This document discusses masonry and provides definitions of various masonry terms. It defines masonry as the construction of building units bonded together with mortar. It then discusses different types of masonry including stone masonry, brick masonry, and composite masonry. It also defines important terms used in masonry such as headers, stretchers, courses, bonds, and various types of closers. Finally, it discusses materials used for stone masonry including granite, sandstone, limestone and marble.
This document discusses different types of stone masonry and brick masonry. It describes various stone masonry techniques including rubble masonry (uncoursed, coursed random, coursed squared, polygonal, flint) and ashlar masonry (fine, rough, rock-faced, chamfered, block). It also outlines key principles for stone and brick masonry work and compares their properties and construction methods. Supervision tips are provided to ensure proper brickwork.
This document discusses causes, effects, and methods of preventing dampness in buildings. It outlines several precautions that should be taken such as proper site drainage and wall thickness. Common causes of dampness include rising moisture, rain penetration, and poor drainage. Effects include breeding mosquitoes and damage to building materials. Methods of damp proofing discussed are damp proof courses, waterproof surface treatments, integral treatments during construction, cavity walls, and cement grouting of cracks. Specific materials used for damp proof courses like bitumen and mastic asphalt are also outlined.
Brick masonry involves laying bricks together using mortar. Bricks are laid in various bond patterns with headers and stretchers. English bond and Flemish bond are common, strong bonds. Brick masonry walls are durable and fire resistant due to the thermal mass of bricks. Proper bonding, jointing, and avoiding continuous vertical joints are important for strength. Bricks are classified based on quality and used for different purposes depending on loads and importance of structure.
Stone masonry uses stones bonded together with mortar to construct various building components such as walls, columns, foundations, arches and lintels. Stones are selected based on availability, ease of working, appearance, strength, polishing characteristics and economy. There are two main types of stone masonry - rubble masonry which uses roughly dressed stones with wider joints, and ashlar masonry which uses accurately dressed stones with fine, uniform joints. Rubble masonry includes uncoursed, coursed, random, dry and polygonal styles based on stone arrangement. Ashlar masonry has fine, rough, rock-faced, block and chamfered styles based on stone dressing. Stone
Shoring is the construction of a temporary structure to support an unsafe or unstable structure. There are three main types of shoring: raking shores, flying shores, and dead shores. Raking shores use inclined members called rakers to provide lateral support to walls. Flying shores provide temporary support between party walls when an intermediate building is demolished. Dead shores provide vertical support to walls and structures when the lower part of a wall is removed, such as to add an opening.
There are several types of bonds used in brickwork:
Stretcher bond uses bricks laid lengthwise. Header bond uses bricks laid perpendicular. English bond alternates headers and stretchers in each course. Flemish bond also alternates headers and stretchers but starts each alternate course with a header.
Proper bonding distributes load, adds stability, and can be decorative. Stretcher bond is used for thin walls while header bond is for thick, single wythe walls. English bond is most common, using headers and stretchers, with rules about placement. Flemish bond alternates starting each other course with a header.
Joints are easy to maintain and are less detrimental than uncontrolled or uneven cracks. Concrete expands & shrinks with variations in moisture and temp. The overall affinity is to shrink and this can cause cracking at an early age. Uneven cracks are unpleasant and difficult to maintain but usually do not affect the integrity of concrete.
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This document discusses different types of stone masonry and brick masonry. It describes various stone masonry techniques including rubble masonry (uncoursed, coursed random, coursed squared, polygonal, flint) and ashlar masonry (fine, rough, rock-faced, chamfered, block). It also outlines key principles for stone and brick masonry work and compares their properties and construction methods. Supervision tips are provided to ensure proper brickwork.
This document discusses causes, effects, and methods of preventing dampness in buildings. It outlines several precautions that should be taken such as proper site drainage and wall thickness. Common causes of dampness include rising moisture, rain penetration, and poor drainage. Effects include breeding mosquitoes and damage to building materials. Methods of damp proofing discussed are damp proof courses, waterproof surface treatments, integral treatments during construction, cavity walls, and cement grouting of cracks. Specific materials used for damp proof courses like bitumen and mastic asphalt are also outlined.
Brick masonry involves laying bricks together using mortar. Bricks are laid in various bond patterns with headers and stretchers. English bond and Flemish bond are common, strong bonds. Brick masonry walls are durable and fire resistant due to the thermal mass of bricks. Proper bonding, jointing, and avoiding continuous vertical joints are important for strength. Bricks are classified based on quality and used for different purposes depending on loads and importance of structure.
Stone masonry uses stones bonded together with mortar to construct various building components such as walls, columns, foundations, arches and lintels. Stones are selected based on availability, ease of working, appearance, strength, polishing characteristics and economy. There are two main types of stone masonry - rubble masonry which uses roughly dressed stones with wider joints, and ashlar masonry which uses accurately dressed stones with fine, uniform joints. Rubble masonry includes uncoursed, coursed, random, dry and polygonal styles based on stone arrangement. Ashlar masonry has fine, rough, rock-faced, block and chamfered styles based on stone dressing. Stone
Shoring is the construction of a temporary structure to support an unsafe or unstable structure. There are three main types of shoring: raking shores, flying shores, and dead shores. Raking shores use inclined members called rakers to provide lateral support to walls. Flying shores provide temporary support between party walls when an intermediate building is demolished. Dead shores provide vertical support to walls and structures when the lower part of a wall is removed, such as to add an opening.
There are several types of bonds used in brickwork:
Stretcher bond uses bricks laid lengthwise. Header bond uses bricks laid perpendicular. English bond alternates headers and stretchers in each course. Flemish bond also alternates headers and stretchers but starts each alternate course with a header.
Proper bonding distributes load, adds stability, and can be decorative. Stretcher bond is used for thin walls while header bond is for thick, single wythe walls. English bond is most common, using headers and stretchers, with rules about placement. Flemish bond alternates starting each other course with a header.
Joints are easy to maintain and are less detrimental than uncontrolled or uneven cracks. Concrete expands & shrinks with variations in moisture and temp. The overall affinity is to shrink and this can cause cracking at an early age. Uneven cracks are unpleasant and difficult to maintain but usually do not affect the integrity of concrete.
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The document discusses different types of walls used in buildings including load-bearing walls, non-load bearing walls, cavity walls, and partition walls. It describes the main purposes, materials used, and characteristics of each type of wall. Various finishes that can be applied to walls are also outlined such as plaster, paint, wallpaper, and acoustic treatments that can improve sound absorption.
The document discusses different types of lintels and arches used in building construction. It describes lintels as horizontal structural members placed across openings to support the structure above. Various lintel materials include timber, stone, brick, reinforced brick, steel, and reinforced concrete. Arches are structures that span openings and support weight below through arch action. Key arch types include flat, semi-circular, segmental, relieving, parabolic, and others defined by their geometric shape. Arches are classified based on materials like brick, stone, concrete, metal and wood. Factors in arch construction and methods to prevent arch failure are also summarized.
This document discusses various causes and effects of dampness in buildings and methods of damp proofing. It covers:
1. The main causes of dampness are moisture rising up from the ground, rain penetrating wall tops and external walls, and condensation.
2. Effects of dampness include unhealthy conditions, damage to structures and decorations, and deterioration of electrical fittings.
3. Methods of damp proofing include using a damp proof course (DPC), integral damp proofing of concrete, surface treatments, cavity wall construction, guniting, and pressure grouting.
