This document discusses rural-urban migration in India. It provides background on how the British codified India's caste system, contributing to rigid social stratification and a rural-urban divide. After independence, the government documented castes to determine quotas for education and jobs. While this has helped marginalized groups, it has also led to protests over reverse discrimination. The document also examines reasons for migration like employment, education, marriage, and lack of security. It outlines the impacts of migration including increased urbanization, slums, and pressure on resources in cities.
This document discusses rural-urban migration in the Philippines. It defines urbanization as the increase in urban population of a country or area. Rural-urban migration is one of the most significant patterns, as people move from countryside to cities in search of opportunities. The major causes of rural-urban migration are identified as search for better wages, education, employment opportunities, and escape from poverty and unemployment in rural areas. As more people migrate to urban areas, it puts pressure on housing, jobs, and the environment. The government should provide services and jobs in rural areas to reduce migration to cities.
The informal sector plays an important role in slum improvement. It provides employment and income generation opportunities for the urban poor through small, self-employed businesses with low entry barriers. While the informal sector helps meet demand for goods and services, it can also cause issues like traffic congestion and environmental problems. Policies aim to improve slums and the informal sector by encouraging self-help groups, providing training and financial assistance, and designating space for informal businesses.
Characteristics of underdeveloped economiesGeorgi Mathew
Underdeveloped economies are characterized by low per capita incomes, underutilized resources, inefficient production techniques, and potential for growth. They have incomes of $1025 or less and rely on agriculture, suffering from poverty, unemployment, and low levels of living. Population growth outpaces economic growth, exacerbating unemployment and poverty. Development requires improving infrastructure, education, health, and industrialization to increase productivity and standards of living.
This document discusses rural to urban migration in India. It outlines several key causes of rural to urban migration, including lack of economic opportunities and amenities in rural areas, as well as the search for better wages, education, and employment in cities. The document also examines the impacts of migration, such as population growth putting pressure on urban housing and the environment, and increasing unemployment and crime rates in cities. Additionally, it categorizes different types of migration and provides recommendations to address the drivers and effects of rural to urban migration in India.
Presentation1:- Occupational Structure Of Indian EconomySidhiAgarwal3
The document discusses the occupational structure of India's economy. It defines occupational structure as the segments of a population engaged in different economic activities and professions. In colonial India, the majority (70-75%) of the workforce was in agriculture, while manufacturing and services accounted for 10% and 15-20% respectively. Though some states saw a shift away from agriculture over time, others like Rajasthan saw increased agricultural dependence. By 2000, agriculture had declined but was still the largest occupation at 56.7% of the workforce. The occupational structure has remained relatively static despite economic development, with around 60% still in agriculture. Suggestions to change this include controlling population growth, rural industry development, and infrastructure expansion.
PowerPoint examining the push and pull factors for people moving from rural areas to urban areas within India. It also looks at the consequences for the urban areas due to this movement.
This document summarizes the structural changes in the Indian economy after liberalization. It discusses how the Indian economy transitioned from a predominantly state-run economy to a mixed economy with a larger private sector role after 1991. The key policies driving this transition included liberalization, privatization, and opening the economy to global trade and investment. Liberalization reduced licensing requirements and other regulations, privatization sold state-owned enterprises to private owners, and globalization made the economy more open internationally. These reforms aimed to increase economic growth by enhancing competition and private sector participation in the economy.
The formal sector consists of modern industries, businesses, commercial activities, and government agencies that use modern techniques from industrialized countries. Manufacturers are usually large, multi-national companies that sell products locally and export internationally. However, in developing Southern African countries less than 25% of city workers are employed in the formal sector. The informal sector includes small, locally-owned workshops, markets, and street vendors that provide work and means of survival for the poor. While informal jobs lack benefits, the sector provides training and cheap goods and services. Governments are now recognizing the importance of the informal sector and providing support through loans, infrastructure, and skills development initiatives.
This document discusses rural-urban migration in the Philippines. It defines urbanization as the increase in urban population of a country or area. Rural-urban migration is one of the most significant patterns, as people move from countryside to cities in search of opportunities. The major causes of rural-urban migration are identified as search for better wages, education, employment opportunities, and escape from poverty and unemployment in rural areas. As more people migrate to urban areas, it puts pressure on housing, jobs, and the environment. The government should provide services and jobs in rural areas to reduce migration to cities.
The informal sector plays an important role in slum improvement. It provides employment and income generation opportunities for the urban poor through small, self-employed businesses with low entry barriers. While the informal sector helps meet demand for goods and services, it can also cause issues like traffic congestion and environmental problems. Policies aim to improve slums and the informal sector by encouraging self-help groups, providing training and financial assistance, and designating space for informal businesses.
Characteristics of underdeveloped economiesGeorgi Mathew
Underdeveloped economies are characterized by low per capita incomes, underutilized resources, inefficient production techniques, and potential for growth. They have incomes of $1025 or less and rely on agriculture, suffering from poverty, unemployment, and low levels of living. Population growth outpaces economic growth, exacerbating unemployment and poverty. Development requires improving infrastructure, education, health, and industrialization to increase productivity and standards of living.
This document discusses rural to urban migration in India. It outlines several key causes of rural to urban migration, including lack of economic opportunities and amenities in rural areas, as well as the search for better wages, education, and employment in cities. The document also examines the impacts of migration, such as population growth putting pressure on urban housing and the environment, and increasing unemployment and crime rates in cities. Additionally, it categorizes different types of migration and provides recommendations to address the drivers and effects of rural to urban migration in India.
Presentation1:- Occupational Structure Of Indian EconomySidhiAgarwal3
The document discusses the occupational structure of India's economy. It defines occupational structure as the segments of a population engaged in different economic activities and professions. In colonial India, the majority (70-75%) of the workforce was in agriculture, while manufacturing and services accounted for 10% and 15-20% respectively. Though some states saw a shift away from agriculture over time, others like Rajasthan saw increased agricultural dependence. By 2000, agriculture had declined but was still the largest occupation at 56.7% of the workforce. The occupational structure has remained relatively static despite economic development, with around 60% still in agriculture. Suggestions to change this include controlling population growth, rural industry development, and infrastructure expansion.
PowerPoint examining the push and pull factors for people moving from rural areas to urban areas within India. It also looks at the consequences for the urban areas due to this movement.
