This document provides an overview of the key information needed to perform a satellite link budget analysis. It discusses the various parameters that must be accounted for, such as location, frequency, antenna characteristics, rain attenuation levels, coupling and mispointing losses. Tables of rain attenuation values for different frequency bands and climatic zones are also presented. The document aims to explain all of the relevant factors that impact satellite communication links and must be considered in a link budget calculation.
The document describes an RF amplifier chip called the INA-34063. It provides the following key details:
- The INA-34063 is a silicon RF amplifier that offers high gain and output power up to 3 GHz. It is packaged in a small SOT-363 package.
- It has wide bandwidth, high linearity, and high reverse isolation, making it suitable as a driver amplifier for applications like cellular, wireless, and satellite systems.
- The chip is fabricated using Agilent's high performance bipolar process to achieve good performance, uniformity, and reliability up to 30 GHz.
- It provides over 18 dB of gain, less than 5 dB of noise figure,
This document provides specifications for wide flange steel shapes, including:
1) Dimensional specifications and properties like cross-sectional area, moments of inertia, radii of gyration, and modulus of section for various steel sizes.
2) Tolerances for dimensions of widths, depths, thicknesses.
3) Chemical composition and mechanical properties for different grades of steel.
4) Table of weights in kg/m and kg/12m for common hot rolled beam, wide flange, and H-beam sizes.
Example kitchen ventilation calculationwilliammana
This document provides calculations for kitchen ventilation requirements. It determines that a mobile hot cabinet appliance area requires 662.5 CFM of exhaust and additional makeup air is needed from the surrounding hood area, totaling 984 CFM required. A 1200 CFM kitchen exhaust fan and 960 CFM makeup fan are selected to meet the calculated needs. Technical specifications are also provided for the selected fans.
This document is a test report for an HCR-A18 luminaire with a 4000K, Ra73 light source. It includes photometric test results such as luminous intensity distribution, zonal flux diagrams, and luminance limitation curves. System test details like voltage, current, power factor, and test conditions are provided.
This document provides specifications for various types of structural steel sections including:
- Parallel flange beams with specifications for universal beams ranging from 203x133x25 to 610x229x139.9
- Indian channels from ISMC 250x80 to ISMC 400x100
- Indian crane rail sections CR-80 and CR-100
- Parallel flange beams continued including IPEA, IPE, IPEO, NPB sections from 450x190 to 600x220
It includes dimensions, weights, properties like area, moment of inertia, section modulus and radius of gyration for each section. Delivery conditions and minimum order quantities are also specified.
The document discusses deposition rates, electrode efficiency, and electrode weld metal recovery, which are different metrics for measuring welding consumables. Deposition rate is the rate at which weld metal is deposited, while electrode efficiency is the percentage of filler metal that is deposited. Electrode weld metal recovery allows calculating the percentage of welding consumable that will end up in the finished weld. Tables provide the weight of weld metal deposited per meter for common weld geometries like triangles and rectangles at different thicknesses.
Tablas normal chi cuadrado y t student 1-semana 6Karla Diaz
The document contains a table of values for the standard normal cumulative distribution function F(z) for z-values ranging from -3.5 to 3.2 in increments of 0.1. The table provides the probability P(Z≤z) for finding a value less than or equal to z in a standard normal distribution.
The document describes an RF amplifier chip called the INA-34063. It provides the following key details:
- The INA-34063 is a silicon RF amplifier that offers high gain and output power up to 3 GHz. It is packaged in a small SOT-363 package.
- It has wide bandwidth, high linearity, and high reverse isolation, making it suitable as a driver amplifier for applications like cellular, wireless, and satellite systems.
- The chip is fabricated using Agilent's high performance bipolar process to achieve good performance, uniformity, and reliability up to 30 GHz.
- It provides over 18 dB of gain, less than 5 dB of noise figure,
This document provides specifications for wide flange steel shapes, including:
1) Dimensional specifications and properties like cross-sectional area, moments of inertia, radii of gyration, and modulus of section for various steel sizes.
2) Tolerances for dimensions of widths, depths, thicknesses.
3) Chemical composition and mechanical properties for different grades of steel.
4) Table of weights in kg/m and kg/12m for common hot rolled beam, wide flange, and H-beam sizes.
Example kitchen ventilation calculationwilliammana
This document provides calculations for kitchen ventilation requirements. It determines that a mobile hot cabinet appliance area requires 662.5 CFM of exhaust and additional makeup air is needed from the surrounding hood area, totaling 984 CFM required. A 1200 CFM kitchen exhaust fan and 960 CFM makeup fan are selected to meet the calculated needs. Technical specifications are also provided for the selected fans.
This document is a test report for an HCR-A18 luminaire with a 4000K, Ra73 light source. It includes photometric test results such as luminous intensity distribution, zonal flux diagrams, and luminance limitation curves. System test details like voltage, current, power factor, and test conditions are provided.
This document provides specifications for various types of structural steel sections including:
- Parallel flange beams with specifications for universal beams ranging from 203x133x25 to 610x229x139.9
- Indian channels from ISMC 250x80 to ISMC 400x100
- Indian crane rail sections CR-80 and CR-100
- Parallel flange beams continued including IPEA, IPE, IPEO, NPB sections from 450x190 to 600x220
It includes dimensions, weights, properties like area, moment of inertia, section modulus and radius of gyration for each section. Delivery conditions and minimum order quantities are also specified.
