This document provides specifications and information about beams and columns used in construction. It discusses reinforced concrete columns and different types of columns based on height-width ratios and shapes. It also describes the construction process for RCC columns. For beams, it defines reinforced concrete beams and classifies beams based on their supports. It discusses different types of beams and the construction process for beams.
Reinforced concrete columns and beams are important structural elements that carry compressive and bending loads respectively. Columns can be categorized as short or long based on their height-width ratio and as spiral or tied columns based on their shape. Beams are classified based on their supports as simply supported, fixed, continuous, or cantilever beams. The construction of RCC columns and beams involves laying reinforcement, forming the structure, and pouring concrete to create these load-bearing elements.
Steel structures involve structural steel members designed to carry loads and provide rigidity. They are commonly used in high-rise buildings, industrial buildings, warehouses, and temporary structures due to their strength, light weight, and speed of construction. Advantages include quick construction, flexibility, and ability to take various shapes. Disadvantages are reduced strength at high temperatures and susceptibility to corrosion. Common structural steel frames include beam and column construction, trusses, space frames, shear wall frames, framed tube structures, and braced frames. Design must consider both gravity loads like dead and live loads, as well as lateral loads from wind and earthquakes.
The document discusses different types of building structures. It describes columns as carrying primary axial loads and needing to be designed for both axial load and bending. Beams are primarily subjected to bending and shear, and are sized to support loads safely with minimum material. Tie rods are slender structural elements that carry tensile loads and connect other structural members. The document also discusses trusses, cables, arches, frames, and surface structures as basic types of structures. Trusses use triangulation to span long distances in roofs and transfers loads. Cables and arches carry loads in tension and compression respectively to support bridges and roofs. Frames use beams and columns in various connection configurations. Surface structures are thin materials shaped to
This document provides an overview of column design and analysis. It defines columns and discusses their common uses in structures like buildings and bridges. Short columns fail through crushing, while long columns fail through buckling. Euler developed the first equation to analyze buckling in columns. The document discusses factors that influence a column's buckling capacity, like its effective length which depends on end support conditions. It presents design equations and factors for different column types (short, long, intermediate) and materials (steel). Safety factors are larger for columns than other members due to their importance for structural stability.
OUTLINE
introduction
classification
loads
materials used
Type of reinforcement
RCC
construction methods in RCC
Analysis and design
Detailing
Basic Rules
Site visit
video
This document provides a brief history of prestressed concrete, beginning in 1824 with the development of Portland cement. It then outlines several important developments in prestressed concrete technology from the late 19th century through the mid-20th century by innovators from various countries. These include early uses of steel in concrete, prestressing methods like pre-tensioning and post-tensioning, and development of high-strength steel and anchoring systems. It also mentions increased use of prestressed concrete during World War 2 and establishment of professional organizations to support the field.
This document provides specifications and information about beams and columns used in construction. It discusses reinforced concrete columns and different types of columns based on height-width ratios and shapes. It also describes the construction process for RCC columns. For beams, it defines reinforced concrete beams and classifies beams based on their supports. It discusses different types of beams and the construction process for beams.
Reinforced concrete columns and beams are important structural elements that carry compressive and bending loads respectively. Columns can be categorized as short or long based on their height-width ratio and as spiral or tied columns based on their shape. Beams are classified based on their supports as simply supported, fixed, continuous, or cantilever beams. The construction of RCC columns and beams involves laying reinforcement, forming the structure, and pouring concrete to create these load-bearing elements.
Steel structures involve structural steel members designed to carry loads and provide rigidity. They are commonly used in high-rise buildings, industrial buildings, warehouses, and temporary structures due to their strength, light weight, and speed of construction. Advantages include quick construction, flexibility, and ability to take various shapes. Disadvantages are reduced strength at high temperatures and susceptibility to corrosion. Common structural steel frames include beam and column construction, trusses, space frames, shear wall frames, framed tube structures, and braced frames. Design must consider both gravity loads like dead and live loads, as well as lateral loads from wind and earthquakes.