This document summarizes the structural changes in the Indian economy after liberalization. It discusses how the Indian economy transitioned from a predominantly state-run economy to a mixed economy with a larger private sector role after 1991. The key policies driving this transition included liberalization, privatization, and opening the economy to global trade and investment. Liberalization reduced licensing requirements and other regulations, privatization sold state-owned enterprises to private owners, and globalization made the economy more open internationally. These reforms aimed to increase economic growth by enhancing competition and private sector participation in the economy.
The formal sector consists of modern industries, businesses, commercial activities, and government agencies that use modern techniques from industrialized countries. Manufacturers are usually large, multi-national companies that sell products locally and export internationally. However, in developing Southern African countries less than 25% of city workers are employed in the formal sector. The informal sector includes small, locally-owned workshops, markets, and street vendors that provide work and means of survival for the poor. While informal jobs lack benefits, the sector provides training and cheap goods and services. Governments are now recognizing the importance of the informal sector and providing support through loans, infrastructure, and skills development initiatives.
Role & Problem of industrial development in indiaSaurav Garg
This document discusses the role and problems of industrial development in India. It outlines several key roles of industrial development, including raising income, meeting high income demands, absorbing surplus labor, and improving standards of living. However, it also notes several problems hindering industrial development in India, such as shortages of power resources, insufficient capital, outdated plant and machinery, regional inequality, and industrial pollution. Overall, the document provides an overview of both the importance of industrial development for the Indian economy as well as challenges that must be addressed.
The studies on poverty and academic research, the “urban” has not yet been a significant part of it. Rapid rates of urbanization in Bangladesh is giving rise to increasing living in urban poor settlements. The livelihoods and challenges of these urban populations are unique and diverse. Nonetheless these poor urban settlements remain often invisible and their needs unserved. Thus the impact of unbridled urbanization deepens the scale and severity of urban poverty. In Bangladesh, urban poverty is found to be neglected in reducing poverty discourses such as research, policy and action. Urban poverty reduction will be subsequently important to the ability to meet national goals for poverty reduction that means policy and action must pay more attention to the urban poor.
Urban poverty:
Urban poverty is usually defined in two ways:
i. as an absolute standard based on a minimum amount of income needed to sustain a healthy and minimally comfortable life, and
ii. as a relative standard that is set based on average the standard of living in a nation.
Narratives of urban poverty in Bangladesh describe its characteristics, painting destructive pictures that prolong negative public and official perceptions of urban poverty and prevent greater action and commitment to the urban poor. They present images of squalid living conditions in dirty and unhygienic ‘slums’, where residents are exposed to high under- and unemployment and many are engaged in social disorders, such as crime, violence, drug addiction etc.
Migration is defined as the movement of people between locations for over a year. In 2005, 191 million people lived outside their country of birth, representing a doubling of international migrants since World War II. India has a large migrant population both within the country and abroad. Internal migration in India includes rural-rural, rural-urban, urban-urban, and urban-rural streams, with rural-urban migration dominated by males moving for work and rural-rural migration most common among females migrating after marriage. Key push factors for migration include lack of economic opportunities and natural disasters, while pull factors are availability of jobs and better living conditions elsewhere. Migration impacts both sending and receiving areas through economic, social, and environmental changes.
Rostow's Stages of Development proposes that countries pass through 5 stages as their economies grow: 1) Traditional Society based on subsistence agriculture; 2) Preconditions for Take-Off as manufacturing develops and technology/trade increase; 3) Take-Off period of extensive growth and industrialization; 4) Drive to Maturity as standards of living rise through increased technology and economic diversification; 5) High Mass Consumption as individual incomes rise beyond essentials and consumer demand grows. The model is criticized for assuming all countries develop the same way without variations, while its advantage is being a widely cited and respected development theory.
This document summarizes David Ricardo's theory of economics development known as Ricardian theory. It discusses Ricardo's background and key contributions, including the law of comparative advantage. It then outlines the assumptions of Ricardian theory, including diminishing returns to land and inelastic demand for corn. Ricardo's theory explains how total output is distributed as rent, profits, and wages. It also discusses how capital accumulation, wages, international trade, and criticisms of the theory relate to Ricardian economics.
The document discusses different concepts and methods of measuring national income. It defines national income as the total market value of all final goods and services produced in an economy in a given year. It describes three main methods to measure national income - the product method, income method, and expenditure method. The product method measures national income from the production side by sectors. The income method measures it from the distribution side by adding incomes of factors of production. The expenditure method measures it by adding total expenditures by individuals, businesses, and the government.
Population policy in india since independence 1Ankita Sood
The document summarizes India's population policies since independence. It discusses the 1976 Population Policy which aimed to reduce birth rate to 25 per 1000 and allowed compulsory sterilization. The 1977 revised policy renamed family planning as family welfare and made implementation voluntary. The 2000 National Population Policy aims for zero population growth by 2045 and targets like reducing total fertility rate to 2.1 by 2010. It focuses on decentralization, women's empowerment, and increasing male participation in family welfare programs. The policy faces criticism for weak measures and pushing the population stability target date to 2045.
This document discusses factors beyond traditional "push" and "pull" explanations for international migration. It argues that migration decisions are made by households seeking to maximize income and minimize risks. As global markets penetrate developing regions, they undermine traditional social and economic structures, creating mobile labor forces and driving international migration. Market forces, including the growth of export industries, global cities, and a bifurcated labor structure, naturally lead to international movement as a result of capitalist development in peripheral regions.
This document discusses the concepts of redistribution and economic growth, and the relationship between the two. It defines redistribution as the transfer of economic resources from wealthier to poorer individuals through policies like taxation and welfare. Economic growth is defined as the increase in production of goods and services over time, often measured by GDP. The document explores the debate around whether redistribution promotes or hinders growth, noting arguments on both sides. It also outlines different forms redistribution can take, such as progressive taxation, education/health investments, land reform, and public goods provision. The conclusion is that while scholars disagree on the impact, certain types of redistributive policies like education spending and public finance can potentially increase both social justice and economic growth.