4. Suitable materials for DPC include bitumen, mastic asphalt, metal sheets, cement concrete, and
The document discusses various elements of building construction including:
- Common building components like foundations, walls, columns, beams, floors, roofs, doors, windows and other elements.
- Types of foundations including shallow and deep foundations.
- Classification of buildings based on occupancy and structure.
- Loads considered in building design such as dead, live, wind, snow, and earthquake loads.
- Principles of building planning including aspect, privacy, grouping, and flexibility.
This document provides an overview of 30 different types of brick bonding used in masonry construction. It defines what a brick is and explains each type of bonding in 1-3 sentences, noting their typical uses and strength/load bearing capabilities. The types discussed include stretcher bond, running bond, English bond, garden wall bond, Flemish bond, herringbone bond, Dutch bond, and zig-zag bond among others.
This document provides an overview of different types of retaining walls, including gravity, cantilever, counterfort, sheet pile, and diaphragm walls. It discusses the key components and design considerations for gravity and cantilever retaining walls. Gravity walls rely on their own weight for stability, while cantilever walls consist of a vertical stem with a heel and toe slab acting as a cantilever beam. The document also covers lateral earth pressures, drainage of retaining walls, uses of sheet pile walls, and construction methods for diaphragm walls.
This document discusses different types of foundations, including shallow and deep foundations. Shallow foundations include spread footings, combined footings, strap footings, and raft/mat foundations. Deep foundations include pile foundations, pier foundations, and caisson/well foundations. It also discusses considerations for foundations on expansive black cotton soil, recommending methods like strip foundations, pier foundations, and under-reamed pile foundations.
Purpose of brick bonds
Types of bonds in Brick Masonry in Civil Engineering
Types of bonds in brick masonry with Application
Advantages and Disadvantages of each type
Slab is a thin concrete structure used for flooring that can be square, rectangular, or circular. Slabs vary in thickness from 4-6 inches depending on load and are made of cement, coarse aggregate, fine aggregate, and reinforcement bars. There are several types of slabs including one-way slabs which carry load in one direction, two-way slabs which carry load in two directions, joist slabs which have concrete ribs for support, and precast slabs which are constructed off-site and transported. Other slab types include flat plates, flat slabs, waffle slabs, hollow core slabs, and composite slabs which incorporate a steel deck.
This document discusses various methods of damp proofing buildings to prevent damage from moisture. It describes different materials that can be used for damp proof courses (DPC) like bitumen felts, mastic, and concrete. Methods are grouped into treatments for foundations, basements, floors, walls, roofs, and pitched roofs. Key steps include installing DPCs, drainage, waterproof plasters and membranes, and properly sloping surfaces to prevent water accumulation. Maintaining continuity of DPCs and properly detailing features like parapets is also important for effective damp proofing.
The document discusses plastering and pointing techniques. Plastering involves applying a thin coat of mortar to walls and surfaces to make them smooth. Three types of mortar are described for plastering - lime, cement, and lime-cement mixes. The process of plastering involves preparing the surface, applying coats of mortar such as rendering and floating coats, and finishing. Pointing involves filling mortar joints between masonry units. Different types of pointing styles are outlined such as flush, recessed, and tuck pointing. Common defects in plaster like cracking and remedies are also mentioned.
This document discusses different types of brick bonding used in wall construction. It describes English bond as having alternating courses of headers and stretchers with closers overlapping at corners for strength. Flemish bond alternates headers and stretchers in each course with closers overlapping. Other bonds discussed include header bond for curved walls, stretcher bond for thin walls, garden wall bond, rat trap bond, and stacked bond. Proper brick bonding is important for the strength and appearance of brick walls.
This document provides information about different types of stairs. It defines key stair components like steps, treads, and risers. It then describes 8 common types of stairs including straight stairs, dog-legged stairs, quarter turn stairs, and spiral stairs. Each type is defined and the suitable applications are outlined. The document aims to inform about the different shapes, materials, and styles of stairs that can be used in buildings.
The document discusses damp proof courses (DPC), which are barriers made of impervious materials built into walls and piers to prevent moisture from moving within the building. A DPC is laid into a brick wall approximately two courses below the lowest timber member, such as a bearer. Damp proofing in construction uses moisture control methods applied to walls and floors to prevent damp problems from occurring inside buildings, including membrane damp proofing, integral damp proofing, surface treatments, guniting, and cavity wall construction.
This document provides an overview of foundations for building construction. It discusses the importance of foundations in distributing building loads to the ground. There are two main types of foundations - shallow foundations and deep foundations. Shallow foundations include spread footings, grillage foundations, raft foundations, stepped foundations, and mat/slab foundations. Deep foundations transfer loads deep into the earth and include drilled caissons, driven piles, and precast concrete piles. Foundation design considers factors like soil type, structural requirements, construction requirements, site conditions, and cost. The document also discusses waterproofing, drainage, and underpinning foundations.
The document discusses different types of shallow foundations. It describes spread footings, combined footings, strap footings, and mat or raft foundations. For spread footings, it provides details on single, stepped, sloped, wall, and grillage footings. Foundations are also discussed for black cotton soils, including strip footings, pier foundations, and under-reamed pile foundations. Finally, potential causes of foundation failure are listed such as unequal settlement, subsoil moisture movement, and lateral soil pressures.
This document discusses different types of building foundations. It begins by explaining the functions and requirements of foundations. It then describes factors that influence foundation design such as bearing capacity and settlement of soils. Different types of shallow foundations are presented including isolated footings, strip footings, combined footings, raft/mat foundations, etc. Deep foundations including pile foundations and well foundations are also summarized. The document provides details on analyzing soil properties, bearing capacity, and settlement for foundation design.
This document discusses different types of roofs for buildings. It describes pitched roofs, flat roofs, and curved roofs. For pitched roofs, it covers technical terms like span, rise, and pitch. It explains common roof structures like lean-to, couple, collar beam, and truss roofs. For trusses, it provides details on king post, queen post, and mansard trusses. Flat roofs include madras terrace, bengal terrace, and reinforced concrete styles. Finally, it discusses common roof covering materials like tiles, asbestos sheets, galvanized iron, and PVC.
This document discusses different types of bricks and brick bonding techniques. It describes common burnt clay bricks, sand lime bricks, fly ash bricks, AAC bricks, hollow bricks, and bio bricks. Each brick type has different properties like strength, weight, insulation, and environmental impact. The document also examines various brick bonds like stretcher bond, header bond, Flemish bond, English bond, and their structural applications in walls. Different bonding patterns help distribute loads and provide stability in masonry construction.
Deep foundations are used when the bearing stratum is located at a significant depth below the surface. The most common types of deep foundations are pile foundations, cofferdams, and caisson foundations. Pile foundations support structures using vertical piles that transfer loads either through end bearing or skin friction. Piles can be made of timber, concrete, steel, or a composite. Cofferdams are temporary structures used to exclude water from a construction site to allow work below the water level. Common types include earthfill, rockfill, single-walled, and cellular cofferdams. Caissons are watertight structures that become part of the permanent foundation. Types are open caissons, box caissons
This document summarizes ASME Section VIII Division 2 requirements for welding and non-destructive testing of welds. It outlines weld categories, fabrication requirements including repair of defects, welding identification markings, and acceptance standards for radiographic, penetrant, and ultrasonic testing of welds. Impact testing of welds is also addressed including testing of vessel test plates to qualify welding procedures for different weld categories.
