A PROJECT REPORT
On
CISCO CERTIFIED NETWORK ASSOCIATE
A computer network, or simply a network, is a collection of computer and other hardware components interconnected by communication channels that allow sharing of resources and information. Where at least one process in one device is able to send/receive data to/from at least one process residing in a remote device, then the two devices are said to be in a network. Simply, more than one computer interconnected through a communication medium for information interchange is called a computer network.
The document discusses the CCNA certification exam including details about the exam such as number of questions, duration, passing score, and benefits of obtaining the certification. It also provides information about networking devices, topologies, standards, and the OSI model layers. Key topics covered include switches, routers, network topologies like star and bus, IEEE 802 standards, and an explanation of each of the seven layers of the OSI model.
The document provides information about the CCNA certification exam, including the exam number, total marks, duration, passing score, question types, and benefits of obtaining the certification. It also discusses common networking devices, network interface cards, hubs, switches, routers, common network topologies, and the functions of LANs, MANs and WANs. Finally, it introduces the OSI model and its seven layers.
This document discusses networking devices and technologies used to connect local area networks (LANs) and wide area networks (WANs). It describes common physical layer components used in Ethernet LANs such as twisted pair cable, fiber optic cable, and connectors. It also discusses serial connection options and devices used for WAN connections including CSU/DSUs and their roles as data terminal equipment (DTE) and data circuit-terminating equipment (DCE).
A
PROJECT REPORT
On
CISCO CERTIFIED NETWORK ASSOCIATE
A computer network, or simply a network, is a collection of computer and other hardware components interconnected by communication channels that allow sharing of resources and information. Where at least one process in one device is able to send/receive data to/from at least one process residing in a remote device, then the two devices are said to be in a network. Simply, more than one computer interconnected through a communication medium for information interchange is called a computer network.
The document discusses configuring and troubleshooting VLANs on Cisco switches. It describes creating VLANs on a switch, assigning switch ports to VLANs in access mode, and configuring trunk ports. Key steps include using the global config vlan command to create VLANs, the show vlan command to verify configurations, and the switchport mode access and switchport access commands to assign access ports to VLANs. The document also covers VTP modes, extended VLAN ranges, and trunk port configuration options.
The document provides an overview of computer networking fundamentals including:
- The seven layers of the OSI reference model and their functions from physical transmission to application interfaces.
- Reasons for using a layered networking model including modularity, interoperability, and error checking.
- Key networking concepts such as MAC addresses, connection-oriented vs. connectionless transmission, and data encapsulation.
The document discusses routers and Cisco IOS. It describes how Cisco IOS is the operating system that controls routing and switching functions. It then explains the basic components and functions of routers, including memory components like ROM, RAM, NVRAM and Flash memory. It also discusses router interfaces, bootup sequence, and configuration modes.
The document discusses the CCNA certification exam including details about the exam such as number of questions, duration, passing score, and benefits of obtaining the certification. It also provides information about networking devices, topologies, standards, and the OSI model layers. Key topics covered include switches, routers, network topologies like star and bus, IEEE 802 standards, and an explanation of each of the seven layers of the OSI model.
The document provides information about the CCNA certification exam, including the exam number, total marks, duration, passing score, question types, and benefits of obtaining the certification. It also discusses common networking devices, network interface cards, hubs, switches, routers, common network topologies, and the functions of LANs, MANs and WANs. Finally, it introduces the OSI model and its seven layers.
This document discusses networking devices and technologies used to connect local area networks (LANs) and wide area networks (WANs). It describes common physical layer components used in Ethernet LANs such as twisted pair cable, fiber optic cable, and connectors. It also discusses serial connection options and devices used for WAN connections including CSU/DSUs and their roles as data terminal equipment (DTE) and data circuit-terminating equipment (DCE).
A
PROJECT REPORT
On
CISCO CERTIFIED NETWORK ASSOCIATE
A computer network, or simply a network, is a collection of computer and other hardware components interconnected by communication channels that allow sharing of resources and information. Where at least one process in one device is able to send/receive data to/from at least one process residing in a remote device, then the two devices are said to be in a network. Simply, more than one computer interconnected through a communication medium for information interchange is called a computer network.
The document discusses configuring and troubleshooting VLANs on Cisco switches. It describes creating VLANs on a switch, assigning switch ports to VLANs in access mode, and configuring trunk ports. Key steps include using the global config vlan command to create VLANs, the show vlan command to verify configurations, and the switchport mode access and switchport access commands to assign access ports to VLANs. The document also covers VTP modes, extended VLAN ranges, and trunk port configuration options.