The document outlines a presentation on economic development. It discusses key concepts like economic growth, economic development, sustainable development, and the differences between them. It also examines the main elements, features, conditions and significance of sustainable development. Finally, it identifies the economic and non-economic determinants of economic development, such as natural resources, human resources, physical capital, technology, markets, social factors, political stability, and corruption.
Karl Gunnar Myrdal was a Swedish economist who received the Nobel Prize in Economics in 1974. He is known for his theories of cumulative causation, backwash effects, and the need for government intervention to promote balanced regional development. According to Myrdal, free market forces tend to increase inequalities between developed and underdeveloped regions. The backwash effects of economic activity in developed regions drain wealth from poorer regions in a vicious cycle of underdevelopment.
BRIEF DISCRIPTION ABOUT PER CAPITA INCOME, THE CORRECT FIGURE IS TAKEN BY WORLD BANK WEBSITE . EVERYTHING IS EXPLAINED RELATED TO PER CAPITA INCOME AND EXPLAIND ALSO WITH GRAPHS, PHOTOS, FIGURES ETC. THIS PPT IS ALSO GOOD FOR THOSE WHO WANTS TO UNDERSTAND ABOUT PER CAPITA INCOME THEY CAN EASILY LEARN AND EASILY UNDERSTAND
Globalization means the increasing integration and interconnection of economies and societies around the world. India embraced globalization in 1991 through liberalization and privatization policies. Globalization has had both positive and negative impacts on India politically, culturally, socially, and economically. While globalization has increased trade, economic growth, and standards of living, it has also increased inequality, unemployment, and environmental pollution. Overall, India has benefited from globalization by experiencing new technologies and development that have helped unite the world.
The classical growth theory argues that economic growth will decrease or end because of an increasing population and limited resources Classical growth theory economists believed that temporary increases in real GDP per person would cause a population explosion that would consequently decrease real GDP.
This document discusses various indicators used to measure development. It begins by outlining economic, political, social, and subjective indicators. It then categorizes indicators as economic, educational, health-related, composite, and gender-related. Composite indicators like the Human Development Index and Gender Empowerment Index combine individual indicators, while single indicators measure one thing like child mortality. Commonly used indicators include GNP, HDI, and poverty rates. The document also discusses indicators for education, health, and gender inequality.
Urbanization in India refers to the increasing percentage of people living in urban areas. According to the 2011 census, India's urban population was 31.16% of the total population. The three states with the largest urban populations were Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu, while the states with the smallest urban populations were Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, and Mizoram. Between 2001-2011, India's population grew by 181 million people, with 90 million in rural areas and 91 million in urban areas, showing nearly equal growth rates in rural and urban populations for the first time. Problems of rapid urbanization in India include unemployment, lack of adequate housing, pollution, and insufficient infrastructure
The document discusses the theory of unbalanced growth as proposed by economists like Hirschman and Rostow. The key points are:
1. The theory argues for prioritizing investment in strategic sectors rather than all sectors simultaneously due to scarce resources in developing countries.
2. Investment in priority sectors will stimulate growth in other sectors through "linkage effects" as costs decrease and demand increases.
3. Hirschman classified investments as either social overhead capital (infrastructure) or direct productive activities (agriculture, industry) and argued the two cannot be expanded simultaneously so one sector should be prioritized initially.
Occupational structure refers to the division of a population engaged in different economic activities or occupations. It is an important measure of socio-economic development as it reflects the relationship between economic development and the distribution of workers across occupations. The occupational structure gives insights into the ratio and spatial distribution of working and non-working populations, highlighting the economic and cultural development of a region. It reveals the socio-economic characteristics of the people in that region.
The document summarizes several key poverty alleviation programmes in India, including:
- Swarnajayanti Gram Swarojgar Yojana (SGSY), which consolidates prior self-employment programs.
- Sampoorna Grameen Rojgar Yojana (SGRY), which merged rural employment guarantee schemes.
- Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY), which aims to connect rural villages through roads.
- Drought Prone Area Programme (DPAP) and Desert Development Programmes (DDP), which address environmental issues.
- Council for Advancement of People’s Action and Rural Technology (CAPART), which supports
The informal sector is now seen as the next engine of growth for India's economy. Nearly 81% of all employed persons in India make a living by working in the informal sector, with only 6.5% in the formal sector and 0.8% in the household sector, according to a new ILO (International Labour Organisation) report "Women and Men in the Informal Economy – A Statistical Picture (Third edition) 2018 ."A majority of women in India are informal workers. The statistics of the ILO report indicates that 95% of work force is in the informal sector. , the transition to formality is increasingly seen as a central goal in national employment policies (ILO, 2014a).
This paper will study the challenges imposed by the in formalization of the economy and how detrimental can that be for the economic development in general.
Key words: Informal Economy, Dual burden of work, unorganized sector
This document provides information about migration presented by Rizwan Mahbub Khan to Ms. Shabnam Jahan's law and justice department. It defines different types of migration such as forced migration, family migration, return migration, legal and illegal migration, irregular migration, refugees, and labor migration. It also discusses push and pull factors, characteristics of migrants, reasons for migrating including economic, social, political and environmental reasons, impacts of migration on rural and urban areas, and challenges to migration.
Migration refers to the movement of people from one place to another, usually for purposes of finding work or better living conditions. It is influenced by various social, economic, cultural, and political factors. There are both push factors that compel people to leave their home country or region, such as lack of jobs or poor living conditions, as well as pull factors that attract migrants to new areas, like increased economic opportunities. Migration can have both economic and social effects on both the origin and destination communities. There are different types of migration, including immigration, emigration, domestic/internal migration, urban-urban migration, and international/external migration.
Role & Problem of industrial development in indiaSaurav Garg
This document discusses the role and problems of industrial development in India. It outlines several key roles of industrial development, including raising income, meeting high income demands, absorbing surplus labor, and improving standards of living. However, it also notes several problems hindering industrial development in India, such as shortages of power resources, insufficient capital, outdated plant and machinery, regional inequality, and industrial pollution. Overall, the document provides an overview of both the importance of industrial development for the Indian economy as well as challenges that must be addressed.