The document discusses deposition rates, electrode efficiency, and electrode weld metal recovery, which are different metrics for measuring welding consumables. Deposition rate is the rate at which weld metal is deposited, while electrode efficiency is the percentage of filler metal that is deposited. Electrode weld metal recovery allows calculating the percentage of welding consumable that will end up in the finished weld. Tables provide the weight of weld metal deposited per meter for common weld geometries like triangles and rectangles at different thicknesses.
Tablas normal chi cuadrado y t student 1-semana 6Karla Diaz
The document contains a table of values for the standard normal cumulative distribution function F(z) for z-values ranging from -3.5 to 3.2 in increments of 0.1. The table provides the probability P(Z≤z) for finding a value less than or equal to z in a standard normal distribution.
This document provides information on Shawcor's high density polyethylene (HDPE) pressure pipe and liners. It discusses the benefits of HDPE pipe such as lower installation and lifecycle costs, corrosion and chemical resistance, and lighter weight. Tables are included that specify the dimensions, pressure ratings, and weights of various pipe sizes that are available from Shawcor in HDPE material.
biaxial footing will have staad model interaction. with scroll system more than 100 load cases can be analysed & printed in separate sheet. saves considerable time
This document provides sizing summaries for the air system and zones of a building in Medellín, Colombia. The air system serves 26 zones totaling 5,063 square feet. Key specifications and peak cooling loads are reported, including a total central cooling coil load of 24.1 tons and maximum block airflow of 13,444 CFM. Individual zone designs are also summarized, listing design supply airflows, minimum flows, and peak sensible loads for each of the 26 zones.
The document presents Mamdani and Sugeno fuzzy inference system models for calculating the resonant frequency of rectangular microstrip antennas. Two types of fuzzy inference system models - Mamdani and Sugeno - are used to compute the resonant frequency. The parameters of the fuzzy inference system models are determined using various optimization algorithms. The Sugeno fuzzy inference system model trained with the least-squares algorithm provided the best results, with the resonant frequency predictions being in very good agreement with experimental results from literature.
This document provides the design of a security room structure. It includes calculations for loads on the structure from dead loads, live loads, and earthquake loads. It also includes modeling of the structure in STAAD Pro software, showing the joints, members, material properties, and load cases analyzed. Reinforced concrete design is performed for structural elements including the roof slab, foundation, and main structural members.
The document reports on a site surveying leveling assignment conducted to determine elevation differences between points at a staff car park. Two leveling methods were used: rise and fall method and height of collimation method. Field data was collected at 10 turning points and an automatic level, leveling staff, and tripod were used. Arithmetic checks showed minor errors which were distributed and final adjusted reduced levels were reported.
SPECTRAL-BASED FATIGUE ASSESSMENT OF FSOSUMARDIONO .
The document discusses fatigue analysis of an offshore floating storage vessel (FSO) hull construction using spectral-based fatigue analysis methods. It outlines the objectives to determine long-term wave load characteristics, stress distributions, and fatigue life of critical locations. The methodology involves regular wave load analysis, finite element modeling, spectral analysis of long-term wave loads and stresses, and fatigue analysis to estimate the fatigue life. Critical locations on the hull are identified for further stress analysis and fatigue life estimation.
This document provides specifications for various sizes of aluminum conductor, XLPE insulated wires and cables. It includes the nominal conductor size, thickness of insulation, overall diameter, weight, and current rating for both unarmored and armored cable configurations ranging from 4 to 1000 square mm in size. Tolerances for dimensions and delivery length are also specified. The cable conforms to Indian standard IS 7098 for 1100 volt cables.
This document provides information about solar modules and solar systems from Lubi Electronics. It describes the components of the solar modules including mono/poly-crystal silicon solar cells, bypass diodes, and anti-reflection coating. It also lists advantages like subsidies, depreciation benefits, and diesel savings. The document provides specifications for different wattage polycrystalline solar panels and details mounting structures. It highlights Lubi Electronics' manufacturing facilities, quality assurance processes, and product warranties.
Lubi Electronics - Polycrystalline Solar Modules Manufacturer & ExporterHimanshurai Sunsara
Lubi Electronics, India's leading manufacturer & exporter of the High Quality Poly-Crystalline Photovoltaic Solar Modules.
It operates state of the art 40MW turnkey line capable of manufacturing High Quality Solar Modules. Our products meet stringent Global Standards with approvals from IEC, CB and UL.
As a company we offer you services that are of the highest standard and at extremely competitive rates.
If you have any requirements of Solar Modules. Kindly send an email to - Mr. Himanshurai Sunsara
hlsunsara@lubielectronics.com
export@lubielectronics.com
This document provides physical characteristics and parameters of the Mantaro River basin in Peru. It includes the basin area (31,747 km2), average altitude (2,518 m), longest river length (14.145 km), and average rainfall by month between 1963-2018 based on data from the Quillabamba weather station. It also lists indices such as drainage density, stream order, and average slopes. In summary, it analyzes key hydrological metrics of the Mantaro River basin through tables of geographic and climatic data.