The document discusses different types of building structures. It describes columns as carrying primary axial loads and needing to be designed for both axial load and bending. Beams are primarily subjected to bending and shear, and are sized to support loads safely with minimum material. Tie rods are slender structural elements that carry tensile loads and connect other structural members. The document also discusses trusses, cables, arches, frames, and surface structures as basic types of structures. Trusses use triangulation to span long distances in roofs and transfers loads. Cables and arches carry loads in tension and compression respectively to support bridges and roofs. Frames use beams and columns in various connection configurations. Surface structures are thin materials shaped to
This document provides an overview of column design and analysis. It defines columns and discusses their common uses in structures like buildings and bridges. Short columns fail through crushing, while long columns fail through buckling. Euler developed the first equation to analyze buckling in columns. The document discusses factors that influence a column's buckling capacity, like its effective length which depends on end support conditions. It presents design equations and factors for different column types (short, long, intermediate) and materials (steel). Safety factors are larger for columns than other members due to their importance for structural stability.
OUTLINE
introduction
classification
loads
materials used
Type of reinforcement
RCC
construction methods in RCC
Analysis and design
Detailing
Basic Rules
Site visit
video
This document provides a brief history of prestressed concrete, beginning in 1824 with the development of Portland cement. It then outlines several important developments in prestressed concrete technology from the late 19th century through the mid-20th century by innovators from various countries. These include early uses of steel in concrete, prestressing methods like pre-tensioning and post-tensioning, and development of high-strength steel and anchoring systems. It also mentions increased use of prestressed concrete during World War 2 and establishment of professional organizations to support the field.
Framed structures are building skeleton frameworks formed by columns and beams. There are two main types: in-situ reinforced concrete frames and prefabricated frames. Rectangular framed structures use columns and beams arranged at right angles to support floors, walls, and roofs. They are commonly used for multi-story buildings like offices, schools, and hospitals. Framed structures provide large open floor plans and are adaptable to different shapes. Earthquake-resistant features in framed structures include shear walls, moment-resisting frames, and braced structures which resist lateral forces during seismic activity.
Steel is a versatile material that is commonly used for large scale construction projects due to its strength, durability, and cost-effectiveness. Steel trusses are a type of structure frequently employed in buildings to provide support for roofs, floors, and other loads. They consist of compression and tension elements arranged in a triangulated pattern, allowing them to efficiently span long distances with minimal material. Common types of steel truss designs include Pratt, Warren, and Fink configurations. Truss members are often made of angles, channels, tubes, or other standard steel sections joined together with bolted or welded connections.
The document summarizes various reinforced concrete structural elements used in building construction, including:
1. Columns, beams, slabs, staircases, lintels, chhajjas (eaves), canopies, and coffer slabs are discussed. Columns transfer loads from above to the foundation. Beams provide horizontal load resistance and resist bending. Slabs are floor and ceiling elements supported by columns and beams.
2. Staircases can be made of reinforced concrete and come in different arrangements like straight flights or landings. Lintels support walls above openings. Chhajjas project from walls to provide shade. Canopies provide shelter from weather. Coffer slabs have sunken, decorated
A truss is an assembly of members such as beams, connected by nodes, that creates a rigid structure. In engineering, a truss is a structure that "consists of two-force members only, where the members are organized so that the assemblage as a whole behaves as a single object"
A truss is a structure composed of straight members arranged in a triangular pattern and connected at their ends to form a rigid framework. Trusses are commonly used in buildings to support roofs and floors over long spans. They provide strength and support loads using less material than beams. Common types of trusses include Pratt trusses and lattice girders, which are used to support trusses running perpendicular. Trusses are fabricated from rolled steel sections or built-up sections and connected by bolting, welding, or riveting. They are an economical choice for supporting large loads and spans in industrial and commercial buildings.
This presentation discusses steel truss structures, specifically king post trusses. It describes the components of a king post truss, including the principle rafter, strut, tie beam, gusset plate, purlins, and king post. It explains that trusses resist loading through axial forces in their members and that joints are typically hinged. The presentation also covers steel connections like riveted, bolted, and welded connections, as well as pinned joints, laced columns, batten columns, and column bases.
structure, technology and materials of highrise buildingsshahul130103
Structural loads on tall buildings include dead loads, live loads, and environmental loads from seismic activity, wind, and temperature changes. Tall buildings must have structural systems to effectively distribute these loads and resist lateral forces. Common structural typologies include interior moment frames, shear walls, outrigger systems, and exterior tube, diagrid, and bundled tube systems which use closely spaced columns and beams to act as a rigid perimeter wall. The structural forms vary based on the building material (concrete or steel) and optimize the building's ability to transfer loads vertically and resist lateral loads like wind and seismic forces.