The studies on poverty and academic research, the “urban” has not yet been a significant part of it. Rapid rates of urbanization in Bangladesh is giving rise to increasing living in urban poor settlements. The livelihoods and challenges of these urban populations are unique and diverse. Nonetheless these poor urban settlements remain often invisible and their needs unserved. Thus the impact of unbridled urbanization deepens the scale and severity of urban poverty. In Bangladesh, urban poverty is found to be neglected in reducing poverty discourses such as research, policy and action. Urban poverty reduction will be subsequently important to the ability to meet national goals for poverty reduction that means policy and action must pay more attention to the urban poor.
Urban poverty:
Urban poverty is usually defined in two ways:
i. as an absolute standard based on a minimum amount of income needed to sustain a healthy and minimally comfortable life, and
ii. as a relative standard that is set based on average the standard of living in a nation.
Narratives of urban poverty in Bangladesh describe its characteristics, painting destructive pictures that prolong negative public and official perceptions of urban poverty and prevent greater action and commitment to the urban poor. They present images of squalid living conditions in dirty and unhygienic ‘slums’, where residents are exposed to high under- and unemployment and many are engaged in social disorders, such as crime, violence, drug addiction etc.
Migration is defined as the movement of people between locations for over a year. In 2005, 191 million people lived outside their country of birth, representing a doubling of international migrants since World War II. India has a large migrant population both within the country and abroad. Internal migration in India includes rural-rural, rural-urban, urban-urban, and urban-rural streams, with rural-urban migration dominated by males moving for work and rural-rural migration most common among females migrating after marriage. Key push factors for migration include lack of economic opportunities and natural disasters, while pull factors are availability of jobs and better living conditions elsewhere. Migration impacts both sending and receiving areas through economic, social, and environmental changes.
Rostow's Stages of Development proposes that countries pass through 5 stages as their economies grow: 1) Traditional Society based on subsistence agriculture; 2) Preconditions for Take-Off as manufacturing develops and technology/trade increase; 3) Take-Off period of extensive growth and industrialization; 4) Drive to Maturity as standards of living rise through increased technology and economic diversification; 5) High Mass Consumption as individual incomes rise beyond essentials and consumer demand grows. The model is criticized for assuming all countries develop the same way without variations, while its advantage is being a widely cited and respected development theory.
This document summarizes David Ricardo's theory of economics development known as Ricardian theory. It discusses Ricardo's background and key contributions, including the law of comparative advantage. It then outlines the assumptions of Ricardian theory, including diminishing returns to land and inelastic demand for corn. Ricardo's theory explains how total output is distributed as rent, profits, and wages. It also discusses how capital accumulation, wages, international trade, and criticisms of the theory relate to Ricardian economics.
The document discusses different concepts and methods of measuring national income. It defines national income as the total market value of all final goods and services produced in an economy in a given year. It describes three main methods to measure national income - the product method, income method, and expenditure method. The product method measures national income from the production side by sectors. The income method measures it from the distribution side by adding incomes of factors of production. The expenditure method measures it by adding total expenditures by individuals, businesses, and the government.
Population policy in india since independence 1Ankita Sood
The document summarizes India's population policies since independence. It discusses the 1976 Population Policy which aimed to reduce birth rate to 25 per 1000 and allowed compulsory sterilization. The 1977 revised policy renamed family planning as family welfare and made implementation voluntary. The 2000 National Population Policy aims for zero population growth by 2045 and targets like reducing total fertility rate to 2.1 by 2010. It focuses on decentralization, women's empowerment, and increasing male participation in family welfare programs. The policy faces criticism for weak measures and pushing the population stability target date to 2045.
This document discusses factors beyond traditional "push" and "pull" explanations for international migration. It argues that migration decisions are made by households seeking to maximize income and minimize risks. As global markets penetrate developing regions, they undermine traditional social and economic structures, creating mobile labor forces and driving international migration. Market forces, including the growth of export industries, global cities, and a bifurcated labor structure, naturally lead to international movement as a result of capitalist development in peripheral regions.
This document discusses the concepts of redistribution and economic growth, and the relationship between the two. It defines redistribution as the transfer of economic resources from wealthier to poorer individuals through policies like taxation and welfare. Economic growth is defined as the increase in production of goods and services over time, often measured by GDP. The document explores the debate around whether redistribution promotes or hinders growth, noting arguments on both sides. It also outlines different forms redistribution can take, such as progressive taxation, education/health investments, land reform, and public goods provision. The conclusion is that while scholars disagree on the impact, certain types of redistributive policies like education spending and public finance can potentially increase both social justice and economic growth.
The document outlines a presentation on economic development. It discusses key concepts like economic growth, economic development, sustainable development, and the differences between them. It also examines the main elements, features, conditions and significance of sustainable development. Finally, it identifies the economic and non-economic determinants of economic development, such as natural resources, human resources, physical capital, technology, markets, social factors, political stability, and corruption.
Karl Gunnar Myrdal was a Swedish economist who received the Nobel Prize in Economics in 1974. He is known for his theories of cumulative causation, backwash effects, and the need for government intervention to promote balanced regional development. According to Myrdal, free market forces tend to increase inequalities between developed and underdeveloped regions. The backwash effects of economic activity in developed regions drain wealth from poorer regions in a vicious cycle of underdevelopment.
BRIEF DISCRIPTION ABOUT PER CAPITA INCOME, THE CORRECT FIGURE IS TAKEN BY WORLD BANK WEBSITE . EVERYTHING IS EXPLAINED RELATED TO PER CAPITA INCOME AND EXPLAIND ALSO WITH GRAPHS, PHOTOS, FIGURES ETC. THIS PPT IS ALSO GOOD FOR THOSE WHO WANTS TO UNDERSTAND ABOUT PER CAPITA INCOME THEY CAN EASILY LEARN AND EASILY UNDERSTAND
Globalization means the increasing integration and interconnection of economies and societies around the world. India embraced globalization in 1991 through liberalization and privatization policies. Globalization has had both positive and negative impacts on India politically, culturally, socially, and economically. While globalization has increased trade, economic growth, and standards of living, it has also increased inequality, unemployment, and environmental pollution. Overall, India has benefited from globalization by experiencing new technologies and development that have helped unite the world.
The classical growth theory argues that economic growth will decrease or end because of an increasing population and limited resources Classical growth theory economists believed that temporary increases in real GDP per person would cause a population explosion that would consequently decrease real GDP.