The document discusses a proposed water supply project by V V Water Company. It outlines that the project would involve developing water resources from a well field with infrastructure to transport water via pipeline. It evaluates the project based on three criteria: deliverability, feasibility, and affordability. For deliverability, it indicates the water could be produced in large volumes continuously from the well field. For feasibility, it describes the infrastructure plan to transport water from the well field to the point of storage and sale. For affordability, it finds the cost of water from this project would be lower than competing systems and available regardless of conditions like drought.
1. The document provides information on modeling and analyzing various components used in rotor systems, including shafts, drive shafts, clamping plates, and tie bolts. Dimensional data and results from balance testing, spin testing, and FEA analyses are presented.
2. Modal, static, and harmonic analyses were performed on a hall rail model under different load and geometry conditions. Safety factors were calculated based on maximum stresses.
3. Static structural, modal, and harmonic analyses of the hall rail were performed and compared using ANSYS, SOLIDWORKS, and ABAQUS. Results for maximum stress and safety factors using different software are shown in a table.
This document contains technical specifications and performance metrics for a link between Iranshar TV and Iranshahr PC, including their locations, antenna details, frequencies used, path length, losses, reliability factors, and a graph of elevation along the path. The link has a path length of 5.5 km and is designed to provide a 99.97% reliable signal. Performance was analyzed using ITU recommendations for factors like fading, multipath, and rain attenuation.
This document provides a cost estimate for a proposed development comprising 2 blocks of 31-storey residential towers above a 7-storey podium and 2-storey basement on a site in Kuala Lumpur. It includes estimates for substructure, structure, architectural components, M&E services, and external works. The total estimated construction cost is RM194,999,403.72 or RM2,195/sqft, including preliminaries, contingencies and cost escalation over one year. The highest cost components are structure, architectural works, and M&E services.
Fantastic tutorial, shared with us by Dario Ilardi, of Grafica2d3d.com, I recommend to see.
The website is in Italian, but it is full of excellent tutorials, understandable in any language.
This great tutorial, explain, step by step, how to obtain, by using vray 2.0 for sketchup, a render, clear and clean as what we see in the picture below.
Dario say : " I'm experimenting with the use of brute force as a substitute of irradiance map and I must say that in terms of speed and quality impressed me positively "
Thanks so much Dario for this one, the result is really good !
This document provides specifications for different types of steel sheets, including their common qualities, chemical compositions, mechanical properties, most frequent applications, and technical dimensions and weights. It includes data on cold rolled, hot rolled, galvanized, and non-slip steel sheets. Dimension tables are provided for various thicknesses and sizes.
An In-Depth Exploration of Natural Language Processing: Evolution, Applicatio...DharmaBanothu
Natural language processing (NLP) has
recently garnered significant interest for the
computational representation and analysis of human
language. Its applications span multiple domains such
as machine translation, email spam detection,
information extraction, summarization, healthcare,
and question answering. This paper first delineates
four phases by examining various levels of NLP and
components of Natural Language Generation,
followed by a review of the history and progression of
NLP. Subsequently, we delve into the current state of
the art by presenting diverse NLP applications,
contemporary trends, and challenges. Finally, we
discuss some available datasets, models, and
evaluation metrics in NLP.
This document provides information on Shawcor's high density polyethylene (HDPE) pressure pipe and liners. It discusses the benefits of HDPE pipe such as lower installation and lifecycle costs, corrosion and chemical resistance, and lighter weight. Tables are included that specify the dimensions, pressure ratings, and weights of various pipe sizes that are available from Shawcor in HDPE material.
biaxial footing will have staad model interaction. with scroll system more than 100 load cases can be analysed & printed in separate sheet. saves considerable time
This document provides sizing summaries for the air system and zones of a building in Medellín, Colombia. The air system serves 26 zones totaling 5,063 square feet. Key specifications and peak cooling loads are reported, including a total central cooling coil load of 24.1 tons and maximum block airflow of 13,444 CFM. Individual zone designs are also summarized, listing design supply airflows, minimum flows, and peak sensible loads for each of the 26 zones.
The document presents Mamdani and Sugeno fuzzy inference system models for calculating the resonant frequency of rectangular microstrip antennas. Two types of fuzzy inference system models - Mamdani and Sugeno - are used to compute the resonant frequency. The parameters of the fuzzy inference system models are determined using various optimization algorithms. The Sugeno fuzzy inference system model trained with the least-squares algorithm provided the best results, with the resonant frequency predictions being in very good agreement with experimental results from literature.
This document provides the design of a security room structure. It includes calculations for loads on the structure from dead loads, live loads, and earthquake loads. It also includes modeling of the structure in STAAD Pro software, showing the joints, members, material properties, and load cases analyzed. Reinforced concrete design is performed for structural elements including the roof slab, foundation, and main structural members.
The document reports on a site surveying leveling assignment conducted to determine elevation differences between points at a staff car park. Two leveling methods were used: rise and fall method and height of collimation method. Field data was collected at 10 turning points and an automatic level, leveling staff, and tripod were used. Arithmetic checks showed minor errors which were distributed and final adjusted reduced levels were reported.
SPECTRAL-BASED FATIGUE ASSESSMENT OF FSOSUMARDIONO .
