary adjustments of the theodolite include setting it up over a station point using a plumb bob, and then leveling the instrument using plate levels and levelling screws.
Tacheometric surveying is a method of surveying that determines horizontal and vertical distances optically rather than through direct measurement with a tape or chain. It uses an instrument called a tacheometer fitted with a stadia diaphragm to rapidly measure distances. The key principles are that the ratio of perpendicular to base is constant in similar triangles, allowing horizontal distance and elevation to be calculated from observed angles and staff intercept readings. Common tacheometric systems include fixed hair stadia, subtense stadia, and tangential methods. Distance and elevation formulas are derived for horizontal, inclined, and depressed line of sights depending on staff orientation. Tacheometric surveying is well-suited for difficult terrain where direct measurement is challenging
This document provides an overview of a total station, including its key components and functions. A total station is an electronic surveying instrument that combines an electronic distance meter and theodolite to measure horizontal and vertical angles and distances. It allows simultaneous measurement of all surveying parameters needed for construction layout and topographic surveys. The total station's main components include an electronic distance measurement system, angle measurement circles, telescope, microprocessor, keyboard, and display. Accessories such as prisms, data collectors, and software enable various surveying tasks.
1) Levelling is the process of determining the relative elevations of points on or near the earth's surface. It is important for engineering projects to determine elevations along alignments.
2) Levelling is used to prepare contour maps, determine altitudes, and create longitudinal and cross sections needed for projects.
3) Key terms include bench mark, datum, reduced level, line of collimation, and height of instrument. Different types of levelling include simple, differential, fly, longitudinal, and cross-sectional levelling.
Tacheometry is a surveying method that uses optical instruments like a theodolite fitted with a stadia diaphragm to measure horizontal and vertical distances between points. It works on the principle that the ratio of distance from the instrument to the base of an isosceles triangle and the length of the base is constant. Distances are calculated using stadia intercept readings and multiplying constants based on the focal length of the instrument's objective lens. Tacheometry offers faster measurement compared to traditional chaining and is useful for surveys in difficult terrain like rivers, valleys, or undulating ground where conventional surveying would be inaccurate or slow.
Curves are used in transportation routes to gradually change direction between straight segments. There are several types of curves including simple, compound, reverse, and transition curves. A simple circular curve connects two tangents with a single arc, and is defined by its radius or degree. Transition curves provide a gradual transition between tangents and circular curves to avoid abrupt changes in grade or superelevation that could cause vehicles to overturn. There are several methods for laying out circular curves, including using offset distances from the long chord between tangent points or measuring deflection angles from the initial tangent.
Tacheometric surveying uses a tacheometer to determine horizontal and vertical distances through angular measurements. A tacheometer is a theodolite fitted with stadia hairs and an anallatic lens. The tacheometric formula relates the staff intercept, focal length, stadia interval and additive constant to calculate horizontal distances. Methods include stadia, fixed/movable hair, and non-stadia techniques. Determining the tacheometer constant involves measuring distances and staff intervals at stations to solve equations. Errors arise from incorrect stadia intervals or graduations. Tacheometric surveying provides distances in rough terrain but with less precision than other methods.
This document summarizes methods for setting out simple circular curves based on linear and angular methods. The linear methods discussed are by offsets from the long chord, successive bisection of arcs, offsets from tangents, and offsets from chords produced. The angular methods discussed are Rankine's method of tangential angles, the two theodolite method, and the tacheometric method. Each method is briefly described in one or two sentences.
Metric Chain : It Consists of galvanized mild steel wire of 4mm diameter known as link.
It is available in 20m, 30m, 50m length which consists of 100 links.
Gunter’s Chain : A 66 feet long chain consists of 100 links, each of 0.66 feet, it is known as Gunter’s chain.
This chain is suitable for taking length in miles.
Engineer’s Chain : A 100 feet long chain consisting of 100 links each of 1 feet is known as engineer’s chain.
This chain is used to measure length in feet and area in sq.yard.
Revenue Chain : it is 33 feet long chain consisting of 16 links.
This chain is used for distance measurements in feet & inches for smaller areas.
Definition of Surveying
Objects of Surveying
Uses of Surveying
Primary Divisions of Surveying
Principles of Surveying
List of Classification of Surveying
Definitions : Plan and Map, scales :Plain Scale and Diagonal Scale,
This document describes various surveying methods including chain surveying. Chain surveying involves measuring lengths of lines marked in the field using tapes and measuring details using offsets and ties from these base lines. The field work involves selecting a framework of base lines and control points, measuring line lengths directly and setting right angles using offsets, determining bearings with a compass, booking measurements, and plotting the survey to produce a detailed map. The objectives are to train students on linear measurement, setting offsets, measuring bearings, booking, and plotting. Apparatus includes tapes, ranging rods, paint, square, compass, and booking board.
This document discusses different methods for balancing a closed traverse survey by distributing corrections to station coordinates. It provides examples of using Bowditch's Rule, the Transit Rule, and the Third Rule to balance a sample traverse with given length, latitude, and departure coordinates. Bowditch's Rule distributes corrections proportionally to leg lengths, while the Transit Rule uses angular precision assumptions and the Third Rule separates corrections between northings/southings and eastings/westings.
This document discusses methods for setting out simple circular curves in surveying. There are two main methods: linear and angular.
The linear method uses only a tape or chain and does not require angle measurement. It includes setting out curves by offsets from the long chord, by successive bisection of arcs, and by offsets from the tangents.
The angular method is used for longer curves and involves measuring deflection angles. It includes Rankine's method of tangential angles using a tape and theodolite to measure deflection angles from the back tangent to points on the curve. The two theodolite method also uses angle measurement between two theodolites.
Compass surveying involves measuring directions of survey lines using a magnetic compass and measuring lengths using a chain or tape. It is used when the area is large, undulating and has many details. In compass surveying, a series of connected lines are established through traversing. The magnetic bearing of each line is measured using a prismatic compass or surveyor's compass, and the distance is measured using a chain. Compass surveying is recommended for large and undulating areas without suspected magnetic interference. The key principles are measuring bearings using a compass and distances using a chain to establish connected lines through traversing without requiring triangulation.
The document provides information on plane table surveying. It describes plane table surveying as a graphical surveying method where field observations and plotting are done simultaneously. Key instruments used include a plane table mounted on a tripod, an alidade, and accessories like a trough compass and spirit level. There are different methods of plane table surveying, including radiation, intersection, and resection, which involve drawing radial lines from survey stations to locate points.
The document defines levelling as determining the relative heights of points. It discusses the principle of obtaining a horizontal line of sight and objectives of finding point elevations and establishing points at required elevations. Different types of levels, staffs, benchmarks, and adjustments are described. Various levelling classifications are defined including simple, differential, profile, check, reciprocal and precise levelling. The key principle of levelling is to obtain a horizontal line of sight to measure staff readings and determine reduced levels of points.
Chapter 6 area & volume measurement, Digital PlanimeterAbhay Abhale
This document discusses the components, uses, and measurement process of a digital planimeter. It describes the main components of a digital planimeter which include a roller, tracing arm, tracing magnifier, tracing point, and function keys. It then explains the various function keys and their purposes. Finally, it outlines the step-by-step process for measuring the area of a shape using a digital planimeter, which involves selecting a scale, marking a starting point, tracing the outline while holding the tracing point, and reading the area measurement from the display.