The document discusses different types of walls used in buildings including load-bearing walls, non-load bearing walls, cavity walls, and partition walls. It describes the main purposes, materials used, and characteristics of each type of wall. Various finishes that can be applied to walls are also outlined such as plaster, paint, wallpaper, and acoustic treatments that can improve sound absorption.
The document discusses different types of lintels and arches used in building construction. It describes lintels as horizontal structural members placed across openings to support the structure above. Various lintel materials include timber, stone, brick, reinforced brick, steel, and reinforced concrete. Arches are structures that span openings and support weight below through arch action. Key arch types include flat, semi-circular, segmental, relieving, parabolic, and others defined by their geometric shape. Arches are classified based on materials like brick, stone, concrete, metal and wood. Factors in arch construction and methods to prevent arch failure are also summarized.
This document discusses various causes and effects of dampness in buildings and methods of damp proofing. It covers:
1. The main causes of dampness are moisture rising up from the ground, rain penetrating wall tops and external walls, and condensation.
2. Effects of dampness include unhealthy conditions, damage to structures and decorations, and deterioration of electrical fittings.
3. Methods of damp proofing include using a damp proof course (DPC), integral damp proofing of concrete, surface treatments, cavity wall construction, guniting, and pressure grouting.
4. Suitable materials for DPC include bitumen, mastic asphalt, metal sheets, cement concrete, and
The document discusses various elements of building construction including:
- Common building components like foundations, walls, columns, beams, floors, roofs, doors, windows and other elements.
- Types of foundations including shallow and deep foundations.
- Classification of buildings based on occupancy and structure.
- Loads considered in building design such as dead, live, wind, snow, and earthquake loads.
- Principles of building planning including aspect, privacy, grouping, and flexibility.
This document provides an overview of 30 different types of brick bonding used in masonry construction. It defines what a brick is and explains each type of bonding in 1-3 sentences, noting their typical uses and strength/load bearing capabilities. The types discussed include stretcher bond, running bond, English bond, garden wall bond, Flemish bond, herringbone bond, Dutch bond, and zig-zag bond among others.
This document provides an overview of different types of retaining walls, including gravity, cantilever, counterfort, sheet pile, and diaphragm walls. It discusses the key components and design considerations for gravity and cantilever retaining walls. Gravity walls rely on their own weight for stability, while cantilever walls consist of a vertical stem with a heel and toe slab acting as a cantilever beam. The document also covers lateral earth pressures, drainage of retaining walls, uses of sheet pile walls, and construction methods for diaphragm walls.
This document discusses different types of foundations, including shallow and deep foundations. Shallow foundations include spread footings, combined footings, strap footings, and raft/mat foundations. Deep foundations include pile foundations, pier foundations, and caisson/well foundations. It also discusses considerations for foundations on expansive black cotton soil, recommending methods like strip foundations, pier foundations, and under-reamed pile foundations.
Purpose of brick bonds
Types of bonds in Brick Masonry in Civil Engineering
Types of bonds in brick masonry with Application
Advantages and Disadvantages of each type
Slab is a thin concrete structure used for flooring that can be square, rectangular, or circular. Slabs vary in thickness from 4-6 inches depending on load and are made of cement, coarse aggregate, fine aggregate, and reinforcement bars. There are several types of slabs including one-way slabs which carry load in one direction, two-way slabs which carry load in two directions, joist slabs which have concrete ribs for support, and precast slabs which are constructed off-site and transported. Other slab types include flat plates, flat slabs, waffle slabs, hollow core slabs, and composite slabs which incorporate a steel deck.
This document discusses various methods of damp proofing buildings to prevent damage from moisture. It describes different materials that can be used for damp proof courses (DPC) like bitumen felts, mastic, and concrete. Methods are grouped into treatments for foundations, basements, floors, walls, roofs, and pitched roofs. Key steps include installing DPCs, drainage, waterproof plasters and membranes, and properly sloping surfaces to prevent water accumulation. Maintaining continuity of DPCs and properly detailing features like parapets is also important for effective damp proofing.
The document discusses plastering and pointing techniques. Plastering involves applying a thin coat of mortar to walls and surfaces to make them smooth. Three types of mortar are described for plastering - lime, cement, and lime-cement mixes. The process of plastering involves preparing the surface, applying coats of mortar such as rendering and floating coats, and finishing. Pointing involves filling mortar joints between masonry units. Different types of pointing styles are outlined such as flush, recessed, and tuck pointing. Common defects in plaster like cracking and remedies are also mentioned.
This document discusses different types of brick bonding used in wall construction. It describes English bond as having alternating courses of headers and stretchers with closers overlapping at corners for strength. Flemish bond alternates headers and stretchers in each course with closers overlapping. Other bonds discussed include header bond for curved walls, stretcher bond for thin walls, garden wall bond, rat trap bond, and stacked bond. Proper brick bonding is important for the strength and appearance of brick walls.
This document provides information about different types of stairs. It defines key stair components like steps, treads, and risers. It then describes 8 common types of stairs including straight stairs, dog-legged stairs, quarter turn stairs, and spiral stairs. Each type is defined and the suitable applications are outlined. The document aims to inform about the different shapes, materials, and styles of stairs that can be used in buildings.
The document discusses damp proof courses (DPC), which are barriers made of impervious materials built into walls and piers to prevent moisture from moving within the building. A DPC is laid into a brick wall approximately two courses below the lowest timber member, such as a bearer. Damp proofing in construction uses moisture control methods applied to walls and floors to prevent damp problems from occurring inside buildings, including membrane damp proofing, integral damp proofing, surface treatments, guniting, and cavity wall construction.
This document provides an overview of foundations for building construction. It discusses the importance of foundations in distributing building loads to the ground. There are two main types of foundations - shallow foundations and deep foundations. Shallow foundations include spread footings, grillage foundations, raft foundations, stepped foundations, and mat/slab foundations. Deep foundations transfer loads deep into the earth and include drilled caissons, driven piles, and precast concrete piles. Foundation design considers factors like soil type, structural requirements, construction requirements, site conditions, and cost. The document also discusses waterproofing, drainage, and underpinning foundations.
The document discusses different types of shallow foundations. It describes spread footings, combined footings, strap footings, and mat or raft foundations. For spread footings, it provides details on single, stepped, sloped, wall, and grillage footings. Foundations are also discussed for black cotton soils, including strip footings, pier foundations, and under-reamed pile foundations. Finally, potential causes of foundation failure are listed such as unequal settlement, subsoil moisture movement, and lateral soil pressures.
This document discusses different types of building foundations. It begins by explaining the functions and requirements of foundations. It then describes factors that influence foundation design such as bearing capacity and settlement of soils. Different types of shallow foundations are presented including isolated footings, strip footings, combined footings, raft/mat foundations, etc. Deep foundations including pile foundations and well foundations are also summarized. The document provides details on analyzing soil properties, bearing capacity, and settlement for foundation design.
This document discusses different types of roofs for buildings. It describes pitched roofs, flat roofs, and curved roofs. For pitched roofs, it covers technical terms like span, rise, and pitch. It explains common roof structures like lean-to, couple, collar beam, and truss roofs. For trusses, it provides details on king post, queen post, and mansard trusses. Flat roofs include madras terrace, bengal terrace, and reinforced concrete styles. Finally, it discusses common roof covering materials like tiles, asbestos sheets, galvanized iron, and PVC.
This document discusses different types of bricks and brick bonding techniques. It describes common burnt clay bricks, sand lime bricks, fly ash bricks, AAC bricks, hollow bricks, and bio bricks. Each brick type has different properties like strength, weight, insulation, and environmental impact. The document also examines various brick bonds like stretcher bond, header bond, Flemish bond, English bond, and their structural applications in walls. Different bonding patterns help distribute loads and provide stability in masonry construction.