What are the types of structural steel framingnajeeb muhamed
Different types of structural steel framing systems for buildings such as skeleton, wall bearing and long span framing systems and their applications and configurations are discussed.
- Beam-column joints are the weakest points in reinforced concrete frames during earthquakes due to stresses that cause cracking and failure. There are two main types of failure: shear and anchorage.
- Proper design of beam-column joints including use of closed loop ties, intermediate bars, wider columns, and straight beam bars inserted into the column improves earthquake resistance by resisting distortion and improving concrete confinement.
- Innovative techniques for strengthening joints include fiber reinforced concrete and FRP wrapping to prevent cracking and increase strength. Well designed joints are crucial to avoiding damage during seismic activity.
The document provides an introduction to reinforced cement concrete (RCC). It discusses that steel is strong in both tension and compression, whereas concrete is strong only in compression. Steel reinforcement is used to increase the tensile strength of concrete. The combination of steel and concrete results in RCC, which has a weight of 25,000 N/cum. Steel is the most suitable reinforcing material due to its high tensile strength, elasticity, bond with concrete, and availability in India. Mild steel bars have plain surfaces while high yield strength deformed (HYSD) bars have deformations that increase bond strength. Design of RCC involves consideration of loads such as dead, live, wind, snow, and seismic loads.
This document discusses structural design considerations for bridges and culverts. It covers types of bridges selected based on span length and economics. It also discusses loads on bridges including dead load, live load, impact load, wind load, and other factors. The document provides details on solid slab bridges, girder bridges, and truss bridges. It also covers design of box culverts.
Influence line diagram for model arch bridgekunalsahu9883
The Lupu Bridge in Shanghai, China is a steel box section tied arch bridge with a main span of 550m, making it the largest arch bridge in the world when it was completed. A tied arch bridge design was used because the ground conditions on either side of the river were unsuitable for the large forces from a normal arch bridge. The bridge was analyzed using structural analysis software to determine member forces and deformations under load. The bridge is an impressive engineering feat that helped advance Chinese bridge engineering.
Dynamic analysis of steel tube structure with bracing systemseSAT Journals
Abstract Nowadays, competition towards rise of tall steel structures made certain factors are compulsory like serviceability and comfort of human relating to lateral loads caused by wind or earthquake. Earthquake is dangerous to the living beings in terms of its effects on manmade structures. Structures like tall buildings are built to resist gravity loads. However many tall buildings are not so resistant in lateral loads due to earthquake so need an improvement in resisting lateral loads. So there are many structural systems which resist lateral loads by varying orientation, addition of different structural systems. Like steel tubular structural system is considered and compared for their results against lateral forces and also by providing mega bracing system and diagrid bracing system. In this dissertation work, four structural systems are considered in which one is framed structure and rest are tubular system with addition of different bracing systems as mega bracing and diagrid bracing system. For the purpose 45 storey steel structure with rectangular plan of dimension 44mx24m uniform throughout the height is considered and analyzed for gravity and lateral loads using ETABS software. Its intention is to obtain the functioning characteristics like displacements, storey shear, time period, frequency, peak displacement and peak acceleration in both x and y direction to get most economical structure in all ways. Results shows that the steel tubular structure with mega bracing system performance is much better than the framed structure, tubular and tubular structure with diagrid bracing system. Keywords: Steel Tube Structure, Mega Bracing, Diagrid Bracing, Dynamic Analysis, ETABS, Time and History Analysis.
This document provides an overview of box girder bridges. It discusses the key features and advantages of box girder bridges, including their high torsional stiffness and structural efficiency. The document also examines the general behavior of curved box girder bridges, noting the effects of bending, torsion, and warping stresses. Finally, it reviews several past studies that have analyzed box girder bridges through experimental testing, finite element analysis, and varying parameters like curvature, span length, and cross-sectional depth.
Cricket management system ptoject report.pdfKamal Acharya
The aim of this project is to provide the complete information of the National and
International statistics. The information is available country wise and player wise. By
entering the data of eachmatch, we can get all type of reports instantly, which will be
useful to call back history of each player. Also the team performance in each match can
be obtained. We can get a report on number of matches, wins and lost.