This document provides an overview of surveying concepts and techniques. It discusses:
1) The definitions, classifications, instruments, and methods used in surveying like chain surveying, compass surveying, plane table surveying, and total station surveying.
2) The objectives of surveying which include preparing maps, plans and transferring details to mark locations on the ground for engineering projects.
3) The primary divisions of surveying into plain surveying which ignores curvature of the earth, and geodetic surveying which accounts for curvature over large areas.
4) Fundamental surveying principles like working from the whole to parts, and locating new points using two measurements from fixed references.
This document discusses standby power, also called vampire power, which refers to the electricity consumed by electronic devices and appliances even when they are switched off or in standby mode. It notes that standby power consumption adds to household energy costs over time and can amount to 8-10% of total residential electricity use. The document outlines efforts like the One Watt Initiative to limit standby power consumption to 1 watt or less through efficiency standards and regulations.
1. The document provides information on theodolite traversing and describes the parts and functions of a transit vernier theodolite. It discusses how to set up the theodolite over a station and level it up, which are important temporary adjustments.
2. The theodolite is used to measure horizontal and vertical angles precisely and for various surveying applications. It has parts like the telescope, vertical circle, standards, and upper and lower plates.
3. Proper temporary adjustments of the theodolite include setting it up over a station point using a plumb bob, and then leveling the instrument using plate levels and levelling screws.
Tacheometric surveying is a method of surveying that determines horizontal and vertical distances optically rather than through direct measurement with a tape or chain. It uses an instrument called a tacheometer fitted with a stadia diaphragm to rapidly measure distances. The key principles are that the ratio of perpendicular to base is constant in similar triangles, allowing horizontal distance and elevation to be calculated from observed angles and staff intercept readings. Common tacheometric systems include fixed hair stadia, subtense stadia, and tangential methods. Distance and elevation formulas are derived for horizontal, inclined, and depressed line of sights depending on staff orientation. Tacheometric surveying is well-suited for difficult terrain where direct measurement is challenging
This document provides an overview of a total station, including its key components and functions. A total station is an electronic surveying instrument that combines an electronic distance meter and theodolite to measure horizontal and vertical angles and distances. It allows simultaneous measurement of all surveying parameters needed for construction layout and topographic surveys. The total station's main components include an electronic distance measurement system, angle measurement circles, telescope, microprocessor, keyboard, and display. Accessories such as prisms, data collectors, and software enable various surveying tasks.
1) Levelling is the process of determining the relative elevations of points on or near the earth's surface. It is important for engineering projects to determine elevations along alignments.
2) Levelling is used to prepare contour maps, determine altitudes, and create longitudinal and cross sections needed for projects.
3) Key terms include bench mark, datum, reduced level, line of collimation, and height of instrument. Different types of levelling include simple, differential, fly, longitudinal, and cross-sectional levelling.
Tacheometry is a surveying method that uses optical instruments like a theodolite fitted with a stadia diaphragm to measure horizontal and vertical distances between points. It works on the principle that the ratio of distance from the instrument to the base of an isosceles triangle and the length of the base is constant. Distances are calculated using stadia intercept readings and multiplying constants based on the focal length of the instrument's objective lens. Tacheometry offers faster measurement compared to traditional chaining and is useful for surveys in difficult terrain like rivers, valleys, or undulating ground where conventional surveying would be inaccurate or slow.
Curves are used in transportation routes to gradually change direction between straight segments. There are several types of curves including simple, compound, reverse, and transition curves. A simple circular curve connects two tangents with a single arc, and is defined by its radius or degree. Transition curves provide a gradual transition between tangents and circular curves to avoid abrupt changes in grade or superelevation that could cause vehicles to overturn. There are several methods for laying out circular curves, including using offset distances from the long chord between tangent points or measuring deflection angles from the initial tangent.
Tacheometric surveying uses a tacheometer to determine horizontal and vertical distances through angular measurements. A tacheometer is a theodolite fitted with stadia hairs and an anallatic lens. The tacheometric formula relates the staff intercept, focal length, stadia interval and additive constant to calculate horizontal distances. Methods include stadia, fixed/movable hair, and non-stadia techniques. Determining the tacheometer constant involves measuring distances and staff intervals at stations to solve equations. Errors arise from incorrect stadia intervals or graduations. Tacheometric surveying provides distances in rough terrain but with less precision than other methods.
This document summarizes methods for setting out simple circular curves based on linear and angular methods. The linear methods discussed are by offsets from the long chord, successive bisection of arcs, offsets from tangents, and offsets from chords produced. The angular methods discussed are Rankine's method of tangential angles, the two theodolite method, and the tacheometric method. Each method is briefly described in one or two sentences.
Metric Chain : It Consists of galvanized mild steel wire of 4mm diameter known as link.
It is available in 20m, 30m, 50m length which consists of 100 links.
Gunter’s Chain : A 66 feet long chain consists of 100 links, each of 0.66 feet, it is known as Gunter’s chain.
This chain is suitable for taking length in miles.
Engineer’s Chain : A 100 feet long chain consisting of 100 links each of 1 feet is known as engineer’s chain.
This chain is used to measure length in feet and area in sq.yard.
Revenue Chain : it is 33 feet long chain consisting of 16 links.
This chain is used for distance measurements in feet & inches for smaller areas.
Definition of Surveying
Objects of Surveying
Uses of Surveying
Primary Divisions of Surveying
Principles of Surveying
List of Classification of Surveying
Definitions : Plan and Map, scales :Plain Scale and Diagonal Scale,
This document describes various surveying methods including chain surveying. Chain surveying involves measuring lengths of lines marked in the field using tapes and measuring details using offsets and ties from these base lines. The field work involves selecting a framework of base lines and control points, measuring line lengths directly and setting right angles using offsets, determining bearings with a compass, booking measurements, and plotting the survey to produce a detailed map. The objectives are to train students on linear measurement, setting offsets, measuring bearings, booking, and plotting. Apparatus includes tapes, ranging rods, paint, square, compass, and booking board.
This document discusses different methods for balancing a closed traverse survey by distributing corrections to station coordinates. It provides examples of using Bowditch's Rule, the Transit Rule, and the Third Rule to balance a sample traverse with given length, latitude, and departure coordinates. Bowditch's Rule distributes corrections proportionally to leg lengths, while the Transit Rule uses angular precision assumptions and the Third Rule separates corrections between northings/southings and eastings/westings.
This document discusses methods for setting out simple circular curves in surveying. There are two main methods: linear and angular.
The linear method uses only a tape or chain and does not require angle measurement. It includes setting out curves by offsets from the long chord, by successive bisection of arcs, and by offsets from the tangents.
The angular method is used for longer curves and involves measuring deflection angles. It includes Rankine's method of tangential angles using a tape and theodolite to measure deflection angles from the back tangent to points on the curve. The two theodolite method also uses angle measurement between two theodolites.
Compass surveying involves measuring directions of survey lines using a magnetic compass and measuring lengths using a chain or tape. It is used when the area is large, undulating and has many details. In compass surveying, a series of connected lines are established through traversing. The magnetic bearing of each line is measured using a prismatic compass or surveyor's compass, and the distance is measured using a chain. Compass surveying is recommended for large and undulating areas without suspected magnetic interference. The key principles are measuring bearings using a compass and distances using a chain to establish connected lines through traversing without requiring triangulation.