The document discusses fatigue analysis of an offshore floating storage vessel (FSO) hull construction using spectral-based fatigue analysis methods. It outlines the objectives to determine long-term wave load characteristics, stress distributions, and fatigue life of critical locations. The methodology involves regular wave load analysis, finite element modeling, spectral analysis of long-term wave loads and stresses, and fatigue analysis to estimate the fatigue life. Critical locations on the hull are identified for further stress analysis and fatigue life estimation.
This document provides specifications for various sizes of aluminum conductor, XLPE insulated wires and cables. It includes the nominal conductor size, thickness of insulation, overall diameter, weight, and current rating for both unarmored and armored cable configurations ranging from 4 to 1000 square mm in size. Tolerances for dimensions and delivery length are also specified. The cable conforms to Indian standard IS 7098 for 1100 volt cables.
This document provides information about solar modules and solar systems from Lubi Electronics. It describes the components of the solar modules including mono/poly-crystal silicon solar cells, bypass diodes, and anti-reflection coating. It also lists advantages like subsidies, depreciation benefits, and diesel savings. The document provides specifications for different wattage polycrystalline solar panels and details mounting structures. It highlights Lubi Electronics' manufacturing facilities, quality assurance processes, and product warranties.
Lubi Electronics - Polycrystalline Solar Modules Manufacturer & ExporterHimanshurai Sunsara
Lubi Electronics, India's leading manufacturer & exporter of the High Quality Poly-Crystalline Photovoltaic Solar Modules.
It operates state of the art 40MW turnkey line capable of manufacturing High Quality Solar Modules. Our products meet stringent Global Standards with approvals from IEC, CB and UL.
As a company we offer you services that are of the highest standard and at extremely competitive rates.
If you have any requirements of Solar Modules. Kindly send an email to - Mr. Himanshurai Sunsara
hlsunsara@lubielectronics.com
export@lubielectronics.com
This document provides physical characteristics and parameters of the Mantaro River basin in Peru. It includes the basin area (31,747 km2), average altitude (2,518 m), longest river length (14.145 km), and average rainfall by month between 1963-2018 based on data from the Quillabamba weather station. It also lists indices such as drainage density, stream order, and average slopes. In summary, it analyzes key hydrological metrics of the Mantaro River basin through tables of geographic and climatic data.
The document discusses a proposed water supply project by V V Water Company. It outlines that the project would involve developing water resources from a well field with infrastructure to transport water via pipeline. It evaluates the project based on three criteria: deliverability, feasibility, and affordability. For deliverability, it indicates the water could be produced in large volumes continuously from the well field. For feasibility, it describes the infrastructure plan to transport water from the well field to the point of storage and sale. For affordability, it finds the cost of water from this project would be lower than competing systems and available regardless of conditions like drought.
1. The document provides information on modeling and analyzing various components used in rotor systems, including shafts, drive shafts, clamping plates, and tie bolts. Dimensional data and results from balance testing, spin testing, and FEA analyses are presented.
2. Modal, static, and harmonic analyses were performed on a hall rail model under different load and geometry conditions. Safety factors were calculated based on maximum stresses.
3. Static structural, modal, and harmonic analyses of the hall rail were performed and compared using ANSYS, SOLIDWORKS, and ABAQUS. Results for maximum stress and safety factors using different software are shown in a table.
This document contains technical specifications and performance metrics for a link between Iranshar TV and Iranshahr PC, including their locations, antenna details, frequencies used, path length, losses, reliability factors, and a graph of elevation along the path. The link has a path length of 5.5 km and is designed to provide a 99.97% reliable signal. Performance was analyzed using ITU recommendations for factors like fading, multipath, and rain attenuation.
This document provides a cost estimate for a proposed development comprising 2 blocks of 31-storey residential towers above a 7-storey podium and 2-storey basement on a site in Kuala Lumpur. It includes estimates for substructure, structure, architectural components, M&E services, and external works. The total estimated construction cost is RM194,999,403.72 or RM2,195/sqft, including preliminaries, contingencies and cost escalation over one year. The highest cost components are structure, architectural works, and M&E services.
Fantastic tutorial, shared with us by Dario Ilardi, of Grafica2d3d.com, I recommend to see.
The website is in Italian, but it is full of excellent tutorials, understandable in any language.
This great tutorial, explain, step by step, how to obtain, by using vray 2.0 for sketchup, a render, clear and clean as what we see in the picture below.
Dario say : " I'm experimenting with the use of brute force as a substitute of irradiance map and I must say that in terms of speed and quality impressed me positively "
Thanks so much Dario for this one, the result is really good !
This document provides specifications for different types of steel sheets, including their common qualities, chemical compositions, mechanical properties, most frequent applications, and technical dimensions and weights. It includes data on cold rolled, hot rolled, galvanized, and non-slip steel sheets. Dimension tables are provided for various thicknesses and sizes.
An In-Depth Exploration of Natural Language Processing: Evolution, Applicatio...DharmaBanothu
Natural language processing (NLP) has
recently garnered significant interest for the
computational representation and analysis of human
language. Its applications span multiple domains such
as machine translation, email spam detection,
information extraction, summarization, healthcare,
and question answering. This paper first delineates
four phases by examining various levels of NLP and
components of Natural Language Generation,
followed by a review of the history and progression of
NLP. Subsequently, we delve into the current state of
the art by presenting diverse NLP applications,
contemporary trends, and challenges. Finally, we
discuss some available datasets, models, and
evaluation metrics in NLP.