Deep foundations are used when the bearing stratum is located at a significant depth below the surface. The most common types of deep foundations are pile foundations, cofferdams, and caisson foundations. Pile foundations support structures using vertical piles that transfer loads either through end bearing or skin friction. Piles can be made of timber, concrete, steel, or a composite. Cofferdams are temporary structures used to exclude water from a construction site to allow work below the water level. Common types include earthfill, rockfill, single-walled, and cellular cofferdams. Caissons are watertight structures that become part of the permanent foundation. Types are open caissons, box caissons
This document summarizes ASME Section VIII Division 2 requirements for welding and non-destructive testing of welds. It outlines weld categories, fabrication requirements including repair of defects, welding identification markings, and acceptance standards for radiographic, penetrant, and ultrasonic testing of welds. Impact testing of welds is also addressed including testing of vessel test plates to qualify welding procedures for different weld categories.
This document discusses welded connections. It begins by defining welding as the process of joining metals through heating and applying pressure or filler material. The document then covers the advantages and disadvantages of welded connections, different welding processes, types of welded joints including butt and fillet joints, stresses in welded joints, analyzing unsymmetrical welded sections under axial loads, and special cases of fillet joints subjected to torque or bending moments. Equations for calculating forces and stresses in various welded joint configurations are provided.
This document discusses welded joints and provides information on various welding processes and techniques. It describes the basic types of welding including pressure welding, fusion welding, arc welding, gas welding and resistance welding. The document also outlines standard welding symbols, common weld defects, nondestructive and destructive testing methods, and factors that influence weldability. Advantages of welded joints include strength, weight savings, and ease of alterations compared to riveted joints, though welded structures can be prone to distortion without provisions for thermal expansion/contraction.
This document provides information on stone masonry. It begins with an outline of topics to be covered, including the different types of stones based on their formation (igneous, sedimentary, metamorphic). It then discusses stone masonry and its uses in construction. Different classifications of stone masonry are presented, including rubble masonry (uncoursed, random, coursed) and ashlar masonry. Technical terms related to stone masonry elements are defined. The document concludes with general principles that should be followed for stone masonry construction and an assignment on coursed rubble masonry.
The document discusses welding processes and welded joints. It describes various welding techniques like gas welding, electric arc welding, and thermit welding. It defines butt and fillet welded joints and provides equations to calculate stresses in different welded joint configurations under tension, torsion, and bending loads. Examples are presented to determine weld lengths required to carry given loads based on allowable stresses in welds.
This document provides an overview of a student's research project on the seismic behavior of beam-column joints using high-strength materials. The project aims to study different methods and find the best approach. The student will calculate seismic forces, model joints in software, perform manual calculations, and compare results. A literature review covered previous research on reinforcing joints with steel plates or fiber-reinforced polymer sheets and the behavior of high-strength concrete joints under axial loads. The project schedule outlines tasks from literature collection to thesis writing to be completed between January 2016 to May 2016.
Design & Construction Errors- How it Affects Repair and Rehabilitation of Str...Srishti Wakhloo
The ultimate guide to design and construction errors and how it affects the repair and rehabilitation of structures. This data has been compiled after visiting several websites and reading books. It is mainly for the purpose of civil engineering students for the subject "Building Maintenance and Repairs".
Distress of concrete structures & their repair techniquesZaid Ansari
This document discusses concrete distress and repair techniques. It begins by explaining that concrete structures may need repair after 25-30 years of service without maintenance. It then lists common causes of concrete distress like weathering, environmental effects, poor design/construction, and water leakage leading to corrosion. The document outlines expected service lives for different structure types. It also describes common concrete failure modes and causes of early deterioration. The remainder of the document discusses techniques for identifying distressed concrete, various repair materials and methods, and the need for trained concrete workers.
The document provides details about different types of masonry work including brick masonry, stone masonry, and concrete masonry. For brick masonry, it describes the different types of bonds used (English bond, Flemish bond, etc.), bricks sizes, and terminology. It also covers the requirements for good brickwork and discusses tools used. For stone masonry, it defines types of stone masonry including ashlar, coursed rubble, and dry rubble. Precautions for masonry work and uses of expansion joints are also summarized.
Earthquake Resistant Building ConstructionRohan Narvekar
This File comprises of a general information and guidelines for construction of Earthquake Resistant buildings, Its a basic study of the same and may help students and learners for overall information of this technology.
Welding is a method of permanently joining metal parts. There are different types of welded joints and standardized welding symbols are used on drawings to indicate how parts should be welded together. The symbols provide information on the type of weld, location of the weld, size of the weld, whether welding is required on one or both sides of the joint, and other details. Proper interpretation and application of welding symbols is important for ensuring parts are welded correctly.
Welding is a process that joins metals by heating them to melting point and allowing them to merge together. There are two main types: plastic welding applies pressure and fusion welding fully melts the materials. Oxy-fuel welding uses a heated gas flame, such as oxy-acetylene, to melt the metals. It is inexpensive but has a lower temperature than other methods. The equipment includes welding torches, cylinders of gas, regulators to control pressure, and filler rods. Precise flame adjustment is required to protect the metal and achieve the necessary temperature.
The document discusses various types of masonry construction using bricks and stones. It begins by defining brick masonry as the use of bricks laid in mortar to form a homogeneous structure. It then discusses important terms used in brick masonry such as brick, frog, stretcher, header, quoin, etc. Different types of bonds used in brick masonry are described including English bond, Flemish bond, and garden wall bonds. The document also discusses stone masonry and the main types of rubble masonry and ashlar masonry.
The document discusses different types of welding processes including arc welding, TIG welding, and MIG welding. Arc welding uses an electric arc to melt metals and is also known as stick welding. TIG welding uses a nonconsumable tungsten electrode and inert gas and is suitable for high quality welding. MIG welding uses wire fed from a spool and is a semiautomatic process commonly used for steel. The document also provides safety tips for each process such as protective clothing, eyewear, and avoiding breathing in fumes.
The document discusses five basic welded joints - butt, corner, T-, lap, and edge joints. Each joint describes the positioning of two welded members, such as two members aligned in the same plane for a butt joint or two members at a right angle for a corner joint. Diagrams are provided showing different edge shapes and symbols used to represent each of the five welded joint types.
The document describes the construction process for columns, slabs, and beams in reinforced concrete structures. It discusses the materials used and the typical steps involved, which include:
1) Layout and formwork installation
2) Placement of reinforcing steel based on structural designs
3) Pouring and finishing of concrete
4) Curing of concrete to gain full strength over 28 days
The columns transfer loads vertically through reinforced concrete that is mixed on site or delivered by ready-mix trucks. Slabs and beams are constructed through similar processes of steel reinforcement, formwork, concrete placement and curing.
Welding is a process that joins materials by heating them to melt or soften them and allowing them to cool, forming a permanent bond. It is commonly used to join metal parts in manufacturing. Some key types of welding include arc welding, gas welding, resistance welding, and solid state welding. Welding is used in many industries such as automotive, aerospace, shipbuilding, and construction.
STONE -As A Building Material.
Stones have been considered as one of the popular building material from the olden days due to their availability in abundance from the natural rocks. Building stones should possess enough strength and durability.
The stones which are suitable for the construction of the structures such as retaining walls, abutments, dams, barrages, roads etc are known as building stones.