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Similar to STRUCTURE ANALYSIS-1 structural elements.pptx
Framed structures are building skeleton frameworks formed by columns and beams. There are two main types: in-situ reinforced concrete frames and prefabricated frames. Rectangular framed structures use columns and beams arranged at right angles to support floors, walls, and roofs. They are commonly used for multi-story buildings like offices, schools, and hospitals. Framed structures provide large open floor plans and are adaptable to different shapes. Earthquake-resistant features in framed structures include shear walls, moment-resisting frames, and braced structures which resist lateral forces during seismic activity.
Steel is a versatile material that is commonly used for large scale construction projects due to its strength, durability, and cost-effectiveness. Steel trusses are a type of structure frequently employed in buildings to provide support for roofs, floors, and other loads. They consist of compression and tension elements arranged in a triangulated pattern, allowing them to efficiently span long distances with minimal material. Common types of steel truss designs include Pratt, Warren, and Fink configurations. Truss members are often made of angles, channels, tubes, or other standard steel sections joined together with bolted or welded connections.
The document summarizes various reinforced concrete structural elements used in building construction, including:
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2. Staircases can be made of reinforced concrete and come in different arrangements like straight flights or landings. Lintels support walls above openings. Chhajjas project from walls to provide shade. Canopies provide shelter from weather. Coffer slabs have sunken, decorated
A truss is an assembly of members such as beams, connected by nodes, that creates a rigid structure. In engineering, a truss is a structure that "consists of two-force members only, where the members are organized so that the assemblage as a whole behaves as a single object"
A truss is a structure composed of straight members arranged in a triangular pattern and connected at their ends to form a rigid framework. Trusses are commonly used in buildings to support roofs and floors over long spans. They provide strength and support loads using less material than beams. Common types of trusses include Pratt trusses and lattice girders, which are used to support trusses running perpendicular. Trusses are fabricated from rolled steel sections or built-up sections and connected by bolting, welding, or riveting. They are an economical choice for supporting large loads and spans in industrial and commercial buildings.
This presentation discusses steel truss structures, specifically king post trusses. It describes the components of a king post truss, including the principle rafter, strut, tie beam, gusset plate, purlins, and king post. It explains that trusses resist loading through axial forces in their members and that joints are typically hinged. The presentation also covers steel connections like riveted, bolted, and welded connections, as well as pinned joints, laced columns, batten columns, and column bases.
structure, technology and materials of highrise buildingsshahul130103
Structural loads on tall buildings include dead loads, live loads, and environmental loads from seismic activity, wind, and temperature changes. Tall buildings must have structural systems to effectively distribute these loads and resist lateral forces. Common structural typologies include interior moment frames, shear walls, outrigger systems, and exterior tube, diagrid, and bundled tube systems which use closely spaced columns and beams to act as a rigid perimeter wall. The structural forms vary based on the building material (concrete or steel) and optimize the building's ability to transfer loads vertically and resist lateral loads like wind and seismic forces.
What are the types of structural steel framingnajeeb muhamed
Different types of structural steel framing systems for buildings such as skeleton, wall bearing and long span framing systems and their applications and configurations are discussed.
- Beam-column joints are the weakest points in reinforced concrete frames during earthquakes due to stresses that cause cracking and failure. There are two main types of failure: shear and anchorage.
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- Innovative techniques for strengthening joints include fiber reinforced concrete and FRP wrapping to prevent cracking and increase strength. Well designed joints are crucial to avoiding damage during seismic activity.
The document provides an introduction to reinforced cement concrete (RCC). It discusses that steel is strong in both tension and compression, whereas concrete is strong only in compression. Steel reinforcement is used to increase the tensile strength of concrete. The combination of steel and concrete results in RCC, which has a weight of 25,000 N/cum. Steel is the most suitable reinforcing material due to its high tensile strength, elasticity, bond with concrete, and availability in India. Mild steel bars have plain surfaces while high yield strength deformed (HYSD) bars have deformations that increase bond strength. Design of RCC involves consideration of loads such as dead, live, wind, snow, and seismic loads.
This document discusses structural design considerations for bridges and culverts. It covers types of bridges selected based on span length and economics. It also discusses loads on bridges including dead load, live load, impact load, wind load, and other factors. The document provides details on solid slab bridges, girder bridges, and truss bridges. It also covers design of box culverts.