This document discusses various indicators used to measure development. It begins by outlining economic, political, social, and subjective indicators. It then categorizes indicators as economic, educational, health-related, composite, and gender-related. Composite indicators like the Human Development Index and Gender Empowerment Index combine individual indicators, while single indicators measure one thing like child mortality. Commonly used indicators include GNP, HDI, and poverty rates. The document also discusses indicators for education, health, and gender inequality.
Urbanization in India refers to the increasing percentage of people living in urban areas. According to the 2011 census, India's urban population was 31.16% of the total population. The three states with the largest urban populations were Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu, while the states with the smallest urban populations were Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, and Mizoram. Between 2001-2011, India's population grew by 181 million people, with 90 million in rural areas and 91 million in urban areas, showing nearly equal growth rates in rural and urban populations for the first time. Problems of rapid urbanization in India include unemployment, lack of adequate housing, pollution, and insufficient infrastructure
The document discusses the theory of unbalanced growth as proposed by economists like Hirschman and Rostow. The key points are:
1. The theory argues for prioritizing investment in strategic sectors rather than all sectors simultaneously due to scarce resources in developing countries.
2. Investment in priority sectors will stimulate growth in other sectors through "linkage effects" as costs decrease and demand increases.
3. Hirschman classified investments as either social overhead capital (infrastructure) or direct productive activities (agriculture, industry) and argued the two cannot be expanded simultaneously so one sector should be prioritized initially.
Occupational structure refers to the division of a population engaged in different economic activities or occupations. It is an important measure of socio-economic development as it reflects the relationship between economic development and the distribution of workers across occupations. The occupational structure gives insights into the ratio and spatial distribution of working and non-working populations, highlighting the economic and cultural development of a region. It reveals the socio-economic characteristics of the people in that region.
The document summarizes several key poverty alleviation programmes in India, including:
- Swarnajayanti Gram Swarojgar Yojana (SGSY), which consolidates prior self-employment programs.
- Sampoorna Grameen Rojgar Yojana (SGRY), which merged rural employment guarantee schemes.
- Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY), which aims to connect rural villages through roads.
- Drought Prone Area Programme (DPAP) and Desert Development Programmes (DDP), which address environmental issues.
- Council for Advancement of People’s Action and Rural Technology (CAPART), which supports
The informal sector is now seen as the next engine of growth for India's economy. Nearly 81% of all employed persons in India make a living by working in the informal sector, with only 6.5% in the formal sector and 0.8% in the household sector, according to a new ILO (International Labour Organisation) report "Women and Men in the Informal Economy – A Statistical Picture (Third edition) 2018 ."A majority of women in India are informal workers. The statistics of the ILO report indicates that 95% of work force is in the informal sector. , the transition to formality is increasingly seen as a central goal in national employment policies (ILO, 2014a).
This paper will study the challenges imposed by the in formalization of the economy and how detrimental can that be for the economic development in general.
Key words: Informal Economy, Dual burden of work, unorganized sector
This document provides information about migration presented by Rizwan Mahbub Khan to Ms. Shabnam Jahan's law and justice department. It defines different types of migration such as forced migration, family migration, return migration, legal and illegal migration, irregular migration, refugees, and labor migration. It also discusses push and pull factors, characteristics of migrants, reasons for migrating including economic, social, political and environmental reasons, impacts of migration on rural and urban areas, and challenges to migration.
Migration refers to the movement of people from one place to another, usually for purposes of finding work or better living conditions. It is influenced by various social, economic, cultural, and political factors. There are both push factors that compel people to leave their home country or region, such as lack of jobs or poor living conditions, as well as pull factors that attract migrants to new areas, like increased economic opportunities. Migration can have both economic and social effects on both the origin and destination communities. There are different types of migration, including immigration, emigration, domestic/internal migration, urban-urban migration, and international/external migration.
The document discusses various causes and types of human migration. It notes that historically migration has been driven by needs for food, shelter and safety, but now also includes job relocation and overpopulation. Rural-urban migration is common in developing countries as people move to cities for more opportunities, though often settle in slums. Migration can have both positive and negative effects on populations and cultures through changes in demographics and mixing of groups. Push factors driving migration include lack of resources and jobs, while pull factors attracting migration include potential work and improved standards of living.
1. Migration is defined as the movement of people between locations. It can be internal within a country or international across country borders.
2. The key causes of migration include economic, social, political, and environmental factors. Economic migration occurs to find work, while political migration happens to escape conflict or persecution.
3. Migration is influenced by "push" factors that encourage people to leave an area, and "pull" factors that attract people to a new location. Rural-urban migration in developing countries is often driven by lack of jobs and land in rural areas.
Here are some key factors that affect Filipinos to move to other countries or places:
- Lack of employment opportunities in the Philippines - Many Filipinos seek work abroad due to limited jobs and low wages at home. Countries like the US, Canada, and Middle Eastern nations offer higher pay for Filipino nurses, engineers, etc.
- Poverty and low standard of living - As an developing country, poverty remains a challenge in the Philippines. Overseas work is seen as a way to earn more money and support families back home.
- Desire to provide better future for children - Filipino migrant workers want to give their children access to better education, healthcare and standard of living not readily available in the
The document discusses various types and causes of human migration. It defines migration as the permanent movement of people across national or international borders. It then describes different types of migration like internal, international, chain, and relay migration. Forced migration types include refugees, internally displaced persons, and asylum seekers. Voluntary migration involves emigrants and immigrants. The document also examines push-pull factors, migration patterns and data, and the theories of migration proposed by scholars like Ravenstein, Lee, Todaro, and Stark.
Kimberly's group powerpoint presentationgameguru21
This document summarizes a study on the aspirations of migration of the Kalinga ethnic group from their original home in Delomanay, Palanan, Isabela to Sta. Felomena, San Mariano, Isabela. It discusses relevant migration theories and concepts. The study aims to understand the problems the Kalinga faced in their home as well as their aspirations for migrating such as educational opportunities, livelihood, and living conditions. It will provide insight for local governments and communities to better support migrants. The scope is limited to understanding the Kalinga's migration and does not investigate their culture or demographics.