This document discusses material testing and evaluation of masonry construction. It defines masonry as construction using building units like stones, bricks, or concrete blocks bonded with mortar. It describes different types of masonry like stone, brick, composite, and cavity walls. It also defines important masonry terms like stretcher, header, bond, course, and various types of cut bricks used. It discusses defects in brick masonry like sulphate attack, crystallization of salts, and corrosion of fixtures. It also briefly mentions reinforced brick masonry and the use of glass bricks in curtain walls.
The document discusses different types of masonry construction and bonds used in brick masonry walls. It provides details on various types of masonry including brick, stone, concrete, veneer, and gabion masonry. It also describes different bonds used in brick masonry like stretcher bond, header bond, English bond, and Flemish bond. Key points on supervising brick masonry construction are highlighted.
Masonry is a construction method that uses building units such as bricks, stones, and concrete blocks. It is one of the oldest and most common construction techniques. Masonry is used to construct structural elements like foundations, walls, columns, and more. It provides load support, divides interior space, offers insulation and protection from fire and weather. Masonry construction involves terms like courses, headers, stretchers, joints, lintels, arches, and more to describe the layout and assembly of masonry units.
This document discusses different types of retaining walls, including:
- Gravity walls, pre-cast crib walls, gabion walls, reinforced concrete walls, sheet pile walls, mechanically stabilized earth (MSE) walls, slurry walls, secant pile walls, soldier piles and lagging walls, cofferdam walls, and hybrid systems.
It provides details on the materials, designs, and uses of various retaining wall types. Common materials include wood, steel, concrete, and soil reinforcements. Walls are chosen based on factors like height, site conditions, costs, and whether they are temporary or permanent.
This document provides definitions and information about various types of masonry construction. It begins by defining brick masonry, stone masonry, and block masonry. It then discusses British specifications for concrete blocks. The remainder of the document details aspects of brick masonry such as definitions of terms, classifications, types of bonds, wall junctions, tools, reinforced brick masonry, construction techniques, defects and maintenance. It also briefly covers stone masonry and block masonry. In summary, the document is an overview of masonry construction focusing on the materials, techniques and terminology used for brick masonry work.
Retaining walls are structures designed to retain earth and prevent it from sliding down slopes. They provide lateral support and hold back earthfill, embankments, and other materials in a vertical position. There are various types of retaining walls that differ based on their materials, structure, and means of stability. Common types include gravity walls, cantilever walls, counterfort walls, buttress walls, sheet pile walls, soldier pile and lagging walls, slurry walls, secant pile walls, crib walls, gabion walls, and mechanically stabilized earth walls. Proper design of a retaining wall requires consideration of the earth pressures acting on it, including active and passive pressures, and ensuring adequate drainage.
Masonry refers to construction materials formed by combining masonry units like stone and brick with mortar. Masonry walls can be load-bearing exterior walls or non-load bearing interior partition walls. Masonry walls are categorized based on their structure, location, and construction method. Common masonry units include clay bricks, structural clay tiles, and concrete masonry units which vary in properties based on their composition, manufacturing process, and intended use.
General wall definition + Ancient Roman Walls materials and construction.
Note : The Presentation includes sketches done by our team in addition to the geological map .
This document provides information about brick and stone building materials. It discusses the brief history of bricks, the types of bricks including sun-dried, burnt bricks in various classes. It also describes different brick bonds, standard brick sizes used in various countries and the types of stones including sedimentary, metamorphic and igneous stones. The key types of sedimentary stones discussed are limestone, sandstone, soapstone and fossil stone.
Beam and collunm less framwork fo huge construction of multistrey buildings with high strenght and econamy. Best suited for countries lkies India and helpful to achive the goal of gov of India to provide homes to all the citizens .
A presentation on various types of tile rooifing materials and techniques for the course Appropriate Techniques from students of 4th Semester Architecture at VNIT, Nagpur (Jan-March 2015)
This Presentation about Brick Masonry with a Beautiful Slides. This presentation covers - Brick Masonry Definition, Type of Bricks, General Principals, Bonds of Bricks, Other Bonds, Junction in Walls, Bonds in Pires, Retraining Wall, Design of Retraining Wall, Strength of Brick Masonry, Reinforced Brickwork. Hope You Enjoy!
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Masonry involves the construction of buildings using basic building materials like bricks, stones, or concrete blocks bonded together with mortar. There are different types of masonry like stone masonry, brick masonry, and hollow concrete block masonry. Mortar is used to bond the masonry units together and provides functions like load bearing, sealing, bonding, aesthetics, insulation, and protection from fire and weather. Masonry is used in foundations, structural walls, facades, and decorative walls. Key terms related to masonry include face, back, course, corbel, cornice, coping, weathering, and throating. Stone masonry uses stones and mortar, with common
Brickwork is the construction of walls and structures using bricks laid in mortar. Some key points:
- Brickwork has been used throughout history dating back to Bronze Age structures from 4000 BC.
- Bricks are oriented in different positions like stretchers, headers, soldiers and more depending on how they are laid.
- Different brick bonds like Flemish bond arrange stretchers and headers in patterns for strength.
- Cavity walls use wall ties to connect the two leafs since bricks do not touch.
- Thicker walls over 1-3 bricks are needed for load bearing structures and taller buildings.
This document provides definitions and terms related to masonry work. It discusses different types of masonry including brick masonry, stone masonry, and concrete block masonry. It describes bonds in brickwork like English bond and Flemish bond. It also classifies stone masonry into rubble masonry and ashlar masonry. Various joints used in stone masonry are explained along with definitions of important terms used in masonry construction.
This document provides information on building components such as lintels, arches, vaults, and staircases. It discusses different types of each component and their characteristics. For lintels, it describes stone, wooden, brick, steel, reinforced concrete, and reinforced brick lintels. For arches, it defines various arch terminology and classifies arches based on material, shape, and number of centers. Vaults are classified as barrel, groin, rib, and fan vaults. Finally, it discusses the parts of staircases and types including straight, quarter turn, and bifurcated stairs.
The document discusses the basic components of buildings. It defines what constitutes a building and explains that buildings have two primary components - the sub-structure/foundation and the super-structure. The sub-structure includes different types of shallow and deep foundations that transfer the building's loads to the ground. The super-structure includes elements like the plinth, floors, columns, walls, beams and roof that make up the upper portions of the building above ground level. It provides details on the various load types buildings must support and describes common foundation and super-structure elements.
Plane table surveying involves using a plane table, alidade, and other instruments to take field measurements and plot a map. Key principles include maintaining parallelism between lines of sight on the ground and plane table. Common methods are radiation, intersection, traversing, and resection. Sources of error include imperfect instruments, sighting errors, and plotting mistakes. While less accurate than a theodolite, plane table surveying allows mapping in the field with moderate accuracy for small to medium scale maps.
Demolition involves the controlled dismantling of structures using planned methods. Proper planning is essential and includes assessing the building, utilities, and hazardous materials. Common demolition types are progressive, deliberate collapse, and element removal. Manual demolition uses hand tools while mechanical uses equipment. Implosion uses explosives to strategically collapse the structure. Safety precautions must be taken before and during demolition to protect workers and the public.
TIME & RESOURCE PLANNING,MANAGEMENT SOFTWAREKHUSHBU SHAH
The document discusses time planning and resource management for construction projects. It describes the key stages of time planning as project work breakdown, network modeling and analysis, and scheduling work programs. It also covers forecasting resource needs, the four M's of resource planning (manpower, machinery, material, money), resource allocation and leveling techniques, and the purpose of management software in optimizing operations and controlling projects.