The document provides information on plane table surveying. It describes plane table surveying as a graphical surveying method where field observations and plotting are done simultaneously. Key instruments used include a plane table mounted on a tripod, an alidade, and accessories like a trough compass and spirit level. There are different methods of plane table surveying, including radiation, intersection, and resection, which involve drawing radial lines from survey stations to locate points.
The document defines levelling as determining the relative heights of points. It discusses the principle of obtaining a horizontal line of sight and objectives of finding point elevations and establishing points at required elevations. Different types of levels, staffs, benchmarks, and adjustments are described. Various levelling classifications are defined including simple, differential, profile, check, reciprocal and precise levelling. The key principle of levelling is to obtain a horizontal line of sight to measure staff readings and determine reduced levels of points.
Chapter 6 area & volume measurement, Digital PlanimeterAbhay Abhale
This document discusses the components, uses, and measurement process of a digital planimeter. It describes the main components of a digital planimeter which include a roller, tracing arm, tracing magnifier, tracing point, and function keys. It then explains the various function keys and their purposes. Finally, it outlines the step-by-step process for measuring the area of a shape using a digital planimeter, which involves selecting a scale, marking a starting point, tracing the outline while holding the tracing point, and reading the area measurement from the display.
This document provides an overview of surveying concepts and techniques. It discusses:
1) The definitions, classifications, instruments, and methods used in surveying like chain surveying, compass surveying, plane table surveying, and total station surveying.
2) The objectives of surveying which include preparing maps, plans and transferring details to mark locations on the ground for engineering projects.
3) The primary divisions of surveying into plain surveying which ignores curvature of the earth, and geodetic surveying which accounts for curvature over large areas.
4) Fundamental surveying principles like working from the whole to parts, and locating new points using two measurements from fixed references.
This document discusses standby power, also called vampire power, which refers to the electricity consumed by electronic devices and appliances even when they are switched off or in standby mode. It notes that standby power consumption adds to household energy costs over time and can amount to 8-10% of total residential electricity use. The document outlines efforts like the One Watt Initiative to limit standby power consumption to 1 watt or less through efficiency standards and regulations.
This document provides an overview of basic surveying principles and methods:
1) Surveying works from establishing overall control points before measuring details. Control points are established through precise primary networks of triangles or traverses.
2) Secondary control networks further divide the primary network for less precise work. Survey of details then uses the established control points. This minimizes error accumulation.
3) A traverse connects lines whose lengths and directions are measured to establish a framework. Traverses can be open or closed, with closed traverses returning to the starting point.
4) The direction of lines is defined by their bearing from a reference meridian using different systems like true, magnetic, or arbitrary meridians.
Traverse surveying involves using instruments to measure distance and direction to create a network of points. There are two main types of traverses - open and closed. Open traverses extend in one direction while closed traverses form a closed loop. Common surveying instruments and methods used in traverse surveying include chain, compass, theodolite, and plane table. Key terms in traverse surveying include bearings, meridians, and reductions of bearings. Traverse calculations involve adjusting angles or directions to ensure closure of the network of points. Sample problems are provided to demonstrate conversions between whole circle bearings, reduced bearings, and fore and back bearings.
This document discusses trigonometric levelling, which is a method of determining elevation differences between stations using vertical angles and known distances. It presents three cases for determining the elevation of a point using a theodolite: 1) when the base of the object is accessible, 2) when the base is inaccessible and instrument stations are in the same vertical plane, and 3) when the base is inaccessible and instrument stations are not in the same vertical plane. Equations for calculating relative heights are provided for each case using trigonometric functions of the vertical angles and distances between points. Corrections may be needed for long distances to account for earth's curvature and refraction.
This is based on the surveying branch.. which shows 3 cases here.. for civil engineering students .. and as well as also who want to know about what is Trigonometric leveling..
This document outlines the steps to compute the closure, accuracy, and area of a traverse survey. It discusses key terms, sources of error, and a 9-step process to calculate closure, precision ratio, and area using the double meridian distance method. As an example, it works through the calculations for a 5-sided closed traverse, determining the closure is 0.49 feet, precision ratio is 1:4200, and total area is 6.126 acres.
1. The document presents information from a slideshow on tacheometric surveying. It discusses various methods of tacheometric surveying including fixed hair, movable hair, tangential, and subtense bar methods.
2. Formulas are provided for calculating horizontal distance, vertical distance, and elevation of points using these different tacheometric surveying methods under various sighting conditions such as inclined or depressed lines of sight.
3. The document also discusses tacheometric constants, anallatic lenses, and procedures for conducting field work in a tacheometric survey including selecting instrument stations, taking observations of vertical angles and staff readings, and shifting to subsequent stations.
This document discusses town planning and industries in India. It covers several topics:
1. India has seen rapid industrial development across many sectors since independence, though unplanned growth has negatively impacted communities. Proper zoning and restrictions are needed for balanced development.
2. An industrial survey can reveal factors influencing where industries locate, such as proximity to large towns, power, water, and transport. Site selection for industries is important.
3. Industries have various requirements like land, waste disposal, markets, labor, and transportation. Industries are also classified based on their dependence on circumstances and what they produce.
4. Concentration of industries has advantages like coordination and efficiency, but also disadvantages like increased risks of economic
Introduction, definitions, the Vernier transit theodolite, temporary and permanent adjustment of theodolite, measuring horizontal and vertical angles, methods of traversing, closing error, computation of latitudes and departure, check in closed and open traverse, balancing of traverse, Gale’s table.
This document provides an introduction to theodolite traversing and surveying. It defines a theodolite as a telescopic instrument used to measure horizontal and vertical angles with high precision. It describes the main types of theodolites as transit and non-transit theodolites, as well as vernier and micrometer theodolites. The document also defines various surveying terms related to theodolites and their use such as centering, transiting, face left/right, and line of collimation. Finally, it outlines the basic process for temporarily adjusting a theodolite in the field, including leveling, centering, and focusing the telescope.
The document discusses theodolite surveying and the use of a theodolite to measure horizontal and vertical angles more precisely than a compass. It defines theodolite surveying as surveying that measures angles using a theodolite. It also describes the basic parts and functions of a transit vernier theodolite, how to manipulate it, adjustments that need to be made, and methods for measuring horizontal angles.
Mass diagram and its characeristics .pptNITINSURESH30
The document discusses the use of a theodolite for surveying. It describes the main parts of a theodolite including the levelling head, horizontal and vertical circles, telescope, plate levels, and clamps. It also defines important terms used when manipulating a transit vernier theodolite such as centering, transiting, swinging the telescope, and changing face. The theodolite is used to measure horizontal and vertical angles which is important for tasks like setting out grades, locating points, and tacheometric surveying.
Surveying ppt : COMPONENETS OF TRANSIT THEODOLITESukhvinder Singh
The document describes the main components of a transit theodolite. It lists 12 key components: 1) trivet, 2) foot screws, 3) tri branch, 4) leveling head, 5) spindles, 6) lower plate, 7) upper plate, 8) A frame, 9) T frame, 10) altitude bubble, 11) compass, and 12) tripod. The lower plate measures horizontal angles with graduations from 0 to 360 degrees. The upper plate has two verniers used to read fractions of degrees on the lower plate. The tripod supports the theodolite during field use.