Covid Management System Project Report.pdfKamal Acharya
CoVID-19 sprang up in Wuhan China in November 2019 and was declared a pandemic by the in January 2020 World Health Organization (WHO). Like the Spanish flu of 1918 that claimed millions of lives, the COVID-19 has caused the demise of thousands with China, Italy, Spain, USA and India having the highest statistics on infection and mortality rates. Regardless of existing sophisticated technologies and medical science, the spread has continued to surge high. With this COVID-19 Management System, organizations can respond virtually to the COVID-19 pandemic and protect, educate and care for citizens in the community in a quick and effective manner. This comprehensive solution not only helps in containing the virus but also proactively empowers both citizens and care providers to minimize the spread of the virus through targeted strategies and education.
Online train ticket booking system project.pdfKamal Acharya
Rail transport is one of the important modes of transport in India. Now a days we
see that there are railways that are present for the long as well as short distance
travelling which makes the life of the people easier. When compared to other
means of transport, a railway is the cheapest means of transport. The maintenance
of the railway database also plays a major role in the smooth running of this
system. The Online Train Ticket Management System will help in reserving the
tickets of the railways to travel from a particular source to the destination.
This study Examines the Effectiveness of Talent Procurement through the Imple...DharmaBanothu
In the world with high technology and fast
forward mindset recruiters are walking/showing interest
towards E-Recruitment. Present most of the HRs of
many companies are choosing E-Recruitment as the best
choice for recruitment. E-Recruitment is being done
through many online platforms like Linkedin, Naukri,
Instagram , Facebook etc. Now with high technology E-
Recruitment has gone through next level by using
Artificial Intelligence too.
Key Words : Talent Management, Talent Acquisition , E-
Recruitment , Artificial Intelligence Introduction
Effectiveness of Talent Acquisition through E-
Recruitment in this topic we will discuss about 4important
and interlinked topics which are
We have designed & manufacture the Lubi Valves LBF series type of Butterfly Valves for General Utility Water applications as well as for HVAC applications.
2. 6/10/5244 - 2
Link Budgets
Link Budget tool
– Has much of the information we’ll cover in the
database
• Make’s your job much easier
– Will be covered later in the training
This will provide an overview of the information that is
required to perform a link budget and their impact on
the Communication link
3. 6/10/5244 - 3
Link Budget Information
Site latitude
Site longitude
Altitude
Frequency
Polarization
Availability
Rain-climatic zone
Antenna aperture
Antenna efficiency (or gain)
Coupling Loss
Antenna mispointing loss
LNB noise temperature
Antenna ground noise temperature
Adjacent channel interference C/ACI
Adjacent satellite Interference C/ASI
Cross polarization interference C/XPI
HPA intermodulation interference C/I
Satellite longitude
Satellite receive G/T
Satellite saturation flux density SFD
Satellite gain setting
Satellite EIRP (saturation)
Transponder bandwidth
Transponder input back-off (IBO)
Transponder output back-off (OBO)
Transponder intermodulation
interference C/IM
Required Overall Eb/No
Information rate
Overhead (% information rate)
Modulation
Forward error correction (FEC) code
rate
Roll off factor
System margin
Modulation
Bit Error Rate (BER)
4. 6/10/5244 - 4
Link Availability
Caution:
– Do not use a large difference in uplink and downlink availability to
meet End to End availability requirements
Uplink in %
Downlink in %
End to End Link = 100-[(100-Au)+(100-Ad)]
– Example: 99.75 % uplink, 99.75 % downlink
= 100 – [(100-99.75)+(100-99.75)]
= 100- (.25)+(.25)
End to End Link = 99.50 %
Uplink and Downlink rain attenuation must also be added
– Minor impact on C-Band
– Major impact on Ku-Band
10. 6/10/5244 - 10
Coupling Loss
Downlink
– The total loss between antenna and LNA/LNB input
• Feed
• OMT
• Waveguide components
Uplink
– The total loss between HPA output and the antenna
• Waveguide components
• OMT
• Feed
• Filter truncation
11. 6/10/5244 - 11
Antenna Mispointing Loss
A typical allowance for mispointing is 0.5 dB
– A large antenna without tracking may require more
due to the narrow beamwidth
Allows for the pointing loss between the ground station
antenna and the satellite antenna
– It is unlikely that the antenna will be targeted
exactly due to initial installation errors
– Antenna stability due to wind
– Station keeping accuracy of the satellite
12. 6/10/5244 - 12
LNA / LNB Noise Temperature
– Frequency stability of LNB critical depending on type of service
– Low data rate carriers
C-Band are normally quoted as Noise Temperature in °Kelvin
Ku-Band are normally quoted as Noise Figure in dB
– Noise Figure to Noise Temperature
• Noise temperature (T) = 290 * (10^(Noise Figure/10)-1)
Example: Noise Figure = 1.0 dB
Noise Temp = 290 * (10^(1.0/10)-1 = 75°K
– The higher the frequency the more difficult and expensive it is
to achieve low noise figures
The LNA/LNB is one of the most critical components of an antenna
system receive system
– Major factor in determining the systems figure of merit (G/T)
14. 6/10/5244 - 14