This document provides an overview of bridges, including:
1) It defines what a bridge is, its main components, and classifications based on various factors such as material, location, purpose, and structural design.
2) The key components of a bridge are described as the superstructure, which is above the bearings, and the substructure, which is below the bearings.
3) Bridges are investigated and designed based on considerations like span length, site conditions, and cost. Maintaining bridges requires regular inspections to identify deterioration and prevent structural failures.
Chapter 7 Maintenance of railway trackKHUSHBU SHAH
The document discusses the maintenance of railway tracks. Regular maintenance is needed due to factors that degrade tracks like heavy train loads, weather effects, and curvature stresses. Good maintenance provides benefits like increased safety, lower operating costs, and higher train speeds. Maintenance includes daily checks by track gangs and periodic inspections every 2-3 years to repair defects. Special pre- and post-monsoon maintenance is also required to address corrosion from monsoon rains.
This document discusses various aspects of railway track components and infrastructure. It describes points and crossings which allow trains to divert from one track to another. It then discusses turnouts, their components like stock rails, crossings, and operating mechanisms. The document covers different types of stations like wayside, junction and terminal stations. It also discusses railway yards for passengers, goods, and locomotives along with their key facilities.
Transportation is regarded as an index of economic progress in a country. The key modes of transport are land, water, and air. Railways are a major form of land transport and have various economic, social, and strategic advantages. Railways have helped integrate people across religions and regions. They allow for efficient administration and rapid mobilization during emergencies. Railways also facilitate mass migration and have broadened social outlooks by enabling travel. Economically, railways increase mobility, transport goods, provide employment, and increase land values near stations. The essential components of a railway track include rails, sleepers, ballast, and other fixtures that work together to form a strong yet flexible surface for train movement.
Chapter 4 Drainge and maintenance of roadKHUSHBU SHAH
This document discusses highway drainage and maintenance. It notes that highway drainage removes excess surface and subsoil water from the roadway. Excess moisture in the soil subgrade reduces stability and strength. Surface drainage removes water from the road and adjoining land using longitudinal side drains and catch basins. Subsurface drainage removes excess water from below the subgrade using trenches, drain pipes, and lowering the water table. Proper drainage design and regular maintenance of drains is needed to prevent damage to roadways from water.
This document discusses the key elements of highway geometric design including cross-section elements, sight distance considerations, horizontal and vertical alignment details, and intersection elements. It covers factors that affect highway geometric design such as design speed, topography, traffic, capacity, and environmental factors. It provides details on cross-section components, sight distance requirements, horizontal and vertical curves, and overtaking sight distance calculations. The objective of highway geometric design is to provide efficient traffic operation with maximum safety at reasonable cost.
The document discusses highway alignment and engineering surveys. It provides details on different types of highway alignment and the factors that control alignment such as terrain, materials, and costs. It also outlines the various stages of engineering surveys conducted for highway projects, including map studies, reconnaissance surveys, preliminary surveys, and final location surveys. Key considerations for surveys are topography, drainage, soils and estimating construction aspects. The document also briefly discusses highway classification systems in India and the roles of organizations like the Indian Roads Congress.
This document discusses equipment scheduling and maintenance for construction projects. It provides a sample equipment schedule listing equipment needs by month. It also classifies construction equipment, discusses factors to consider when selecting equipment, and outlines preventative maintenance and repair requirements to keep equipment functioning properly and reduce costs. Regular inspection and maintenance of equipment is emphasized.
This document discusses various topics related to construction labor in India including:
1) It provides guidance on preparing a labour schedule to arrange skilled and unskilled labor as needed to reduce costs.
2) It describes the characteristics of Indian labor such as most being illiterate, having poor economic conditions, and low output despite being the cheapest in the world.
3) It discusses factors that influence low output including very low wages, poor working conditions, illiteracy, and lack of facilities and safety equipment.
This document provides guidance on proper storage and safety precautions for construction materials. Key points include:
1. Materials like timber, plywood, petroleum products, explosives, etc. should be stored separately to prevent fire hazards.
2. Adequate spacing between stacks is needed to prevent damage if a fire occurs. Smoking and open fires should be prohibited at storage sites.
3. The storekeeper is responsible for safety of all materials and fire extinguishing equipment should be available. Wastage of materials like cement and aggregates should also be prevented.
Chapter 8 introduction to construction equipmentsKHUSHBU SHAH
The document discusses the importance of construction equipment for major construction projects. It states that construction equipment accounts for 25-40% of total project costs and discusses factors for selecting equipment such as operating costs, availability of spare parts, and suitability for future projects. It also covers types of equipment, methods of financing purchases versus renting, and factors that influence the cost of owning and operating equipment.
Formwork is a temporary mold used to contain poured concrete until it cures and can support itself. It needs to be strong enough to support the weight of wet concrete and withstand pouring and compaction loads. New materials like steel and plastics are now used for formwork in addition to wood. Slipforming allows for continuous vertical pouring of concrete structures like building cores without relying on external support, by using a formwork that rises slowly on its own as concrete is added.
Chapter 4 control of ground water in excavationsKHUSHBU SHAH
This document discusses various methods for controlling groundwater during excavation projects. It describes 9 common dewatering methods: sumps and ditches, shallow well systems, deep well systems, well point systems, vacuum methods, cement grouting, chemical grouting, freezing processes, and electro-osmosis. For each method, it provides details on how the method works and its suitability for different soil and water conditions. The document aims to help construction professionals select the appropriate dewatering approach based on the unique factors of their project site.
The document provides information about caissons, which are watertight structures used in construction projects involving excavation below water levels. It discusses different types of caissons including box caissons, open or well caissons, pneumatic caissons, and multiple well or monolith caissons. Methods of constructing and sinking each type are described. Advantages and uses of caissons are outlined. Health risks associated with working under compressed air in pneumatic caissons, known as caisson sickness, are also summarized.
Coffer dams are temporary structures built to exclude water from an area where permanent structures will be constructed. They allow construction to occur in dry conditions. There are several types of coffer dams depending on the depth of water, soil conditions, and available materials. Earthfill coffer dams use earthen embankments for shallow water, while more complex designs like braced sheet pile or cellular coffer dams are needed for deeper waters. Properly designed coffer dams prevent leakage and ensure the enclosed area remains dry for construction work.
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- Piles transfer structural loads through weak soil layers into stronger soils and rocks below.
- Common types of piles include pre-cast concrete, cast-in-situ concrete (e.g. Raymond, MacArthur), steel, timber, and composite piles.
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2. INTRODUCTION
It may also be defined as construction of building units
bounded together with mortar. The selection of the type of
material (i.e. brick or stone etc) for the masonry is made
keeping in view the requirement of strength, water proofing,
thermal insulation ,fire resistance, durability and economy.
2
3. Masonry
• Masonry may defined as the construction of building units
bonded tougher with mortar.
A. Stone masonry
B. Brick masonry
C. Composite masonry
D. Hollow concrete block masonry
E. Cavity walls
F. Lintel & Arches 3
4. Some Important terms used in
Masonry
1.HEADER:
Full brick or stone laid with its length perpendicular
to the face of a wall is called a "Header"
• A course, in which all the bricks are laid as headers, is
known as "Heading Course" or "Header course“.
4
5. 2.STRETCHER:
• Full brick or stone laid with its length parallel to the face
of a wall is called a “Stretcher"
• A course, in which, all the bricks are laid as Stretchers is
called a “Stretching course" or "Stretcher course".