Global migration is a complex phenomenon that involves over 250 million people moving between countries for various economic, social, and environmental reasons. There are two main categories of migrants - labor/economic migrants who move for jobs or family reunification, and forced migrants who move due to adverse circumstances like conflict, persecution, or natural disasters. The key drivers of migration include economic and demographic factors, environmental factors like climate change or natural disasters, and human-made crises. Migration impacts development goals around health, education, gender equality, decent work, sustainable cities, climate action, and more. Many Filipinos work overseas due to poverty, unemployment, curiosity about other cultures, and to send money home to support their families, though this often comes
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This document provides an overview of population and migration topics. It begins with definitions of population density and descriptions of world population density patterns. It then discusses factors that cause populations to rise or fall in different places, including the demographic transition model. The document outlines global and regional migration flows from 1500 to today. It describes different types of migration like voluntary, forced, and chain migration. Push and pull factors that influence migration decisions are identified, including economic opportunities, environmental conditions, and reconnecting cultural groups. The roles of governments in affecting migration through immigration laws and quotas are also summarized.
Global cities play a central role in the processes of globalization. It is within cities that global operations are centralized and many phenomena associated with globalization can be observed, such as changes in employment structures, the formation of powerful partnerships, and the social exclusion of some population groups. Global cities, also called world cities, are primary nodes in the global economic network and display characteristics like headquarters for multinational corporations and financial institutions, a highly educated workforce, and cultural and ethnic diversity. However, critics argue that global cities focus more on connections to other global cities than their own national economies or domestic cities within their countries.
Global cities play a central role in the processes of globalization as centers of global operations where the effects of these activities are most visible. They are primary nodes in the global economic network and are characterized by concentrations of wealth, growing disconnection from their regions, and large marginalized populations. Global cities act as hubs for international finance, trade, media and innovation and have high percentages of residents employed in services and information sectors. Increased globalization has led to centralization of production in urban centers, driving increases in global cities despite criticisms that they neglect domestic economies and cities within nations.
This document provides a summary of a research project on understanding migration. The project aims to examine migration from a comprehensive perspective by exploring the diverse reasons for migration, the challenges faced by migrants, and the opportunities presented by migration. It will do this through in-depth research, analysis of real-life narratives, and shedding light on the historical context, current dynamics, and implications of migration for the future. The overall goal is to foster empathy and promote inclusivity regarding this complex global issue.
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- Remittances sent home by migrants support families and communities in source countries
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3. Migration – the temporary or permanent movement
of people from one place to another
4. Rural-Urban Divide
Colonial India:-
The castes did not constitute a rigid description of occupation or the social status
but the Britisher’s attempted to equate the Indian Caste System to their own
colonial caste system since the British society was divided by class. Britisher’s
further codified the caste system in India and made it more rigid. A section of
sociologists agree that the caste system initially had several advantages too. It
served as an important tool of social order where mutual consent rather than
competition ruled. The Rural Urban divide played an important role in shaping
economic activities in Indian society. The fluidity of caste system was affected by
the arrival of British policy of divide and rule. Rigid categorization of population
also contributed towards the hardening of caste identities and Rural Urban
Divide.
5. Post -independence:-
In semi rural areas and small towns the system is still very rigid. Caste is also a very
important factor in the politics of India. After independence, the government has
officially documented castes and sub-castes, primarily to determine reservation in
education and jobs through census. The Indian reservation system relies entirely on
quotas for scheduled castes, scheduled tribes and other backward castes. This system has
been fairly successful in bringing the backward castes into the mainstream. However, the
caste based reservations in India has also led to widespread protests due to reverse
discrimination against the upper caste. Also the caste based politics in India has created
various undue tensions amongst the social forces. With a passage of six-decades after
independence the caste based discrimination in our country has been addressed to some
extent but there is still enough scope to bridge the inter-caste gaps in the society. The
economic and social equality, globalization, extensive education, youth empowerment
and social organizations have contributed a great deal in mellowing down the deeply
rooted caste based discrimination in our country. In these situations, it is the
responsibility and greater role of the politicians to reform the society instead of
concentrating on caste-based politics, appeasement and discrimination, which is
unhealthy for the Indian Society.
6. Why do people migrate?
People migrate for many different reasons. These reasons can be classified as economic,
social, political or environmental:
economic migration - moving to find work or follow a particular career path
social migration - moving somewhere for a better quality of life or to be closer to family or
friends
political migration - moving to escape political persecution or war
environmental - causes of migration include natural disasters such as flooding
Some people choose to migrate, eg - someone who moves to another country to enhance
their career opportunities. Some people are forced to migrate, eg - someone who moves due
to war or famine.
A refugee is someone who has left their home and does not have a new home to go to.
Often refugees do not carry many possessions with them and do not have a clear idea of
where they may finally settle.
7. Forms of Migration
Forced migration includes refugees, asylum seekers and people
forced to move due to external factors
Family members - people sharing family ties joining people who
have already entered an immigration country
Return migrants - people who return to their countries of origin
after a period in another country
1.Legal migrants
2.Illegal migrants
3. Irregular migrants
4. Refugees
5. Labour migration
Types of Migration
8. Legal Migrants - migrants that legally enter into the country, have a valid
immigrant visa and proper documentation
Illegal migrant – a person who, owing to illegal entry or the expiry of his or her
visa, lacks legal status in a transit or host country. The term applies to migrants
who infringe a country’s admission rules and any other person not authorized to
remain in the host country .
Irregular migrants - The people who enter or remain in a country of which
they are not a citizen in breach of national laws. The IMO estimates that
irregular immigrants account for one-third to one-half of new entrants into
developed countries, marking an increase of 20 per cent over the past ten years
Labour migration - An international migrant worker is defined by the 1990 United
Nations (UN) International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant
Workers and Members of their Families as “a person who is to be engaged, is engaged or
has been engaged in remunerated activity in a State of which he or she is not a national.
Refugee - A person who has left their home in a country where they feel unsafe
because of persecution or war, and has applied to stay in another country where they feel
safe. If they are allowed to stay they become a refugee.
9. Temporary labour migrants (also known as guest workers or
overseas contract workers): People who migrate for a limited
period of time in order to take up employment and send money
home.
Highly skilled and business migrants: People with qualifications
as managers, executives, professionals, technicians or similar, who
move within the internal labour markets of trans- national
corporations and international organizations, or who seek
employment through international labour markets for scarce
skills. Many countries welcome such migrants and have special
'skilled and business migration' programs to encourage them to
come.