Antenna Noise Temperature
Since antenna noise temperature has so many variable factors, an
estimate is perhaps the best we can hope for
The total noise temperature of the antenna , (Tant = Tsky+Tgnd)
depends mainly on the following factors:
– Sky Noise (Tsky)
• The sky noise consists of two main components, atmospheric and
the background radiation (2.7K)
• The upper atmosphere is an absorbing medium
• Sky noise increases with elevation due to the increasing path
through the atmosphere
– Ground Noise (Tgnd)
• The dominant contribution to antenna noise is ground noise pick up
through side lobes
• Noise temperature increases as the elevation angle decreases
since lower elevation settings, will pick up more ground noise due
to side lobes intercepting the ground
• A deep dish picks up less ground noise at lower elevations than do
shallow ones
16. 6/10/5244 - 16
Antenna Noise Temperature
To the above you need to add extra according to the complexity of
the feed:
– 2 port rx only, add 4.5
– 2 port rx and tx, add 4.5
– 3 port 2 rx and 1 tx, add 4.5
– 4 port 2 rx and 2 tx, add 9.9
Typical 10m C-Band antenna
Elevation angle (deg) Antenna noise temperature
5 - 46
10 - 35
15 - 29
20 - 24
30 - 17
40 - 14
17. 6/10/5244 - 17
Antenna G/T
Spec An plots showing G/T difference
4.5m 9.3M
C+N/N ≈ 17.5 dB C+N/N ≈ 22.5 dB
NF ≈ -65 dBm NF ≈ -70 dBm
4.5 m 9.3 m
18. 6/10/5244 - 18
Adjacent Channel Interference C/ACI
Typical values, irrespective of whether the
uplink or downlink co-channel C/ASI is of
interest, are in the range 24 to 30 dB
Unwanted electrical interference from signals
that are immediately adjacent in frequency to
the desired signal
– Due to imperfections in the transmission channel
and/or equipment
This parameter specifies the expected
interference level with respect to the wanted
carrier
19. 6/10/5244 - 19
Adjacent Satellite Interference (C/ASI)
– Spectral Power density of the
carriers
The level of ASI is a function of several parameters:
– Orbital separation between the
desired and the interfering
satellites
– Antenna side lobe performance
of the interfering uplink earth
station
– Antenna side lobe performance of
the receiving earth station
– Typically in the range of
18 to 30 dB
20. 6/10/5244 - 20
Cross Polarization Interference C/XPI
Typical values, irrespective of whether the uplink or
downlink C/XPI is of interest, are in the range 24 to 34 dB
Satellite X-Pol = 40
db
Antenna X-Pol = 35
dB
Total X-Pol Isolation = 31.1
dB
Total Cross-Pol Isolation
Total XPI =-20log[10(Sxp/20)
+10(Exp/20)
]
A value for the carrier to cross polarization interference
noise ratio C/XPI in dB
Specifies the expected interference level with respect
to the wanted carrier
21. 6/10/5244 - 21
Cross Polarization Interference C/XPI
– In addition, the transmitted wave and the orientation of the
receiving antenna polarizer also affect the polarization angle and,
hence, introduce degradation to the receiving antenna polarization
performance
Frequency re-use by dual polarization doubles the available
frequency spectrum at each orbital location using orthogonal
signals (V-H)
Since orthogonal polarization is not perfect in actual
implementation
– There is some coupling between the orthogonal signals generated by
the transmitting antenna and at the receiving antenna
• These couplings can create signal degradation
– The rotation of the antenna polarizer angle with respect to the
satellite downlink wave’s tilt angle effects the receiving antenna
polarization isolation performance.
22. 6/10/5244 - 22
HPA Intermodulation (C/IM)
Amplifier
F1
F2
Spectrum
Analyzer
As Pin is increased, the
intermodulation signal will
increase with power three times
as fast as the carrier signal.
23. 6/10/5244 - 23
Satellite Information
Satellite EIRP (saturation)
– Transponder's effective isotropic radiated power (EIRP) at
saturation in the specific direction of the receive earth receive
station Value to the specific location of the uplink earth station
– Obtained from satellite operators or G/T contour maps
Satellite Longitude
– Orbital position
Satellite receive G/T
– Value to the specific location of the uplink earth station
– Obtained from satellite operators or G/T contour maps
Satellite saturation flux density SFD
– The power needed to saturate the satellite's transponder
Satellite gain setting
– Most satellites have a gain step attenuator, which affects all
carriers in the transponder
– May, or may not, be include in the SFD specification
26. 6/10/5244 - 26
Satellite Information
– There is little C/IM effect if only one carrier is present in the
transponder
Transponder bandwidth
– Satellites full transponder bandwidth
Transponder input back-off (IBO)
– Input back off, or operating point, relative to saturation to reduce
intermodulation interference
Transponder output back-off (OBO)
• Related, in a non linear fashion, to the input back-off
Transponder intermodulation interference C/IM
– Specifies the carrier-to-intermodulation noise ratio in dB
– Depends on such factors as center frequency and the exact
number, type and positions of other carriers sharing the
transponder
– Increasing the input back-off also reduces the effect of this
interference.
27. 6/10/5244 - 27
Carrier Information
Required Overall Eb/No for desired BER
– Depends on
• Modulation Type
• FEC Rate
• Coding
28. 6/10/5244 - 28
Carrier Information
Forward error correction (FEC) code rate
– Code rate used with forward error correction
• 0.5, 0.667, 0.75, .875, etc.