5
7. 3. COURSE:
Each horizontal layer of bricks or stone laid in mortar is
called a "course".
4. BOND:
Overlapping of bricks or stones in alternate course of the
wall to avoid continuous vertical joints and to bind the
individual units together.
5. BRICK BATS :
The pieces of bricks, cut along their length and having
width equivalent to that of a full or half brick are called
"Brick bats“.
7
10. 6.CLOSER
Portion of a brick cut in such a manner that its one long
face remains uncut.
7.QUEEN CLOSER
Queen closer is a brick, which is half as wide as full brick
and is made by cutting a whole brick lengthwise into two
portions.
10
12. 8. KING CLOSER:
A brick which is cut in such a way that the width of one of
its end is half that of full brick.
9. BEVELED CLOSER:
A brick cut longitudinally along a vertical plane,
starting at the middle of one end to the far corner.
10. MITRED CLOSER:
It is a brick whose one end is cut splayed or mitred for the full
width.
12
14. 11.QUOIN
Exterior angle or corner of a wall is known as quoin. The
brick or stone laid on the corner of a wall ,as a header, it is
known as quoin header.
14
18. 14.CORNICE
It is horizontal moulded projection provided near the top of
a building or at a junction of a wall and ceiling.
18
19. 15.Bed
Lower or bottom surface of bricks or stones in each course
16.Face
Surface of a wall exposed to weather is called as face and
the material used for face is called as facing.
17.Back
Surface of wall ,which is not exposed to weather is called as
back and the material used for back is called as backing.
18.Hearting
The inner portion of a wall between facing and backing.
19
22. 19.JOINT:
• The junction of adjacent bricks or stones.
• The joints may be of cement mortar or lime mortar.
• The joints parallel to the bed of bricks or stones are
known as bed joints.
22
23. 20. FROG
It is the depression made on the top face of the brick, for
the purpose of forming a key for the mortar, which
prevents the displacement of the brick above.
23
24. 21.BUTTRESS
It is a slopping or stepped masonry projection from a tall wall, on the
exterior of a wall, which are placed at intervals along the wall to
carry load.
24
25. 22.COPING
It is a Covering of stone or brick ,placed on the top of a
external wall or parapet, to prevent seepage of water
through joints.
25
27. 23.SPALLS: These are the chips of stones used for filling the
interstices in stone masonry.
24.PLINTH: It is the horizontal course of stone or brick provided
at the base of the wall above ground level. It indicates the height
of the ground level above the natural ground level. It protects
the building from dampness.
25. PLINTH COURSE: It is the top most course of the plinth
masonry.
27
29. 29
26.STRING COURSE: It is a horizontal projecting course of masonry
projecting out of the face of the wall for shedding rain water off the
face. It imparts an aesthetic appearance to the structure and is
generally provided at every floor level.
27. SILL: It is a horizontal member of stone, concrete or wood,
employed for the purpose of shedding off rain water from the face of
wall immediately below the window opening. It gives support to the
vertical members of a wooden window frame.
28. LINTEL: It is a horizontal member of stone, brick, wood, iron or
RCC used to support the masonry or load above an opening.
32. 29. JAMBS: These are the vertical sides of an opening for doors
and windows. These may be plain or splayed or may be
provided with recesses to receive the frames of doors and
windows.
30. REVEALS: These are exposed vertical surfaces left on the
sides of an opening after the door or window frame had been
fitted in position.
31.BLOCKING COURSE: It is a top most course of stone masonry
provided immediately above the cornice to prevent the
tendency of the cornice to overturn. It also adds to the aesthetics
of the cornice.
32
35. 32. PERPEND:
It is a vertical joint on the face of a wall directly over vertical
joints in an alternate course.
34. ARCH:
A mechanical arrangement of wedge-shaped blocks of stone or
brick arranged in the form of a curve supporting the masonry
or load above an opening.
35. PARAPET:
It is a term applied to a low wall built around a flat roof to act
as a protective solid balustrade for the users of the terrace.
35
33.TEMPLATE:
Pieces of stones placed under the end of a
beam to distribute the load over a greater area.
37. 37
36. WEATHERING:
Weathering is the term applied to the beveled top surface of a stone.
37. GABLE:
It is a triangular shaped portion of masonry at the end of a sloped roof.
39.COLUMNS:
It is an isolated vertical load bearing member whose width does not exceed
four times its thickness.
40. PIER:
It is a vertical member of stone or brick masonry constructed to support an
arch, beam or lintel etc.
38. THRESHOLDS:
The arrangement of steps provided from ground level to reach plinth level
on external doors and verandah is termed as thresholds.
40. When a binding material, a fine aggregate and water are
mixed together in suitable proportions , they form an easily
workable paste which is termed as Mortar.
When a binding material, ( a fine & a coarse aggregate) and
are mixed in suitable proportions , they form an easily
workable mix which is termed as plastic, wet or green
concrete.
MATERIAL FOR STONE MASONARY
40
41. TYPES OF MORTAR & THEIR USES
Cement mortar:
•The paste is prepared by mixing cement and sand in suitable
proportions in addition to water.
•The general proportion is 1 part of cement to 2-8 parts clean
sand. These mortars must be use within half an hour, i.e.; before
initial setting time of the cement.
•This type is used for all engineering works where high
strength is desired such as load bearing walls, deep foundations,
flooring etc. 41
42. Lime mortar:
•The paste is prepared by mixing lime and sand or surkhi in
suitable proportions in addition to water.
•If surkhi is to be added in lime mortar the equal proportions of
sand and surkhi should be mixed with lime. These mortars are
inferior to cement mortars in strength as well as water
tightness.
•These mortars should not be used for underground works as
they set in the presence of carbon dioxide and break up in
damp conditions. This type is used for construction work above
ground level i.e. exposed positions. 42
43. Materials used for stone masonry:
The natural stones used in building can be classified to their origin as:
1. Igneous: are formed by cooling the molten lava on or inside the
earth’s surface during the volcanic eruption. The portion of lava,
which comes outside the surface, cools, quickly and forms the rocks of
non crystalline nature called as basalt. The rest of the portion which
remains inside the earth undergoes cooling at a slow rate and results
in formation of rock of crystalline variety known as granite.
Rock, that is removed from its natural site and generally, cut or
dressed and then finished for building purposes, is called "Stone" and
the art of building the structure with stones as constructional units is
called "Stone masonry".
43
STONE
45. 45
2. Sedimentary: are formed by gradual deposition of
disintegrated rocks , vegetable matter and clay at the bottom
of rivers, lakes or sea. These are also called stratified because
these rocks are formed in layer. Limestone & sand stone
belong to this category of rocks.
3. Metamorphic: are formed from igneous or sedimentary
rocks as a result of the action of the earth movements,
temperature changes, liquid pressures, etc. The resultant mass
may have a foliated structure, e.g. slate, gneiss, schist and e.g.
marble, quartzite and serpentine.
47. The common types of stones available are:
1.Granite: It consists of grains of quartz in combination with
feldspar and mica. These are the hardest types of stones and
difficult to work with. They are available in various colours
ranging from white to green. These are used for the
construction of steps, walls, sills and as facing over other
masonry.
2. Sandstone: They are made of quartz cemented by a matrix of
silica. They also contain mica, feldspar and oxides of iron. The
colours of sandstones are due to the presence other minerals in
them. They can be worked easily to take any ornamental shape.