Influence line diagram for model arch bridgekunalsahu9883
The Lupu Bridge in Shanghai, China is a steel box section tied arch bridge with a main span of 550m, making it the largest arch bridge in the world when it was completed. A tied arch bridge design was used because the ground conditions on either side of the river were unsuitable for the large forces from a normal arch bridge. The bridge was analyzed using structural analysis software to determine member forces and deformations under load. The bridge is an impressive engineering feat that helped advance Chinese bridge engineering.
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Impartiality as per ISO /IEC 17025:2017 StandardMuhammadJazib15
This document provides basic guidelines for imparitallity requirement of ISO 17025. It defines in detial how it is met and wiudhwdih jdhsjdhwudjwkdbjwkdddddddddddkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwioiiiiiiiiiiiii uwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwhe wiqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqq gbbbbbbbbbbbbb owdjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjj widhi owqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqq uwdhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhwqiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiw0pooooojjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjj whhhhhhhhhhh wheeeeeeee wihieiiiiii wihe
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We have designed & manufacture the Lubi Valves LBF series type of Butterfly Valves for General Utility Water applications as well as for HVAC applications.
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Rail transport is one of the important modes of transport in India. Now a days we
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In the world with high technology and fast
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CoVID-19 sprang up in Wuhan China in November 2019 and was declared a pandemic by the in January 2020 World Health Organization (WHO). Like the Spanish flu of 1918 that claimed millions of lives, the COVID-19 has caused the demise of thousands with China, Italy, Spain, USA and India having the highest statistics on infection and mortality rates. Regardless of existing sophisticated technologies and medical science, the spread has continued to surge high. With this COVID-19 Management System, organizations can respond virtually to the COVID-19 pandemic and protect, educate and care for citizens in the community in a quick and effective manner. This comprehensive solution not only helps in containing the virus but also proactively empowers both citizens and care providers to minimize the spread of the virus through targeted strategies and education.
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Sri Guru Hargobind Ji (19 June 1595 - 3 March 1644) is revered as the Sixth Nanak.
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Jahangir.
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1. STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS 1
Structural system (Classification, types
of structures), support conditions,
determinacy, stability
Instructor: Engr. Hajrah Nosheen
2. Week Contents Relevance w
Weekly Break Up Field Application CLO
1. Introduction to structural supports, types of beam redundancy
and stability of structure Structural safety
CLO1
2. Shear force and bending moment diagram of VDL beam Structural design CLO2
3. Determination of Member forces of truss by method of joint Truss analysis for structures CLO1,2 P
4. Determination of Member forces of truss by method of
section
CLO1,2 P
5. Axial force, shear force and bending moment diagram of
frame
Structural Frame design CLO1,2 P
6. Axial force, shear force and bending moment diagram of
frame
CLO2
7. Influence line Diagram for reactions and shear of beam under
moving loads
Bridge design, design of beams & trusses used
in crane rails, conveyor belts, floor girders, etc.
CLO1,2 P
8. Influence line Diagram for shear and bending of beam
under moving loads
CLO2
9.
Analysis of cables
Analyzing suspension bridges, transmission
lines and power cables
CLO1,2 P
10. Analysis of Arches Force and deformation analysis of arches CLO1,2 P
11. Rotation and deflection by conjugate Beam method (Simply
supported Beam)
Analysis of beam for any type of structure,
buckling, rotation and deformation behavior
CLO1,2 P
12. Rotation and deflection by conjugate Beam method
(Cantilever Beam)
CLO1,2 P
13. Rotation and deflection by moment area method (Simply
supported Beam)
CLO1,2 P
14. Rotation and deflection by moment area method (Cantilever
Beam)
CLO1,2 P
15. Rotation and deflection by principle of virtual work method
(Simply supported Beam)
CLO1,2 P
16. Rotation and deflection by principle of virtual work method
(Cantilever Beam)
CLO1,2 P
3. Structural system
• The combination of structural elements and the materials from which they are composed
is referred to as a structural system.
• A structure refers to a system of connected parts used to support a load. Important
examples related to civil engineering include buildings, bridges, and towers; and in other
branches of engineering, ship and aircraft frames, tanks, pressure vessels, mechanical
systems, and electrical supporting structures are important.
• When designing a structure to serve a specified function for public use, the engineer
must account for its safety, esthetics, and serviceability, while taking into consideration
economic and environmental constraints. Often this requires several independent studies
of different solutions before final judgment can be made as to which structural form is
most appropriate.