Information rate
– User information rate of the data in Mbps
Overhead (% information rate)
– Amount of "overhead" added to the information data rate
to account for miscellaneous signaling requirements
• i.e. Reed Solomon
Modulation
– Type of modulation
• BPSK, QPSK, 8PSK, 16QAM, etc.
29. 6/10/5244 - 29
Carrier Information
Bit error rate (BER)
– The BER of the link
– 10-7 was typical of legacy systems
– 10-9 is desirable for IP links
Roll off factor
– The occupied bandwidth of a carrier is normally taken to
be 1.1 times the symbol rate, thus the roll off factor is 1.1
System margin
– Accounts for uncertainty in the various input
parameters and to allow for difficult to quantify non-
linear effects such as AM-PM conversion and perhaps
terrestrial interference
31. 6/10/5244 - 31
Link Budget Parameters
– Carrier
• Modulation type
• FEC rate
• Coding
The majority of link budget parameters are out of your
control
Those that you may control
– LNA / LNB
• Noise Temperature
– Antenna size
• Transmit
• Receive
– Existing or new
32. 6/10/5244 - 32
Link Budget Parameters
LNA / LNB
– Noise Temperature
• Major impact on system G/T
– Frequency stability
• Critical for low data rates
Antenna
– Typically as small as possible
• Cost
• Zoning requirements
• Aesthetics
33. 6/10/5244 - 33
Link Budget Parameters
– Antenna requirements
• Larger transmit, less HPA power required
• Larger receive, less satellite power required
Carrier – (modulation, FEC, coding)
– Satellite bandwidth required
• Balanced power and bandwidth operation
– i.e. 10% transponder power, 10% transponder
bandwidth
HPA power requirement
– Ensure proper backoff to prevent intermodulation and
spectral regrowth
34. 6/10/5244 - 34
Link Budget Parameters
-110 -100 -90 -80 -70 -60 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
Relative Bandwidth (%) - For Same Data Rate
16QAM 3/4
8PSK 5/6
8PSK 2/3
QPSK 7/8
QPSK 3/4
QPSK 1/2
Bandwidth For Various Modulation & Coding Types
16QAM 7/8
Effect of Modulation & FEC
35. 6/10/5244 - 35
Symbol Rate and OBW Calculations
Information Rate = 1544 kbps
Modulation Type = 2 1 = BPSK, 2 = QPSK, 3 = 8PSK, 4 = 16QAM
FEC Rate = 0.75 .5, .75, .875, etc
Inner = 188
Outer = 204
Reed Solomon 0.92 Overhead
Symbol Rate = 1116.9 kHz
Occupied Bandwidth = 1229 kHz
Bandwidth Calculation with Reed Solomon
Symbol Rate = Information Rate/(Modulation * FEC Rate * Coding)
Information Rate = 1544 kbps
Modulation Type = 2 1 = BPSK, 2 = QPSK, 3 = 8PSK, 4 = 16QAM
FEC Rate = 0.75 .5, .75, .875, etc
Symbol Rate = 1029.3 kHz
Occupied Bandwidth = 1132.3 kHz
Bandwidth Calculation
Symbol Rate = Information Rate/(Modulation * FEC Rate)
36. 6/10/5244 - 36
Satellite Carrier Spacing
• Different Symbol Rate carriers
– ( SR1 + SR2 ) x 0.7 = Carrier Space Traditional
– ( SR1 + SR2 ) x 0.6 = Carrier Space Practical
Occupied Bandwidth (OBW)
– Bandwidth the carrier actually occupies
• Typically 1.1 - 1.2 x Symbol Rate
Allocated bandwidth (ABW)
– Satellite bandwidth allocated for the carrier
• Equal Symbol Rate (SR) carriers
– ( SR ) x 1.4 = Carrier Space Traditional
– ( SR ) x 1.2 = Carrier Space Practical
37. 6/10/5244 - 37
Eb/No and C/N
Convert Eb/No to C/N
OBW = 750.9 kHz
DR = 1024 kbps
Eb/No = 9.3 dB
C/N = 10.6 dB
C/N = Eb/No - 10*log(OBW/DR)
Bandwidth = 750.9 kHz
bps = 1024 kbps
C/N = 10.65 dB
Eb/No = 9.30 dB
Eb/No = C/N + (10*log(OBW/DR)
Convert C/N to Eb/No
38. 6/10/5244 - 38
Performance as effected by Channel Spacing
Degradation created by 2 adjacent carriers QPSK
Zero degradation line = BER performance 10-8
Eb/No Degradation vs. Carrier Spacing
QPSK 3/4 Turbo
-4
-3.5
-3
-2.5
-2
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.70 0.90 1.10 1.30 1.50
Carrier Spacing Normalized To Symbol Rate
Eb/No
Degradation
-3 dB
0 dB
3 dB
6 dB
Adjacent
level
39. 6/10/5244 - 39
Performance as effected by Channel Spacing
Eb/No Degradation Versus Carrier Spacing
8-PSK 3/4 Turbo
-2.5
-2.0
-1.5
-1.0
-0.5
0.0
0.80 1.00 1.20 1.40 1.60
Carrier Spacing Normalized To Symbol Rate
Eb/No
Degradation
-3 dB
0 dB
3 dB
6 dB
Adjacent