Their texture being coarse, they give a good appearance when
used along with brick masonry. 47
48. 48
3.Limestone: These are calcareous rocks and consist of
carbonate of lime. They are available in various colors and easy
to work with. They are used for walls, floors, steps, etc.
4.Marbles: They are like limestone, are calcareous rocks and
consist and consist of carbonate of lime. They are very useful
material for flooring and monumental structures. Marble are
available in various colors and can very good polish.
5.Slates: These are available in hilly areas and are metamorphic
rocks. Generally they have a black colour. Slates can be split in
thin sheets along their bedding planes. They mostly used for
roofing work.
49. STONE MASONRY
49
Main types of stone masonry:-
(1) Rubble masonry
(2) Ashlar masonry
Stone masonry is used for the construction of walls, columns,
lintels, arches, beams, etc., of a building. Stones are abundantly
available in nature and when cut and dressed to proper shapes,
they provide an economical material for the construction of
various parts of building.
50. Stone masonry
Rubble masonry
1. Un-coursed or
random rubble masonry.
2.Coursed rubble
masonry
3. Dry rubble masonry
Ashlar masonry
1. Ashlar Fine masonry
2. Ashlar Rough Tooled
3. Rock or rustic or
Quarry Faced
4. Ashlar Chamfered
5. Ashlar Facing
50
51. 1. Rubble Masonry: The stone masonry in which either
undressed or roughly dressed stone are laid in a suitable
mortar is called rubble masonry. In this masonry the joints
are not of uniform thickness. Rubble masonry is further
sub-divided into the following three types: Random
rubble masonry Squared rubble masonry Dry rubble
masonry.
1. Random rubble masonry: The rubble masonry in which
either undressed or hammer dressed stones are used is
called random rubble masonry. Further random rubble
masonry is also divided into the following three types.
51
52. a. Un coursed random rubble masonry: The random rubble
masonry in which stones are laid without forming courses
is known as un coursed random rubble masonry. This is the
roughest and cheapest type of masonry and is of varying
appearance.
• The stones used in this masonry are of different sizes and
shapes. before lying, all projecting corners of stones are
slightly knocked off. Vertical joints are not plumbed, joints
are filled and flushed.
• Large stones are used at corners to increase their strength.
Suitability: Used for construction of walls of low height in
case of ordinary buildings.
52
54. b. Coursed random rubble masonry: The random rubble
masonry in which stones are laid in layers of equal height is
called random rubble masonry.
• In this masonry, the stones are laid in somewhat level
courses. Headers of one coursed height are placed at certain
intervals. The stones are hammer dressed.
Suitability: Used for construction of residential buildings, go
downs, boundary walls etc. 54
56. c. Dry rubble masonry: The rubble masonry in which stones
are laid without using any mortar is called dry rubble
masonry or sometimes shortly as "dry stones". It is an ordinary
masonry and is recommended for constructing walls of height
not more than 6m. In case the height is more, three adjacent
courses are laid in squared rubble masonry mortar at 3m
intervals.
Suitability: Used for non-load bearing walls such as
compound wall etc.
56
58. ASHLAR MASONRY
• The stone masonry in which finely dressed stones are laid in
cement or lime mortar is known as ashlars masonry. In this
masonry are the courses are of uniform height, all the joints are
regular, thin and have uniform thickness.
• This type of masonry is much costly as it requires dressing of
stones.
Suitability: This masonry is used for heavy structures,
architectural buildings, high piers and abutments of bridges.
58
59. 1. ASHLAR FINE MASONRY
• Each stone is cut to uniform
size and shape with all sides
rectangular, so that the
stone gives perfectly
horizontal and vertical
joints with adjoining stone.
• Ht of courses > 30 cm
• May be of alternate H & S 59
60. 2. ASHLAR ROUGH TOOLED MASONRY
60
The beds and sides are finely
chisel-dressed. But the face is made
rough by means of tools.
A strip, about 25mm wide and
made by means of chisel is provided
around the perimeter of the rough
dressed face of each stone. Thickness
of joint should not more than 6 mm.
61. 3. ASHLAR ROCK OR RUSTIC OR QUARRY FACED
61
A strip is provided around the
perimeter of every stone. But the
remaining portion of the face is
left in the same form as received
from quarry.
Projection on exposed face is
restricted to 75 mm.Thickness of
joint –up to 10 mm.
62. 4. ASHLAR CHAMFERED MASONARY
62
The strip is
chamfered or beveled
at an angle of 45
degrees by means of
chisel for a depth of
about 25mm.
63. 5. ASHLAR FACING MASONARY
63
If the backing is of Rubble masonary, It is called “Rubble
Ashlar" and if the backing is of brick work the masonary is
termed as “Brick Ashlar”.
64. Ashlar facing: Ashlar facing is the best type of ashlars
masonry. Since this is type of masonry is very expensive, it is
not commonly used throughout the whole thickness of the
wall, except in works of great importance and strength. For
economy the facing are built in ashlars and the rest in rubble.
64
65. JOINTS IN STONE MASONRY
1.BUTT JOINT:-
Dressed edges of two stones are placed side by side.
65
66. 2.REBATED OR LAPPED JOINT:-
Provided in arches, gables etc. Used in slopes to prevent the
movement of stones.
66
67. 3.TABLE OR BED JOINT:-
Provided in sea wall to prevent the lateral movement of
stones. Ht of projection is 30-40 mm & width is 1/3 w of
stone.
67
68. 4.CRAMPED JOINT:-
The metal cramps are used to prevent the tendency of the joint
to be pulled apart. The dovetail shape holes are made in both
the stones to be joined. After placing the cramp in position, the
joint is grouted and covered with cement, lead or asphalt.
68
69. 5.PLUG JOINT:-
The plug joint is an Alternative of cramped joint. It consist of
plug holes of dovetail shape in plan and cut below the top
surface of stones. The stones are jointed by filling the holes
with cement.
69
70. 6.DOWEL JOINT:-
This type of joint is used to ensure the Stability of stones against
sliding or displacement. Dowels made of slate, copper, brass .
The dowels are set in cement mortar.
70
71. 7.RUSTICATED JOINT:-
This type of joints are generally used in plinths or masonry in
lower storey's of buildings to give the structure massive
appearance.
71
72. 8.JOGGLE JOINT:-
It is made of metal or slate, which is placed in between the
groove provided in two adjacent stones, to prevent sliding
along the side joints.
72
73. LIFTING APPLIANCES
During masonry construction, small size stones are handled
manually, but Large size stones are lifted and then placed in
position with the help of various lifting appliances.
1.LEWIS
2.NIPPERS
73
74. 1.LEWIS
A. Pin Lewis:-
It consist of Pair of pointed steel rods
are inserted into the inclined holes
made in the stone-block.
When the stone is lifted with the help
of rope or chain ,the inclined steel
rods are strongly tighten in the holes.
74
75. LIFTING APPLIANCES
B. Chain Lewis or chain dog
• In this the hook shaped steel pieces known as dogs used for
the lifting stones. The hooked ends of dogs are inserted in to the
holes of 18mm.
• The dogs are connected to the hoisting chain or rope foe
lifting of stones. In chain Lewis system, the dovetailed hole is
made in the centre of the top surface of stone to be lifted.
• The curve shaped steel legs are inserted in the hole and are
connected by means of three steel rings. The top most ring is
attached to the hosting chain or rope for lifting the stone. 75
77. 2.NIPPERS
The Pointed ends of nippers
are inserted in hole made little
below the stone top face &
stone block is raised by
attaching a chain to assembly.
77