• This design process is both creative and technical and requires a fundamental knowledge
of material properties and the laws of mechanics which govern material response. Once a
preliminary design of a structure is proposed, the structure must then be analyzed to
ensure that it has its required stiffness and strength.
• To analyze a structure properly, certain idealizations must be made as to how the
members are supported and connected together
4. Classification of Structures
• It is important for a structural engineer to
recognize the various types of elements
composing a structure and to be able to
classify structures as to their form and
function.
• Structural Elements. Some of the more
common elements from which structures are
composed are as follows.
• Tie Rods. Structural members subjected to a
tensile force are often referred to as tie rods
or bracing struts. Due to the nature of this
load, these members are rather slender, and
are often chosen from rods, bars, angles, or
channels, Fig. 1–1.
5. Beams.
• Beams are usually straight horizontal members used primarily to carry vertical loads.
• Quite often they are classified according to the way they are supported, as indicated in Fig. 1–2.
• In particular, when the cross section varies the beam is referred to as tapered or haunched.
• Beam cross sections may also be “built up” by adding plates to their top and bottom.
• Beams are primarily designed to resist bending moment; however, if they are short and carry
large loads, the internal shear force may become quite large and this force may govern their
design.
• When the material used for a beam is a metal such as steel or aluminum, the cross section is
most efficient when it is shaped as shown in Fig. 1–3. This cross section is commonly referred to
as a “wide flange,” and it is normally formed as a single unit in a rolling mill in lengths up to 75 ft
(23 m).
• When the beam is required to have a very large span and the loads applied are rather large, the
cross section may take the form of a plate girder. This member is fabricated by using a large
plate for the web and welding or bolting plates to its ends for flanges.
• The girder is often transported to the field in segments, and the segments are designed to be
spliced or joined togetherat points where the girder carries a small internal moment.
• Concrete beams generally have rectangular cross sections, since it is easy to construct this form
directly in the field. Because concrete is rather weak in resisting tension, steel “reinforcing rods”
are cast into the beam within regions of the cross section subjected to tension.
• Precast concrete beams or girders are fabricated at a shop or yard in the same manner and then
transported to the job site.
• Beams made from timber may be sawn from a solid piece of wood or laminated. Laminated
beams are constructed from solid sections of wood, which are fastened together using high-
strength glues.
6. • Columns.
• Members that are generally vertical
and resist axial compressive loads are
referred to as columns, Fig. 1–4.
• Tubes and wide-flange cross sections
are often used for metal columns, and
circular and square cross sections
with reinforcing rods are used for
those made of concrete.
• Occasionally, columns are subjected
to both an axial load and a bending
moment as shown in the figure.
7. Types of Structures
• Trusses. When the span of a structure is required to be large and its depth is not an important
criterion for design, a truss may be selected. Trusses consist of slender elements, usually
arranged in triangular fashion.
• Planar trusses are composed of members that lie in the same plane and are frequently used
for bridge and roof support, whereas space trusses have members extending in three
dimensions and are suitable for towers.
• Due to the geometric arrangement of its members, loads that cause the entire truss to bend
are converted into tensile or compressive forces in the members. Because of this, one of the
primary advantages of a truss, compared to a beam, is that it uses less material to support a
given load.
• Economically feasible to use a truss to cover spans ranging from 30 ft(9 m) to 400 ft (122 m).
8. • Cables and Arches.
• Cables are usually flexible and carry their loads in tension. They are commonly used to
support bridges, Fig. 1–6a, and building roofs.
• When used for these purposes, the cable has an advantage over the beam and the truss,
especially for spans that are greater than 150 ft (46 m). Because they are always in tension,
cables will not become unstable and suddenly collapse, as may happen with beams or
trusses.
• The arch achieves its strength in compression, since it has a reverse curvature to that of the
cable. The arch must be rigid, however, in order to maintain its shape, and this results in
secondary loadings involving shear and moment, which must be considered in its design.
• Arches are frequently used in bridge structures, Fig. 1–6b, dome roofs, and for openings in
masonry walls.
9. • Frames.
• Frames are often used in buildings and are composed of beams and
columns that are either pin or fixed connected, Fig. 1–7.
• Like trusses, frames extend in two or three dimensions. The loading on a
frame causes bending of its members, and if it has rigid joint connections,
this structure is generally “indeterminate” from a standpoint of analysis.