The document discusses various surveying techniques including trigonometric leveling, tacheometry, aerial photogrammetry, and curve surveying. It provides definitions and procedures for measuring horizontal and vertical angles using a theodolite. It also describes adjusting theodolites, focusing the eyepiece, and leveling the instrument. Tacheometry is introduced as a method to determine horizontal and vertical distances through angular observations. Applications of aerial photography for engineering projects are outlined. Finally, it covers setting out simple and compound curves, as well as transition curves.
The document provides information about the basics of using a theodolite for angle measurements in surveying. It defines key terms like angle, vertex, and degrees. It describes the main components of a theodolite including the telescope, horizontal and vertical axes, plate bubbles, and screws. It explains how to perform temporary adjustments and measure both horizontal and vertical angles using methods like ordinary, repetition, and reiteration. Precise angle measurements are important for surveying applications like setting grades, ranging curves, and tachometric surveys.
The document discusses theodolite surveying. It defines theodolite surveying as surveying that measures angles using a theodolite instrument. It describes the main components of a theodolite including the trivet, lower plate, upper plate, telescope, and vertical and horizontal circles. It explains the different types of theodolites based on their method of measuring angles, such as vernier theodolites and micrometer theodolites. It also outlines the common uses and procedures for taking measurements with a theodolite.
The document discusses the theodolite, an instrument used to measure horizontal and vertical angles. It has three main assemblies - the levelling head, horizontal circle, and telescope. The main parts include the horizontal and vertical circles, verniers, clamps and screws. It describes how to measure horizontal and vertical angles using the theodolite. Sources of error and methods to balance a traverse are also outlined.
The theodolite is a precise instrument used to measure horizontal and vertical angles. It has greater accuracy than a magnetic compass, able to measure angles to within 10-20 seconds. The main components are a horizontal circle to measure horizontal angles, a telescope that can rotate vertically and horizontally, and spirit levels. Measurements involve setting the instrument over points and using the horizontal and vertical circles to measure angles to other points using techniques like repetition or reiteration. The theodolite is used for tasks like traversing, measuring deflection angles, and computing latitude and departure distances.
This document describes the components and use of a vernier theodolite surveying instrument. It discusses the main parts including the horizontal and vertical circles, telescope, and levels. It explains how to measure horizontal and vertical angles, compute latitudes and departures, and adjust a traverse using Bowditch's rule. The document also discusses sources of errors and provides an example problem to calculate latitudes, departures, and closing error for a traverse.
This document provides an overview of theodolites and their use in surveying. It discusses how theodolites are used to measure both horizontal and vertical angles. A theodolite is an instrument designed specifically for angular measurement and is one of the most versatile survey equipment. Modern theodolites can measure angles to within 0.1 seconds of arc. The document describes the basic components of an optical theodolite, including the tribrach, horizontal and vertical circles, telescope, and methods for setting up and using a theodolite to obtain angle measurements.
Unit No 2 Theodolite Surveying and Traversing.pptxADCET, Ashta
1. The document discusses theodolite surveying, which is a method of surveying that uses a theodolite to measure horizontal and vertical angles.
2. A theodolite can be classified based on its horizontal axis as either a transit or non-transit theodolite, and based on how it reads angles as a vernier, micrometer, or electronic digital theodolite.
3. Common steps in using a transit vernier theodolite include setting it up over a station point, leveling it, and measuring horizontal and vertical angles through methods such as general, repetition, and reiteration.
This document discusses the use of a theodolite for surveying. It begins by explaining that a theodolite is needed to precisely measure horizontal and vertical angles, unlike a compass. It then defines theodolite surveying as surveying that measures angles using a theodolite. The document goes on to classify theodolites based on their horizontal axis and method of reading angles. It describes the basic parts of a transit vernier theodolite and explains terms used in manipulating one. Finally, it discusses methods for measuring horizontal angles, including the general, repetition, and reiteration methods.
this is a surveying practicals work book in which different practicals are described with tables and graphs which are performed during a course of bachelors of civil engineering
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2. Syllabus
Theodolite Surveying:
• Objective, various parts of transit theodolite, technical
terms, temporary and permanent adjustments of a
transit, measuring horizontal and vertical angles,
methods of repetition and reiteration, computation of
latitude and departure, balancing of traverse by BowDitch‟s transit rule, third rule and modified transit
rules, missing data problems, Precautions in using
theodolite, errors in theodolite survey, use of latitude
and departure for area calculation, Gales traverse
table.
3. Introduction
• The theodolite is an intricate instrument used
mainly for accurate measurement of horizontal
and vertical angle up to 10” or 20”, depending
upon the least count of the instrument. Because
of its various uses, the theodolite is sometimes
known as “Universal Instrument”.
5. Introduction
• The following are the different purpose for which the
theodolite can be used:
• Measuring Horizontal Angle
• Measuring Vertical Angles
• Measuring Deflection Angles
• Measuring Magnetic Bearing
• Measuring the horizontal distance between two points
• Finding the vertical height of an object
• Finding difference of elevation between various points
• Ranging of a line.
7. Theodolite Traversing
Theodolites may be of two types
• (i) Transit Theodolite
• (ii) Non-Transit
• In the transit theodolite, the telescope, the
telescope can be revolved through a complete
revolution about its horizontal axis in a vertical
plane.
• In the non transit theodolite, the telescope, cannot
be revolved through a complete revolution in the
vertical plane.
9. Definitions
Centring
• The setting of a theodolite exactly over a station mark by means
of a plumb bob. Is known as centering.
Transiting
• The method of turning the telescope about its horizontal axis in
a vertical plane through 180 0 is termed as transiting. In other
words transiting results in a change in face.
Face left
• „Face left‟ means that the vertical circle of the theodolite is on
the left of the observer at the time of taking reading.
11. Definitions
Face right
This refers to the situation when the vertical circle of the
instrument is on the right of the observer when the reading is
taken
Changing face
The operation of bringing the vertical circle from one side of
the observer to the other is known as changing face.
Swinging the telescope
This indicates turning the telescope in a horizontal plane. It is
called „right swing‟ when the telescope is turned clockwise
and „left swing‟ when the telescope is turned anticlockwise.
13. Definitions
Line of Collimation
• It is an imaginary line passing through optical
centre of the objective glass and its continuation.
Axis of Telescope
The axis is an imaginary line passing through the
optical centre of the object glass and the optical
centre of the eye-peace.
Axis of the Bubble Tube
• It is an imaginary line tangential to the longitudinal
curve of the bubble tube at its middle point.
15. Difinitions
Vertical Axis
• it is the axis of rotation of the telescope in the horizontal
plane
Horizontal Axis
• It is the axis of rotation of the telescope in the vertical plane.
Temporary Adjustment
• The setting if the theodolite over a station at the time of
taking any observation is called temporary adjustment.
Permanent Adjustment
• When the desired relationship between the fundamental
lines of a theodolite is disturbed, then some procedures are
adopted to establish this relationship. This adjustment is
known as permanent adjustment.
16. Difinitions
Least Count of the vernier
• This is the difference between the value of the smallest
division of the main scale and that of the smallest division of
the vernier scale. It is the smallest value that can be measured
by a theodolite.