The document provides an overview of computer networking fundamentals including:
- The seven layers of the OSI reference model and their functions from physical transmission to application interfaces.
- Reasons for using a layered networking model including modularity, interoperability, and error checking.
- Key networking concepts such as MAC addresses, connection-oriented vs. connectionless transmission, and data encapsulation.
The document discusses routers and Cisco IOS. It describes how Cisco IOS is the operating system that controls routing and switching functions. It then explains the basic components and functions of routers, including memory components like ROM, RAM, NVRAM and Flash memory. It also discusses router interfaces, bootup sequence, and configuration modes.
This document provides an overview of networking fundamentals including defining computer networks, types of networks like peer-to-peer and client/server, local and wide area networks, network interface cards, physical components like cabling and devices, and network architectures like Ethernet and Token Ring. Key points covered include how networks allow file sharing, printing, and communication between devices, examples of networking media and common devices, and standards for networking protocols and architectures.
This document summarizes network devices and concepts from a CCNA guide. It describes how repeaters, hubs, wireless access points, bridges, switches and routers segment networks and control traffic. It also defines Ethernet, Fast Ethernet and Gigabit Ethernet standards, and explains half and full-duplex communication modes. The summary provides an overview of common network devices and technologies for local area networks.
This document discusses layer 2 switching and VLANs. It begins by explaining how switching breaks up large collision domains into smaller ones by creating individual collision domains per switch port. It then discusses how VLANs allow further segmentation of the network by logically grouping ports regardless of their physical location. VLANs create separate broadcast domains to limit broadcast traffic to specific groups of users. The document provides examples of creating, assigning ports to, and deleting VLANs on a switch to segmented the network.
The document provides an overview of the CCNA certification and covers topics like internetworking, IP addressing, routing protocols, Cisco IOS, and more. It begins with an introduction to computer networks and protocols. Then it discusses the OSI reference model, IP addressing fundamentals, routing protocols like RIP, IGRP, EIGRP and OSPF, Cisco IOS configuration, and IP routing. The document serves as a study guide for CCNA exam topics at a high level.
The document summarizes key concepts about TCP/IP from Chapter 3 of a CCNA guide. It discusses the origins of TCP/IP from projects by DARPA and the inclusion of TCP/IP in UNIX. It also describes the four layers of the TCP/IP model including the application, transport, internet, and network interface layers. Finally, it provides an overview of common protocols at each layer such as TCP, UDP, IP, ARP, and how packets are transmitted between hosts and routers.
CCNA BASIC SWITCHING AND SWITCH CONFIGURATIONAswini Badatya
This document provides an overview of Ethernet networking concepts including CSMA/CD, latency, errors, and segmentation using bridges, routers, and switches. It explains that Ethernet uses CSMA/CD for media access, defines terms like collision domain and broadcast storm, and discusses ways to segment networks including using bridges to separate collision domains, routers to block broadcast traffic, and switches to microsegment and provide dedicated bandwidth to each connected device.
The document provides information about CCNA training and certification. It discusses the topics covered in the CCNA exam, recommended training courses, study materials, exam format and structure. The CCNA certification tests knowledge of network fundamentals, switching, routing, WAN technologies, security and management. Exams last 90 minutes and contain around 50-60 multiple choice and simulation questions. Common jobs requiring the CCNA include network administrator, database administrator and help desk technician.
TCP/IP model with their 4 layer
1. Network access layer.
2. Internet layer
3. Transport layer
4. Application layer
and each layer has its own protocols.
CCNA 1 Routing and Switching v5.0 Chapter 1Nil Menon
This document summarizes key points from Chapter 1 of a Cisco networking textbook. It introduces networking concepts like LANs, WANs and the Internet. It discusses how networks are used in daily life for communication, work and entertainment. It also outlines trends that will impact networks, such as BYOD, online collaboration, video and cloud computing. The chapter objectives are to explain network topologies, devices and characteristics used in small to medium businesses.