11. INTERNAL MIGRATION
This is migration within a country.
explain what the following types of internal migration are.
•Rural to Urban
•Urban to Rural
•Inter-urban
•Intra-urban
•Transmigration
WHAT IS INTER NATIONAL MIGRATION
International migration is the relatively long distance movement between people.
Emigration is the departure of a person from one country to live permanently in another.
Immigration is the entrance into a country of a person with the aim of living there
permanently.
International migration can be VOLUNTARY or FORCED.
13. People migrate due to PUSH and PULL factors
PUSH factors are those that cause people to leave an area
PULL factors are those that encourage people to move to an area
List push and pull factors that you can think of.
High population pressure
Economic hardship
Poor quality of life
Persecution Forced out – ethnic cleansing
No jobs
Starvation and disasters
Marriage
Harsh environment
Push factors
Able to support population
More opportunities
Higher standard of living
Receptive society
Accepts refugees and asylum seekers
City life – bright lights
Partner works there
Pull factors
14.
15.
16.
17. Impacts of Migration :-
Migration is becoming a very important subject for the life of cities. Many opportunities and
attraction of big cities pull large numbers of people to big cities. Migration can have positive
as well as negative effects on the life of the migrants.
Positive Impact
1. Unemployment is reduced and people get better job opportunities.
2. Migration helps in improving the quality of life of people.
3. It helps to improve social life of people as they learn about new culture, customs, and
languages which helps to improve brotherhood among people.
4. Migration of skilled workers leads to a greater economic growth of the region.
5. Children get better opportunities for higher education.
6. The population density is reduced and the birth rate decreases.
Negative Impact
1. The loss of a person from rural areas, impact on the level of output and development of
rural areas.
2. The influx of workers in urban areas increases competition for the job, houses, school
facilities etc.
3. Having large population puts too much pressure on natural resources, amenities
and services.
4. It is difficult for a villager to survive in urban areas because in urban areas there is
no natural environment and pure air. They have to pay for each and everything.
18. 5. Migration changes the population of a place, therefore, the distribution of the
population is uneven in India.
6. Many migrants are completely illiterate and uneducated, therefore, they are not only
unfit for most jobs, but also lack basic knowledge and life skills.
7. Poverty makes them unable to live a normal and healthy life.
8. Children growing up in poverty have no access to proper nutrition, education or health.
9. Migration increased the slum areas in cities which increase many problems such as
unhygienic conditions, crime, pollution etc.
10. Sometimes migrants are exploited.
11. Migration is one of the main causes of increasing nuclear family where children grow up
without a wider family circle.
19. 4 Major Causes of Migration in India
Migrations are caused by a variety of factors including economic, social and political factors. They are
briefly described as under.
1. Marriage:
Marriage is a very important social factor of migration. Every girl has to migrate to her in-law’s place of
residence after marriage. Thus, the entire female population of India has to migrate over short or long
distance. Among the people who shifted their resistance more than half (56.1%) moved due to marriage
in 1991.
2. Employment:
People migrate in large number from rural to urban areas in search of employment. The agricultural
base of rural areas does not provide employment to all the people living there. Even the small-scale and
cottage industries of the villages fail to provide employment to the entire rural folk. Contrary to this,
urban areas provide vast scope for employment in industries, trade, transport and services. About 8.8
per cent of migrants migrated for employment in 1991.
3. Education:
Rural areas, by and large, lack educational facilities, especially those of higher education and rural
people have to migrate to the urban centres for this purpose. Many of them settle down in the cities for
earning a livelihood after completing their education.
4. Lack of Security:
Political disturbances and interethnic conflicts drive people away from their homes. Large number of
people has migrated out of Jammu and Kashmir and Assam during the last few years due to disturbed
conditions there.
20. People also migrate on a short-term basis in search of better opportunities for recreation,
health care facilities, and legal advices or for availing service which the nearby towns provide.
Table 1 gives an idea of impact of different reasons on migration.
Table 1 India: Proportion of in migrants according to Causes of Migration, 1991:
Reasons of
Migration
Total migrants
(Lakh persons)
Per cent of
Total in-
migrants
Per cent of
male in-
migrants
Per cent of
female in-
migrants
Marriage 1303 56.1 4.0 76.1
Shifting of family 356 15.3 26.6 11.0
Employment 204 8.8 11.0 1.8
Education 45 2.0 4.8 0.8
Business 53 2.3 6.0 0.5
Other reasons 360 15.5 31.6 9.8
21. Intra State and Inter State Migration as seen in India
(i) Intra State Migration:
This type of migration takes place between two parts of the same state. Table 12.2 shows that
a very high proportion (69.33%) of the intra state migrants was classed as rural to rural
migrants while 9 10 per cent of the migrants were classed as urban to urban, 15.74 per cent
rural to urban and 5.84 per cent urban to rural.
Nearly three fourth of the total intra-state migrants were females, mainly caused by marriage.
As much as 75.77 per cent of the female migrants belonged to the rural to rural, 11.95 per
cent rural to urban, 5.23 per cent urban to rural and 7.04 per cent urban to rural.
Among the male migrants, nearly half belonged to rural to rural, 15.38 per cent were urban to
urban 27.27 per cent were rural to urban and 7.68% were urban to rural.
(ii) Inter State Migration:
Volume of interstate migration, i.e., migration between two states is much smaller than the
intra- state migration simply because of increase in distance. Most of the inter-state migration
takes place along border between two neighbouring states. Of the total inter-state migrants
28.4 were rural to rural, 32.83 rural to urban, 7.17 urban to rural and 34.6 urban to urban
(Table 3).
22. Type of Migration Total Males Females
Rural to Rural 28.40 18.02 36.71
Rural to Urban 32.83 41.42 25.95
Urban to Rural 7.17 6.67 7.58
Urban to Urban 34.6 37.90 29.75
Percentage of total
inter-state migrants
100.00 44.48 55.52
Table 3 Inter State Migration Patterns in Percentages:
Table 3 shows that females outnumbered males in half the streams of inter-state migration.
Of the total 36.71 per cent were rural to rural, 25.95 per cent rural to urban, 7.58 per cent
urban to rural and 55.52% urban to urban. Of the total male inter-state migrants, about 18
per cent were rural to rural, 41.42 per cent rural to urban, 6.67 per cent urban to rural and
44.48 per cent urban to urban.