level
Degradation created by 2 adjacent carriers 8PSK
Zero degradation line = BER performance 10-8
40. 6/10/5244 - 40
Performance as effected by Channel Spacing
Eb/No Degradation Versus Carrier Spacing
16-QAM 3/4 Turbo
-4.0
-3.5
-3.0
-2.5
-2.0
-1.5
-1.0
-0.5
0.0
0.80 1.00 1.20 1.40 1.60
Carrier Spacing Normalized To Symbol Rate
Eb/No
Degradation
-3 dB
0 dB
3 dB
6 dB
Adjacent
level
Degradation created by 2 adjacent carriers 16QAM
Zero degradation line = BER performance 10-8
41. 6/10/5244 - 41
Carrier Spacing at Low Data Rates
– Carriers could be impacted by ACI
• Use 1.3 or 1.4 spacing for low data rate carriers
Low Data Rate carriers
– Must take into consideration frequency drift possibilities for all
uplink carrier equipment
– Use worse case frequency drift based on the equipment specs
Mod Freq Stability = 0.255 kHz
U/C Freq Stability = 3.055 kHz
Spacing with drift = 22.510 kHz
Example: Symbol Rate = 19.200 kbps
1.2 channel spacing = 23.040 kHz
42. 6/10/5244 - 42
Coding
– Disadvantages
• Increased Latency
• ≈ 10% bandwidth for overhead
• Hard decision decoder
Last Big Improvement-
Reed Solomon Concatenated
Reed Solomon
– Advantages
• 2 dB better Eb/No performance over Viterbi
• Excellent when combined with 8PSK TCM
43. 6/10/5244 - 43
Coding
– Disadvantages
• Compatibility between vendors
Turbo Product Codec
– Advantages
• Best BER performance at given power level
• Typical 1.8 dB improvement over Reed Solomon
• Less latency then Reed Solomon
• Soft Decision Decoder
• Fade Tolerant
44. 6/10/5244 - 44
Link Budget
Run calculation
Where to start
– TX antenna gain (Size and efficiency)
– RX antenna gain (Size and efficiency)
– LNA noise temperature
– Modulation Type
– FEC Rate
– Coding
– Required Eb/No for desired availability
– Uplink rain margin
– Downlink rain margin
45. 6/10/5244 - 45
Link Budget Results
Repeat calculations
Verify bandwidth % vs. power % of transponder
– Bandwidth greater than power
• Smaller receive antenna
• Higher order modulation
• Higher FEC rate
– Power greater than bandwidth
• Larger receive antenna
• Lower order modulation
• Lower FEC rate
– Change Eb/No requirements
47. 6/10/5244 - 47
Link Budget Representation (C/N)
+72
+60
+30
+15
0
–30
–60
–90
–120
–150
–180
–195
Power,
dBW
Gain, losses, and noise over the up and downlinks
of a communication satellite system
Satellite
Earth terminal
Transmitter
output
At antenna
aperture
Path loss
at 6.0 GHz
Transmitter
circuit
loss
Antenna
gain
+9.3
Satellite
output
Earth terminal
Carrier level at
down converter
input
Antenna receiver
Carrier
level at
input
to RX
Path loss
at 4.0 GHz
Noise
Carrier
level at
antenna
aperture
C/N
~29 dB
C/N
~14 dB
Satellite input
49. 6/10/5244 - 49
Spectral Power Density
- Prevent uplink interference to adjacent satellites
What is Spectral power density?
– The amount of power in dBW over a specified
frequency span (dBW/Hz, dBW/4kHz, dBW/40kHz)
Intelsat typical C-Band limits for antenna > 3.8 meter:
Minus (-) 43 dBW / Hz
Intelsat typical Ku-Band limits for antenna > 1.9 meter:
Minus (-) 42 dBW / Hz
Smaller antenna may be used but there are power
density restrictions
Why do we have restrictions?
Actual power density allowable coordinated on a satellite
by satellite basis
50. 6/10/5244 - 50
1024 kbps QPSK Rate ¾
OBW ≈ 750 Khz
Power Density = -43.76 dB/Hz
2048 kbps QPSK Rate ¾
OBW ˜ 1500 Khz
Power Density = -46.76dB/Hz
CW
OBW ˜ 25 Khz
Power Density = -28.98 dB/Hz
-25
-30
-35
-40
-45
-50
Cf 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
-100
-200
-300
-400
-500
-600
-700
-800
dBW / Hz
kHz
Spectral Power Density
Increase of OBW results in a decrease in dBW/Hz
51. 6/10/5244 - 51
Spectral Power Density
– dBW/40 kHz for Ku-band
Feed Flange Power 10.52 dBW
11.27 Watts 11.27 Watts
Occupied Bandwidth 750.90 kHz 750.90 kHz
0.000015 Watts / Hz 0.000015 Watts Hz
-48.24 dBW / Hz -48.24 dBW / Hz
-12.22 dBW / 4 kHz -12.22 dBW / 4 kHz
-2.22 dBW / 40 kHz -2.22 dBW / 40 kHz
Power Density
Power Density
Power Density may be given in:
– dB/Hz for both C and Ku-Band
– dBW/4 kHz for C-Band