Automating for Monitoring and Troubleshooting your Cisco IOS NetworkCisco Canada
Do you wish that you could provide more automatic methods to monitor your network? Have you ever wasted hours to capture evidence of a transient network issue? Do you know which part of your network is likely to fail next? And how to prevent it? Your Cisco IOS® Network provides a wealth of advanced device manageability instrumentation (DMI) and Embedded Automation Systems (EASy) to design and implement your own Network Automations. Learn how Network Automation allows you to automate manual tasks, better operate existing network services and even enable new and innovative networking solutions. This session uncovers embedded Network Automation capabilities you can use to interact with your network elements for the purpose of implementing network testing, verification and service assurance in a more effective, efficient and robust way. Network Automation fundamentals as well as the choice and use of appropriate practices are illustrated through a combination of presentation and best practice examples. The topic is relevant for network planners and administrators, engineers and system integrators for both enterprises and service providers.
The document discusses various network architectures including Token Ring, Ethernet, FDDI, AppleTalk, ARCNET, and MAN systems. Token Ring uses a logical ring topology and token passing for data transfer. It has advantages like no data collisions but disadvantages if links are malfunctioning. Ethernet uses CSMA/CD and can use any physical topology. FDDI provides high performance over fiber optic cables in a token ring architecture. AppleTalk was an early client-server system for Macintosh. ARCNET uses token passing over coaxial cable and supports up to 255 nodes. MAN connects different LANs over large distances.
The document discusses network layer concepts including packet switching, IP addressing, and fragmentation. It provides details on:
- Packet switching breaks data into packets that are routed independently and reassembled at the destination. This allows for more efficient use of bandwidth compared to circuit switching.
- IP addresses in IPv4 are 32-bit numbers that identify devices on the network. Addresses are expressed in decimal notation like 192.168.1.1. Fragmentation breaks packets larger than the MTU into smaller fragments for transmission.
This chapter reviews basic switching concepts as a refresher for the CCNP SWITCH certification, including hubs and switches, bridges and switches, the evolution of switches, broadcast domains, MAC addresses, Ethernet frame formats, basic switching functions, VLANs, spanning tree protocol, trunking, port channels, and multilayer switching. It provides objectives for topics that will be covered in more depth in later chapters.
CCNA Basic Switching and Switch ConfigurationDsunte Wilson
This document provides an overview of basic switching concepts and Cisco switch configuration. It explains Ethernet and how switches work to segment networks and reduce collisions. Switches operate at the data link layer and learn MAC addresses to forward frames efficiently. The document discusses switch configuration using commands like hostname, interface, duplex, and port security. It compares switching methods like store-and-forward and cut-through forwarding. The summary reiterates how switches divide collision domains to improve performance over shared-medium Ethernet.
This document provides an overview of Multi-Protocol Label Switching (MPLS) technology. It discusses MPLS fundamentals, components, operations, applications for traffic engineering, virtual private networks, and any transport over MPLS. It also outlines topics like MPLS label distribution, virtual private network models, and future developments in MPLS. The document is intended to guide readers on key concepts in MPLS and provide background for further study.
This document provides an overview of Ethernet in a presentation for a computer networks class. It begins with an introduction to Ethernet and network topologies. The technology section discusses Ethernet standards, frame formats, and cable types. Devices covered include switches, routers, and the differences between them. Applications like firewalls and IP spoofing are also mentioned. The summary reiterates the key topics discussed, including the introduction of Ethernet, technologies and devices, and applications. It also outlines the future of Ethernet, such as vehicular uses and standardizing software-defined networking.
Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) is a set of communication protocols that provides digital transmission of voice, video, and data over telephone lines or normal telephone cables. ISDN was developed in the 1970s and provides end-to-end digital connectivity over digital media. ISDN services include bearer services to transfer information between networks, teleservices to allow networks to process content, and supplementary services that provide additional functionality.
Frame Relay is a WAN protocol that operates at the physical and data link layers using packet switching technology. It provides connection-oriented virtual circuits between devices identified by a data-link connection identifier. Frame Relay supports both permanent virtual circuits that are always active and switched virtual circuits that are temporarily established for data transfer. It implements congestion notification using FECN, BECN and discard eligibility bits and uses CRC for error checking but not correction.
La capa de transporte proporciona funciones como segmentación de datos, control de flujo, confiabilidad y direccionamiento de puertos. Los protocolos TCP y UDP operan en esta capa, donde TCP ofrece comunicación fiable mediante secuenciación, acuses de recibo y retransmisión, mientras que UDP es más simple y no confiable.
A process by which certain foods like fruits and vegetables are prevented from getting spoilt for a long period of time. The colour, taste and nutritive value of the food is also preserved.