• V= d
n
Where, v= Value of smallest division of vernier Scale
d= Value of the smallest division of main scale
n= no of small divisions on vernier scale.
Least count of theodolites are generally 20” and 15” and so on.
17. Difinitions
The Diaphragm
• The diaphragm is a brass ring consisting of
cross-hairs, or one containing a glass disc with
fine lines engraved on it. It is placed in position
by turning four capstan-headed screws, and can
be moved up, down or sideways when required.
It is fixed in front of the eye-piece. The crosshairs may be made of fine platinum wire.
19. The Transit Theodolite
Trivet
• It is a circular plate having a central, threaded
hole for fixing the theodolite on the tripod
stand by a wing nut. It is also called the base
plate. Three foot screws are secured to this
plate by means of a ball and socket
arrangement. And the upper threaded part
passes through the threaded hole in the tribrach
plate.
21. The Transit Theodolite
Foot Screws
• These are meant for leveling the instrument. The lower part
of the foot screw are secured in the trivet by means of a ball
and socket arrangement and the upper threaded part passes
through the threaded hole in the tribrach plate.
Tribrach
• It is a triangular plate carrying three foot screws at its ends.
Leveling head
• the trivet, foot screws and the tribrach constituting a body
which is known as the leveling head.
Spindles
• The theodolites consists of two spindles or axes- one inner
and the other outer. The inner axis is solid and conical, and
the outer is hollow. The two spindles are coaxial.
23. The Transit Theodolite
Lower Plate
• The lower plate is attached to the outer axis, and is also
known as the scale plate It is beveled and the scale is
graduated from 0 0 to 360 0.
Upper Plate
• The upper plate contains the vernier scale A and B. It is
attached to the inner axis. Its motion is controlled by the
upper clamp screw and the upper tangent screw. When
the clamp screw is tightened the vernier scale are fixed
with the inner axis, and for fine adjustment of the scale
the tangent screw is rotated.
25. The Transit Theodolite
Plate Bubble
• Two plate bubbles are mounted at right angles to each other on
the upper surface of the vernier plate. One bubble is kept right
parallel to the horizontal axis of the theodolite. Sometimes one
plate bubble is provided on the vernier plate. The bubble are
meant for leveling this instrument at the time of measuring the
horizontal angle.
Standard or „A‟ Frame
• Two frames are provided on the upper plate to support the
telescope, the vertical circle and the vernier scales. These
frames are known as standard A-Frames.
27. The Transit Theodolite
The Telescope
• The telescope is pivoted between the standard at right
angles to the horizontal axis. It can be rotated about its
horizontal axis in a vertical plane. The telescope is
provided with a focusing screw, clamping screw and
tangent screw.
Vertical Circle
• The vertical circle is rigidly fixed with the telescope and
moves with it. It is divided into four quadrants. Each
quadrant is graduated from 0 to 90 0 in opposite
directions, with the „Zero‟ mark at the end of the
horizontal diameter of the vertical circle.
29. The Transit Theodolite
Index bar or T-frame
• The index bar is provided on the standard in
front of the vertical circle. It carries two vernier
(C and D) at the two ends of the horizontal
arm. The vertical leg of the index bar is
provided with a clip screw at the lower end by
means of which the altitude bubble can be
brought to the centre.
30. The Transit Theodolite
Altitude bubble
• A long sensitive tube is provided on the top of
index bar. This bubble is brought to the centre by
the clip screw at the time of measuring. Of the
vertical angle.
Compass
• Sometimes a circular box compass is mounted on
the vernier scale between the standards. In modern
theodolites, an adjustable trough compass or
tubular compass can be fitted with a screw to the
standard.
31. The Transit Theodolite
Reading of Vernier Theodolite
The least count of the vernier is to determined first.
Let it be 20”. The main division of the main scale
is of one degree. Suppose it is divided into three
parts then each part accounts for 20‟ (i.e. d= 20‟)
The vernier scale has 20 big and 60 small divisions
Least Count= d= 20 x 60= 20”
n
60
Here, Least count for one small divisions= 20”
32. The Transit Theodolite
Therefore, Least count of one big division
= (20” x 3) = 60” = 1‟
After making the final adjustment for measuring the angle,
the position of the arrow of the vernier scale is noted.
Suppose the arrow crosses 10 0 and 20‟, which is the
direct reading obtained from the main scale. Suppose,
again that the first small division after 12 big division
exactly coincides with any of the main scale divisions.
Then the vernier reading 12‟ 20”
Therefore Final Angle= 10 0 20‟ + 12‟ 20”= 10 0 32‟ 20”
33. The Transit Theodolite
Temporary Adjustment of Theodolite
• Setting the theodolite over the station
• The tripod stand is placed over the required
station. The theodolite is then shifted from the
box and fixed on top of the stand by means of a
wing nut or according to the fixed arrangement
provided along with the instrument.
35. The Transit Theodolite
Approximate leveling by Tripod
• The legs of the tripod stand are placed well
apart and firmly fixed on the ground. Then,
approximately leveling is done using this stand,
To do this, two legs are kept firmly fixed on the
ground and third is moved in or out, clockwise
or anticlockwise, so that the bubble is
approximately at the centre of its run.
37. The Transit Theodolite
Centring
• Centring is the process of setting of the
instruments exactly over a station. At the time
of approximate leveling by means of the tripod
stand, it should be ensured that the plumb bob
suspended from the book under the vertical
axis lies approximately over the station peg.
39. The Transit Theodolite
Leveling
• Before starting the leveling operation, all the foot
screw are brought to the centre of their run. Then
the following procedure is adopted.
• (a) The plate bubble is placed parallel to any pair
of foot screws. By turning both these screws
equally inwards or outwards.
• The plate bubble is turned through 90 0 so that it is
perpendicular to the line joining the first and
second foot screws. Then by turning the third foot
screw either clockwise or anticlockwise the bubble
is brought to the centre.
41. The Transit Theodolite
• Some instruments may have two plate bubbles perpendicular to
each other. In such a case, one bubble is kept parallel to any pair
of foot screws; the other platy bubble will automatically be
perpendicular to the position of first bubble. Here, the
instruments need not be turned. The first bubble can be brought
to the centre by turning the first and second foot screws, and the
second bubble can be brought to the centre by turning the third
foot screw.
• The process is repeated several times, so that the bubble remains
in the central position of the platy bubble, both directions
perpendicular to each other.
• The instrument is rotated through 360 0 about its vertical axis. If
the bubble still remains in the centre position, the adjustment of
the bubble is perfect and the vertical axis is truly vertical.
42. The Transit Theodolite
Focusing of the Eye Piece
• The eye piece is focused so that the cross-hairs
can be seen clearly. To do this, the telescope is
directed towards the sky or a piece of white
paper is held in front of the object glass, and the
eye-piece is moved in or out by turning it in
clockwise or anticlockwise until the cross –hairs
appear distinct and sharp.
43. The Transit Theodolite
Setting the Vernier
• The vernier A is set to 0 0 and vernier B is 180 0.
To do this the lower clamp is fixed. The upper
clamp is loosened and the upper plate turned until
the arrow of vernier. A approximately coincides
with zero. And the vernier B approximately
coincides with the 180 0 mark. Then the upper
clamp is tightened, and by turning the upper
tangent screw the arrows are brought to a position
of exact coincides.