23. Migration and Trends of Migration in India
The movement of population from one region to another is termed as migration. Migration is
commonly of two types: temporary and permanent.
Temporary migration encompasses annual, seasonal or even daily movements of population
between two cities; it is also called ‘commutation’.
Migration can be divided into the following types on the basis of origin and destination:
(a) Rural to rural R → R
(b) Rural to urban R → U
(c) Urban to urban U → U
(d) Urban to rural U → R
In some cases, the population moves from villages to small towns and then to a bigger
metropolitan city: this may be termed ‘step-wise migration’.
Migration owing to a number of attractions offered by a city is interpreted as migration due
to ‘push’ factors; on the other hand, people move out of villages due to ‘pull’ factors — such
as better opportunities of employment, education, recreation, health care facilities, business,
etc. outside villages. Some ‘push’ factors are unemployment, poverty, social insecurity,
political instability and ethnic conflicts.
24. Trends of Migration in India:
Pattern The pattern of internal migration may be divided into the following: intra-state
movement in the case of movement of people within the state itself, and inter-state
movement when the migrants cross the borders of a state and settle down in another state.
The bulk of intra-state migrations were not caused by economic factors. Since about three-
fourths of all migrants were females, it becomes obvious that marriage was the prime reason
for such migration.
Generally, about one-half of male intra-state migrants belong to rural-to-rural category. Most
of these R→R migrants are from backward states like Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Orissa, Madhya
Pradesh and Rajasthan. It is obvious that migrants moved from their place of origin in search
of better jobs in agricultural farms or other establishments in rural areas.
Out-migration mostly takes place from underdeveloped states like Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh,
Bihar, Andhra Pradesh and Kerala. Migrants had a tendency to move into comparatively
developed regions like West Bengal, Maharashtra, the National Capital Territory of Delhi,
Chandigarh, and Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Assam and Madhya Pradesh also witnessed
in-migration but on a lesser scale.
Uneven development between regions is believed to be the major cause of migration. It is
unfortunate that most of the major metropolitan cities of India are currently witnessing heavy
in- migration and consequent population growth due to work opportunities offered by these
cities. Cities like Delhi, for example, are badly affected by huge influx of migrants.
25. Impact of Migration on Major Cities in India
In India problems related to massive poverty- induced migration from rural to the
major metros are due to lopsided, unplanned and over-congested urbanisation
which has caused overall deterioration of urban environment in India.
Most of the metropolitan cities are growing at an alarmingly fast rate and,
according to UN estimates, most of them will double their population in the next 12
to 15 years.
Increasing low-quality migration of the poor to urban areas has already led to urban
involution, decay, poverty, exploitation, insecurity and inequality among the
migrant population. As most of the migrants are poor, landless, illiterate and lack
basic skills, they fail to get jobs in the capital-intensive production system of urban
India. These unskilled migrants are absorbed by the unorganised sectors which are
characterised by low productivity, tremendous competition, poor pay and
insecurity.
26. Even if such migrations help the rural poor to avoid starvation death, it causes a
huge loss in terms of human resource and national potential. As a consequence,
major urban centres of India have become much involuted, not evoluted, i.e., they
have grown merely in population, not in prosperity. Mega-cities look like over-
blown villages without urban culture and urban functional characteristics.
During the last few decades, acute problems have arisen—extreme housing
scarcities, and frequent breakdown of essential municipal services such as water
supply, electricity, sewerage, transport—due to the massive pressure of population
on the basic urban facilities.
The problems caused by migration can be checked by curbing population growth
and promoting a balanced economic development in the country. It is imperative
that the government, NGOs, scholars, planners, policy-makers and administrators
cooperate and formulate well- thought out action plans for remedying the
situation.
27. Rural to Urban Migration
Urban development was created as a consequence of industrialization in the
developed world… ‘urban pull’… industry then the city.
Urban development was created by pop growth and migration to urban centres in
developing countries….city first then industry… ‘rural push’
Move from poverty and hunger to employment, services & water supply.
Impact of rural to urban migration in developing countries:
Migrants mostly young adults…> high fertility rate & so high rate of natural pop
increase…. cities expand rapidly.
Young pop accounts for over 60% of urban pop growth.
Megacities… pop over 10m. E.g.. Calcutta, Lagos.
Squatter settlements called shanties & bustees (India) dev. on edge of city as city
grows too quickly & cannot support jobs & housing.
28. Children forced to become beggars, labourers & prostitutes at a very young
age…. family structures break down due to poverty.
Males more likely to migrate leaving an imbalance in gender.
Case study: Bustees in Calcutta & Bombay
Over 60% of Calcutta’s pop live in bustees and over half a million are homeless,
(pavement dwellers) sleeping on the street, live under bridges or along the canal.
Permanent slum dwellers are protected by law in Calcutta. 77% of families have
only one room to live in.
Pavement dwellers have no rights.
Open sewers common & disease widespread.
Warm monsoon weather creates malaria.
Girls are restricted in the education they can receive
Child labour common & employ. prospects without education is poor
29. Impact of rural to urban migration in developed world:
‘Urban sprawl’… rapid spread of urban regions into countryside.
Consists of large housing estates on edge of city…. quality housing with front &
rear garden… contrast to bustees.
Restrict urban sprawl by creating growth boundaries & with dev. of growth centres
(with leisure & work facilities) some distance from city. E.g. Leystas & Almere in
Holland away from Randstad.
Depop of rural areas due to migration to city…E.g. West of Irl
Young leave farms & rural areas lack pop & services.
Ethnic zone & ghettos in inner city as large groups move there.
Redev of inner cities (Dublin Docklands) and new apartments keeps pop there….
Mainly young single, close to work.
Counter-urbanization… people move away from city due to high cost of housing
& poor quality of life, traffic, crime, lack of space.
30. Industry reluctant to set up in rural region due to lack of services &
skilled workers
Daily movement of rural dwellers to & from work creates traffic
chaos.
Environmental impact caused by urban expansion:
Industry, homes & cars producing greenhouse gases… atmosphere
overheat---> global warming.
Smog, a mixture of smoke & fog, builds up…. respitory problems
Urban waste… up to 30% untreated and goes directly into rivers.