10. Surface Structures
• A surface structure is made from a material having a very small thickness compared to
its other dimensions.
• Sometimes this material is very flexible and can take the form of a tent or air-inflated
structure. In both cases the material acts as a membrane that is subjected to pure
tension.
• Surface structures may also be made of rigid material such as reinforced concrete. As
such they may be shaped as folded plates, cylinders, or hyperbolic paraboloids, and are
referred to as thin plates or shells.
• These structures act like cables or arches since they support loads primarily in tension
or compression, with very little bending. In spite of this, plate or shell structures are
generally very difficult to analyze, due to the three-dimensional geometry of their
surface.
11. Loads
• Loads are specified in codes such as the ASCE 7-10 code.
• Dead loads are fixed and refer to the weights of members and
materials.
• Live loads are movable and consist of uniform building floor loads,
traffic and train loads on bridges, impact loads due to vehicles and
machines, wind loads, snow loads, earthquake loads, and hydrostatic
and soil pressure.
12. Support Connections
• Structural members are joined together
in various ways depending on the intent
of the designer.
• The three types of joints most often
specified are the pin connection, the
roller support, and the fixed joint.
• A pin-connected joint and a roller
support allow some freedom for slight
rotation, whereas a fixed joint allows no
relative rotation between the connected
members and is consequently more
expensive to fabricate.
• Examples of these joints, fashioned in
metal and concrete, are shown in Figs.
2–1 and 2–2, respectively
13.
14.
15. Principle of superposition
• The principle of superposition forms the basis for much of the theory of
structural analysis. It may be stated as follows: The total displacement or
internal loadings (stress) at a point in a structure subjected to several external
loadings can be determined by adding together the displacements or internal
loadings (stress) caused by each of the external loads acting separately.
• For this statement to be valid it is necessary that a linear relationship exist
among the loads, stresses, and displacements.
• Two requirements must be imposed for the principle of superposition to apply:
1. The material must behave in a linear-elastic manner, so that Hooke’s law is
valid, and therefore the load will be proportional to displacement.
2. The geometry of the structure must not undergo significant change when the
loads are applied, i.e., small displacement theory applies.
16. Determinacy
• The equilibrium equations provide both the necessarymand sufficient conditions
for equilibrium.
• When all the forces in a structure can be determined strictly from these
equations, the structure is referred to as statically determinate.
• Structures having more unknown forces than available equilibrium equations are
called statically indeterminate.
• As a general rule, a structure can be identified as being either statically
determinate or statically indeterminate by drawing free-body diagrams of all its
members, or selective parts of its members, and then comparing the total
number of unknown reactive force and moment components with the total
number of available equilibrium equations.
• For a coplanar structure there are at most three equilibrium equations for each
part, so that if there is a total of n parts and r force and moment reaction
components, we have
17.
18. • Stability. To ensure the equilibrium of a structure or its members, it is not only
necessary to satisfy the equations of equilibrium, but the members must also
be properly held or constrained by their supports. Two situations may occur
where the conditions for proper constraint have not been met.
• Partial Constraints. In some cases a structure or one of its members may have
fewer reactive forces than equations of equilibrium that must be satisfied. The
structure then becomes only partially constrained. For example, consider the
member shown in Fig. 2–22 with its corresponding free-body diagram. Here
the equation will not be satisfied for the loading conditions and therefore the
member will be unstable.
• Improper Constraints. In some cases there may be as many unknown forces as
there are equations of equilibrium; however, instability or movement of a
structure or its members can develop because of improper constraining by the
supports. This can occur if all the support reactions are concurrent at a point.
Another way in which improper constraining leads to instability occurs when
the reactive forces are all parallel
19.
20.
21. Shear force and bending moment diagrams of beams
Field application:
Used in structural design to find maximum loads so that we can optimize the
design to prevent failure and reduce weight and cost of overall structure.
Shear on a member allow the ripping of a member in opposite direction. Force
V is resisting shear.
Bending moment is a reaction induced in a structural member when an external
force or moment is applied to member, causing it to bend. Couple M is resisting
or applied moment.
22. Types of Loading
• Loads applied to the beam may consist of a concentrated
load (load applied at a point), uniform load, uniformly
varying load, or an applied couple or moment. These
loads are shown in the following figures.