45. Permanent Adjustment of Theodolite
• A theodolite consists of several fundamental
lines. In order the readings to be accurate,
certain desired relationship must exist between
the fundamental lines of the instrument. But
due to improper handling or excessive use, this
relationship may be disturbed and hence from
the theodolite may lead to erroneous results.
46. Permanent Adjustment of Theodolite
• For rectifying a disturbed relationship, some
procedures, termed permanent adjustments are
adopted.
• The fundamental lines of a theodolite are:
• The vertical axis
• The axis of the plate level
• The line of collimation
• The horizontal axis or trunnion axis
• The bubble line of the altitude level
47. Permanent Adjustment of Theodolite
The desired relationships between the fundamental lines
are as follows:
• The axis of the plate level must be perpendicular to the
vertical axis
• The line of collimation should coincide with the optical
axis of the telescope and should also be perpendicular to
the vertical axis.
• The axis of telescope must be parallel to the line of
collimation.
• The line of collimation must be perpendicular to the
horizontal axis. And the vertical circle should read zero
when the line of collimation is horizontal.
48. Permanent Adjustment of Theodolite
To make the axis of the plate level perpendicular to the vertical
axis, the following procedure is adopted prior to the first
adjustment.
• The theodolite is set up on firm ground with its legs well apart, and
firmly fixed on the ground.
• The plate bubble is made parallel to any pair of foot screws, and brought
to the centre of its run by turning the concerned foot screws.
• The bubble is turned through 90 0 and then brought to the centre by
turning the third foot screw.
• The process is repeated several times until the bubble is perfectly
centered in these two positions.
• The bubble is turned through 180 0 about the vertical axis.
• If the bubble still remains in the central position, the axis of the bubble is
perpendicular to the vertical axis which may be assumed to be truly
vertical.
• If the bubble does not remain in the central position the amount of
deviation is noted, say it is 2n division.
49. Permanent Adjustment of Theodolite
Adjustment
• Half of the total (i.e. n division) is adjusted by means
of the capstan headed nut provided below the bubble
tube.
• The Remaining half (i.e. n division is adjusted by
turning the concerned foot screws.
• The process is repeated several times until the bubble
remain in the central position for any direction of the
bubble tube.
50. Permanent Adjustment of Theodolite
To make the line of collimation coincide with the optical axis of the
telescope, first the horizontal and then vertical hair are adjusted.
• Adjustment of Horizontal Hair.
• Three pegs are driven into the ground at T, A and B a known
distance apart.
• The theodolite is set up at T and after proper adjustment staff are
taken on A and B. Suppose the readings are Aa and Bb1
• By transisting the theodolite the staff reading are taken on A and B
• If the readings of the second observation tallies with those of the first
horizontal hair is in adjustment.
• If the second observation gives a new reading, say Bb2, then the
horizontal hair requires adjustment.
52. Permanent Adjustment of Theodolite
Adjustment of Vertical Hair
• The theodolite is set up at T. After proper leveling, a
ranging rod is fixed at A by looking through the
telescope keeping the upper and lower clamps fixed.
• By transisting the telescope a ranging rod is fixed at B
• The upper clamp is loosened and by turning the vernier
plate the ranging rod at A is again bisected.
• If the ranging rod at b is seen bisected after transisting
the telescope, the vertical hair is perfect.
• If not, the amount of error is noted, let BB1 be the total
error.
54. Permanent Adjustment of Theodolite
Adjustment
• A position is marked by a ranging rod at B‟, where
B1B‟ is one fourth of the total error.
• The vertical hair is shifted by turning the horizontal
diaphragm screws, to bisect the ranging rod at B‟
• During adjustment, one-fourth of the total error is
taken into consideration because the actual error is
magnified four times as the telescope was turned
twice in the vertical plane.
55. Permanent Adjustment of Theodolite
Third Adjustment
• To make the horizontal axis perpendicular to the vertical axis, the
following procedure is adopted before making the necessary
adjustment.
• The theodolite is set up at T some distance away from a pole P.
• The plate bubble is perfectly leveled. Looking through the telescope,
a well defined point A is marked on the pole. The upper and lower
clamp screws are kept fixed.
• The telescope is lowered and another point B is marked near the
base of the pole in the same line of sight.
• The upper clamp is loosened and telescope is turned through 180 0.
by transisting it, the mark A is bisected. The telescope is then
lowered. If the line of sight bisect the mark B, then the adjustment is
perfect.
• If not, another point B‟ is marked on a ranging rod R at the same
level as B
57. Permanent Adjustment of Theodolite
Adjustment
• A point C is marked (in a suitable way) mid-way between
B and B‟
• The point C is bisected by the telescope and the upper
clamp is tightened.
• The telescope is now raised. This time the line of sight
will not bisect A.
• The adjustment end of the horizontal axis is raised or
lowered until the line of sight bisects the mark A.
• The procedure is repeated several times until the
correction is perfect.
58. Permanent Adjustment of Theodolite
Fourth Adjustment
• To make the axis of the telescope level (altitude
bubble) parallel to the line of collimation, the
procedure of adjustment is exactly similar to
“Two-Peg Method”
59. Permanent Adjustment of Theodolite
Fifth Adjustment
• This adjustment is made in order to ensure that the vertical
circle read zero when the line of collimation is horizontal.
• This adjustment is not required for transit theodolite. This is
because in such a theodolite the vernier is adjustable and
clamped at zero when the altitude bubble is centered.
• In theodolite provided with non-adjustable verniers, the
reading of the vernier may not be zero with the altitude
bubble is centered. In such a case, the amount of angular
error, known as “ index error” is noted. The sign of the index
error should be taken into account. Necessary correction has
to be applied to the observed vertical angle according to the
sign of index error.
60. Some Modern Theodolites
• Geodetic and astronomical surveys require a high degree of
precision. In order to meet this needs, high –precession
theodolites are manufactured now a days. The characteristics
of modern theodolites are as follows:
• They are more compact and light
• The graduations are made on a glass circle and are finer.
• Improved micrometer using which the observer can take
readings accurately to one second, are provided along with
them.
• The instrument is made water proof and dust proof
• It is electrically illuminated to facilitate work at night or in a
tunnel.
• Adjustments for the micrometre are not necessary
• Magnification is higher.
61. Some Modern Theodolites
Watt Micro-Optic Theodolite
• There are three models of this type. The first and
the third model are capable of reading up to 5”,
and the second can read up to 1”. The horizontal
and vertical circles of this theodolites are made up
of glass. Micrometers for measuring horizontal and
vertical angles are provided. The other accessories
are the same as in the transit theodolite. But the
arrangement are very compact, and well protected
from atmospheric action.
63. Some Modern Theodolites
Wild T-2 Theodolite
• The horizontal and vertical circles of this
instrument are made of glass. The diameter of the
horizontal circle is 90 mm and that of the vertical
circle 70 mm. The circles are electrically
illuminated through an adjustable mirror.
• The instrument is automatically centered by its
own weight. The readings are taken through a
micrometre by the coincidence system
65. Some Modern Theodolites
Wild T-3 Precession Theodolite
• The horizontal and vertical circles are made of
glass and finally graduated. The minimum reading
of the horizontal circle is 4‟ and that of vertical
circle is 8‟. The angle is measured b means of an
optical micrometer which is accurate up to 0.2”.
The vertical axis consists of an axis bush and ball
bearings.
• The instrument is automatically centered by its
own weight. It consists of one set of clamp and
tangent screws for the motion of the vertical axis.
67. Some Modern Theodolites
Wild T-4 Universal Theodolite
• This instrument is widely used in the
determination of geographical positions , and for
taking astronomical observations with the utmost
precision. It consist of a horizontal circle of dia 250
mm and are graduated to a minimum reading of
2‟. With the optical micrometre, one can take
reading as low as 0.1”. The vertical and horizontal
circles of two diametrically opposite readings
automatically which gives the arithmetic mean of
two diametrically opposite readings automatically.
69. Some Modern Theodolites
The Tailstock Theodolite
• The horizontal and vertical circles are made of
graduated that a reading as low as 1” can be
taken, an one of 0.25” can be estimated. A
single optical micrometer is provided for both
the scales both circles are illuminated by a
single mirror is provided with scale plummet
for centering over the station
71. Sources of Error in Theodolite
Instrument Errors
Non-adjustment of plate bubble
• The axis of the plate bubble may not be
perpendicular to vertical axis. So. When the plate
level are centered, the vertical axis may not be truly
vertical. In such a case, the horizontal circle would
be inclined and the angle will be measured in an
inclined plane. This would cause an error in angle
measured.
• This error may be eliminated by leveling the
instrument with reference to the altitude bubble.
72. Sources of Error in Theodolite
Line of collimation not being perpendicular to
horizontal axis
• In this case, a cone is formed when the
telescope is revolved in the vertical plane, and
this causes an error in the observation.
• This error is eliminated by reading the angle
from both the faces (left and right) and take the
average of the reading.
73. Sources of Error in Theodolite
Horizontal axis not being perpendicular to
vertical axis
• If the horizontal axis is not perpendicular to the
vertical axis, there is an angular error. This is
eliminated by reading the angle from both the
faces.
74. Sources of Error in Theodolite
Line of collimation not being parallel to axis of
telescope.
• If the line of collimation is not parallel to the
axis of telescope, there is an error in the
observed vertical angle. This error is eliminated
by taking reading from both faces.
75. Sources of Error in Theodolite
Eccentricity of Inner and Outer axes
• This condition causes an error in vernier
readings. This error is eliminated by taking
reading from both the vernier and considering
the average readings.
76. Sources of Error in Theodolite
Graduation not being Uniform
• The error due to this condition is eliminated by
measuring the angles several times on different
parts of the circle.
77. Sources of Error in Theodolite
Vernier being Eccentric
• The zeros of the vernier should be
diametrically opposite to each other. When
vernier A is set at 0 0, Vernier B should be at
180 0, But in some cases, this condition may
not exist.
• This error is eliminated by reading both
verniers and taking the average.
78. Sources of Error in Theodolite
Personal Error
• The centering may not be done perfectly, due to
carelessness. The leveling may not be done carefully
according to usual procedure. If the clamp screws are
not properly fixed, the instrument may slip. The proper
tangent screw may not be operated The focusing in
order to avoid parallax may not be perfectly done.
• The object of ranging rod may not be bisected accurately
The vernier may not be set in proper place.
• Error would also result if the verniers are not read
because of oversight.
79. Sources of Error in Theodolite
Natural Errors
• High temperature causes error due to irregular
refraction.
• High wind causes vibration in the instrument,
and this may lead to wrong readings on the
verniers.
80. Direct Method of Measuring
Horizontal Angle
• Suppose an angle AOB is to be measured. The
following procedure is adopted:
• The instrument is set up over O. It is centered and
leveled perfectly according to the procedure described
for temporary adjustment. Suppose the instrument was
initially in the face left position.
• The lower clamp is fixed. The upper clamp is loosened
and by turning the telescope clockwise vernier A is set to
0 0 and vernier B to approximately 180 0. The upper
clamp is then tightened. Now by turning the upper
tangent screw, vernier A and B are set to exactly 0 0 and
180 0 by looking through magnifying glass.
82. Direct Method of Measuring
Horizontal Angle
• The upper clamp is tight fixed. The lower one is
loosened and the telescope is directed to the left hand
object A. The ranging rod at A is bisected approximately
by proper focusing the telescope and eliminating
parallax. The lower clamp is tightened, and by turning
the lower tangent screw the ranging tod at A is accurately
bisected.
• The lower clamp is kept fixed. The upper clamp is
loosened and the telescope is turned clockwise to
approximately bisect the ranging rod at B by proper
focusing the telescope. The upper clamp is tightened,
and the ranging rod at B bisected accurately by turning
the upper plate screw.
83. Direct Method of Measuring
Horizontal Angle
• The reading on vernier A and B are noted. Vernier A gives
the angle directly. But in the case of vernier B, the angle is
obtained by subtracting the initial reading from final reading.
• The face of the instrument is changed and the previous
procedure is followed. The reading of the verniers are noted
in the table.
• The mean of the observations (i.e. Face left and face right) is
the actual angle AOB. The two observations are taken to
eliminate any possible errors due to imperfect adjustment of
the instrument.
• The two methods of measuring horizontal angle are those of
repetition and reiteration.
84. Direct Method of Measuring
Horizontal Angle
Repetition Method
• In this method, the angle is added a number of
times. The total is divided by the number of
reading to get the angle. The angle should be
measured clockwise in the face left and face
right positions, with three repetition at each
face. The final reading of the first observation
will be the initial reading of the second
observation, and so on.
85. Direct Method of Measuring
Horizontal Angle
• Suppose the angle AOB is to be measured by the repetition
process. The theodolite is set up at O. The instrument is
centered and leveled properly. Vernier A is set to 0 0 and
vernier B to 180 0.
• The upper clamp is fixed, and the lower one is loosened. By
turning the telescope, the ranging rod at A is perfectly bisected
with the help of the lower clamp screw and the lower tangent
screw. Here the initial reading of vernier A is 0 0.
• The upper clamp is loosened and the telescope is turned
clockwise to perfectly bisect the ranging rod at B. The upper
clamp is clamped. Suppose the reading on vernier A is 30 0.
• The lower clamp is loosened and the telescope turned
anticlockwise to exactly bisect the ranging rod at A. Here, the
initial reading is 30 0 for the second observation.
86. Direct Method of Measuring
Horizontal Angle
• The lower clamp is tightened. The upper one is loosened and
telescope is turned clockwise to exactly bisect the ranging rod at B.
The reading on vernier A is 60 0.
• The initial reading for the third observation is set to 60 0. angle AOB
is again measured. Let the final reading on the vernier A is 90 0.
Which is the accumulated angle.
• Angle AOB= Accumulated Angle
No of Reading
= 90 0 = 30 0
3
• The face of the instrument is changed and the previous procedure is
followed.
• The mean of the two observation gives the actual angle AOB
89. Direct Method of Measuring
Horizontal Angle
Reiteration Method
• This method is suitable when several angles are
measured from a single station. In this method all
the angle are measured successively and finally the
horizon is closed (i.e. angle between the last and
first station is measured) So, the final reading of
the leading vernier is equally distributed among all
the observed angles. If it is large, the readings
should be cancelled and new sets taken.
• Suppose it is required to measure AOB and
BOC from O. The procedure is as follows.
90. Direct Method of Measuring
Horizontal Angle
First Set
• The theodolite is perfectly centered over O and leveled
properly in the usual manner. Suppose, the observation
is taken in the face left position and the telescope is
turned clockwise (right Swing)
• Vernier A is set to 0 0 (i.e. 360 0) and vernier B to 180 0.
• The upper clamp is fixed and the lower one is loosened.
The ranging rod at A is perfectly bisected. Now, the
lower clamp is tightened.
• The upper clamp is loosened, and the ranging rod or
object at B is bisected properly by turning the telescope
clockwise. The readings on both the verniers are taken
AOB is noted.
91. Direct Method of Measuring
Horizontal Angle
• Similarly, the object C is bisected properly, and the
reading on the verniers are noted BOC is
recorded.
• Now the horizon is closed, the last angle COA is
measured. The position of the leading vernier is
noted. The leading vernier should show the initial
reading on which it was set. If it does not, the
amount of discrepancy is noted. If it is small, the
error is distributed among the angle. If the
discrepancy large, the observation should be taken
again.
92. Direct Method of Measuring
Horizontal Angle
Second Set
• The face of the instrument is changed. Again the
vernier are set at their initial positions. This time the
angles are measured anticlockwise (left Swing)
• The upper clamp is fixed, and the lower one loosened.
Then the object A is perfectly bisected.
• The lower clamp is tightened. The telescope is turned
anticlockwise, and the object C bisected by loosening
the upper clamp Screw. The reading on both the
vernier are taken COA is noted.
93. Direct Method of Measuring
Horizontal Angle
• Then the objected B is bisected by turning the
telescope anticlockwise, and the readings on the
vernier are taken BOC is recorded.
• Finally, the horizon is closed i.e. the object A is
bisected. Here, the leading vernier A should show
a reading 0 0. The last angle AOB is noted.
• The mean angle of the two sets give the actual
value of the angle. If some error is found after
arithmetic check, it should be equally distributed
among the angles.
96. Measuring Vertical Angle
• The vertical angle is the one between the horizontal line (i.e.
line of collimation) and the inclined line of sight. When it is
above the horizontal line, it is known as the angle of elevation.
When this angle is below the horizontal line, it is called the
angle of depression.
• Consider Suppose the angle of elevation AOC and that of
depression
BOC are to be measured. The following
procedure is adopted.
• The theodolite is set up at 0. It is centered and leveled
properly. The zeros of the vernier (generally C and D) are set 0
0 0 0 mark of the vertical circle (which is fixed to the telescope)
the telescope is then clamped.
97. Measuring Vertical Angle
• The plate bubble is brought to the centre with the help
of foot screw. Then the altitude is brought to the
centre by means of a clip screw. At this position the
line of collimation is exactly horizontal.
• To measure the angle of elevation, the telescope is
raised slowly to bisect the point A accurately. The
readings on both the verniers are noted, and the angle
of elevation is recorded.
98. Measuring Vertical Angle
• The face of the instrument is changed and the
point A is again bisected. The reading on the
vernier are noted. The mean of the angle of the
observed is assumed to be correct angle of
elevation.
• To measure the angle of depression, the telescope
is lowered slowly and observations (face left and
face right)( The mean angle of the observation is
taken to be correct angle of depression.
100. Computation of Latitude and Departure
• The theodolite is not plotted according to interior
angles or bearings. It is plotted by computing the
latitude and departure of the point and then
finding the independent coordinates of the point.
• The latitude of a line is the distance measured
parallel to the North-South line and the departure
of a line measured parallel to the East-West line.
• The latitude and departure of lines are also
expressed in the following ways
101. Computation of Latitude and
Departure
•
•
•
•
•
Northing= Latitude towards north= + L
Southing= Latitude towards South= -L
Easting= Departure towards East= + D
Westing= Departure towards West= -D
Conversion of WCB to RB
WCB
RB
Quadrant
0 to 90 0
RB=WCB
NE
90 0 and 180 0
RB= 180 – WCB
SE
180 0 and 270 0
RB= WCB- 180 0
SW
270 0 and 360 0
RB= 360 0 – WCB
NW
102. Computation of Latitude and
Departure
Line
Length (L)
Reduced
Bearing (Ө)
Latitude
(LCOS Ө)
Departure
(L Sin Ө)
AB
L
NӨE
+ L cos Ө
+ L sin Ө
BC
L
SӨE
-L cos Ө
+ Lsin Ө
CD
L
SӨW
-L cos Ө
-L sin Ө
DA
L
NӨW
+ Lcos Ө
-L sin Ө
N
B
Ө Latitude= (L Cos Ө)
W
E
A
Departure= (L Sin Ө)
S
103. Computation of Latitude and
Departure
Line
Length
Reduced
Bearing
Consecutive Coordinates
(L)
(Ө)
Northing
(+)
AB
L
NӨE
L cosӨ
BC
L
SӨE
Lcos Ө
CD
L
SӨW
Lcos Ө
DA
L
NӨW
L cosӨ
Check for Closed Traverse
Sum of Northing= Sum of Southing
Sum of Easting= Sum of Westing
Southing
(-)
Easting
(+)
Westing
(-)
L sin Ө
Lsin Ө
Lsin Ө
Lsin Ө
104. Computation of Latitude and
Departure
Consecutive Coordinates
• The latitude and departure of a point calculated
with reference to the preceding point for what are
called consecutive coordinates.
Independent Coordinates
• The coordinates of any point with respect to a
common origin are said to be the independent
coordinates of that point. The origin may be a
station of the survey or a point entirely outside the
traverse.
105. Computation of Latitude and
Departure
Balancing of Traverse
• In Case of Closed Traverse, the algebraic sum of latitude
must be equal to zero and that of departure must also be
equal to zero in the ideal condition. In other words, the sum
of the northing must equal that of the southing, and the sum
of the easting must be the same as that of the westing.
• But in actual practice, some closing error is always found to
exist while computing the latitude and departure of the
traverse station.
• The total errors in latitude and departure are determined.
These errors are then distributed among the traverse stations
proportionately, according to the following rule.
106. Bowditch‟s Rule
• By this rule, the total error (in latitude or departure) is
distributed in proportion to the length of the traverse
legs. This is the most common method of traverse
adjustment.
(a) Correction to latitude of any side
• = Length of that Side x Total Error in latitude
Perimeter of Traverse
(b) Correction to departure of any side
•
Length of that Side x Total Error in departure
Perimeter of Traverse
107. Transit Rule
(a) Correction to latitude of any Side
Latitude of that Side x Total Error in Latitude
Arithmetical Sum of all latitude
(b) Correction to departure of any Side
Departure of that Side
x Total Error in departure
Arithmetical Sum of all Departure
108. Third Rule
(a) Correction to Northing of any Side
Northing of that Side x ½ total error in latitude
Sum of Northing
(b) Correction to Southing of any Side
Southing of that side x ½ total error in latitude
Sum of Southing
(c) Correction to Easting of any Side
Easting of that Side x ½ total error in departure
Sum of Easting
(d) Correction to Westing of any Side
= Westing of that Side x ½ total error in departure
Sum of Westing
If the error is positive, correction will be negative, and vice versa.
109. References
• “Surveying and Leveling” Vol- I
Kanetkar and Kulkarni (2011)
• “Surveying and Leveling”
N.N.Basak