When you keep fruits, vegetables or left over dal in the
refrigerator or in a cool place, will this be called food preservation? No, because you can store fruits and vegetables or left over dal in this state for a few days only
The document discusses the OSI model and TCP/IP model for networking. It provides details on the seven layers of the OSI model and five layers of the TCP/IP model. Key points covered include functions of each layer like the physical layer dealing with physical connections, data link layer dealing with MAC addresses, network layer dealing with logical addressing, and transport layer dealing with reliable data transmission.
This document provides an overview of networking fundamentals including defining computer networks, types of networks like peer-to-peer and client/server, local and wide area networks, network interface cards, physical components like cabling and devices, and network architectures like Ethernet and Token Ring. Key points covered include how networks allow file sharing, printing, and communication between devices, examples of networking media and common devices, and standards for networking protocols and architectures.
This document summarizes network devices and concepts from a CCNA guide. It describes how repeaters, hubs, wireless access points, bridges, switches and routers segment networks and control traffic. It also defines Ethernet, Fast Ethernet and Gigabit Ethernet standards, and explains half and full-duplex communication modes. The summary provides an overview of common network devices and technologies for local area networks.
This document discusses layer 2 switching and VLANs. It begins by explaining how switching breaks up large collision domains into smaller ones by creating individual collision domains per switch port. It then discusses how VLANs allow further segmentation of the network by logically grouping ports regardless of their physical location. VLANs create separate broadcast domains to limit broadcast traffic to specific groups of users. The document provides examples of creating, assigning ports to, and deleting VLANs on a switch to segmented the network.
The document provides an overview of the CCNA certification and covers topics like internetworking, IP addressing, routing protocols, Cisco IOS, and more. It begins with an introduction to computer networks and protocols. Then it discusses the OSI reference model, IP addressing fundamentals, routing protocols like RIP, IGRP, EIGRP and OSPF, Cisco IOS configuration, and IP routing. The document serves as a study guide for CCNA exam topics at a high level.
The document summarizes key concepts about TCP/IP from Chapter 3 of a CCNA guide. It discusses the origins of TCP/IP from projects by DARPA and the inclusion of TCP/IP in UNIX. It also describes the four layers of the TCP/IP model including the application, transport, internet, and network interface layers. Finally, it provides an overview of common protocols at each layer such as TCP, UDP, IP, ARP, and how packets are transmitted between hosts and routers.
CCNA BASIC SWITCHING AND SWITCH CONFIGURATIONAswini Badatya
This document provides an overview of Ethernet networking concepts including CSMA/CD, latency, errors, and segmentation using bridges, routers, and switches. It explains that Ethernet uses CSMA/CD for media access, defines terms like collision domain and broadcast storm, and discusses ways to segment networks including using bridges to separate collision domains, routers to block broadcast traffic, and switches to microsegment and provide dedicated bandwidth to each connected device.
The document provides information about CCNA training and certification. It discusses the topics covered in the CCNA exam, recommended training courses, study materials, exam format and structure. The CCNA certification tests knowledge of network fundamentals, switching, routing, WAN technologies, security and management. Exams last 90 minutes and contain around 50-60 multiple choice and simulation questions. Common jobs requiring the CCNA include network administrator, database administrator and help desk technician.
TCP/IP model with their 4 layer
1. Network access layer.
2. Internet layer
3. Transport layer
4. Application layer
and each layer has its own protocols.
CCNA 1 Routing and Switching v5.0 Chapter 1Nil Menon
This document summarizes key points from Chapter 1 of a Cisco networking textbook. It introduces networking concepts like LANs, WANs and the Internet. It discusses how networks are used in daily life for communication, work and entertainment. It also outlines trends that will impact networks, such as BYOD, online collaboration, video and cloud computing. The chapter objectives are to explain network topologies, devices and characteristics used in small to medium businesses.
Automating for Monitoring and Troubleshooting your Cisco IOS NetworkCisco Canada
Do you wish that you could provide more automatic methods to monitor your network? Have you ever wasted hours to capture evidence of a transient network issue? Do you know which part of your network is likely to fail next? And how to prevent it? Your Cisco IOS® Network provides a wealth of advanced device manageability instrumentation (DMI) and Embedded Automation Systems (EASy) to design and implement your own Network Automations. Learn how Network Automation allows you to automate manual tasks, better operate existing network services and even enable new and innovative networking solutions. This session uncovers embedded Network Automation capabilities you can use to interact with your network elements for the purpose of implementing network testing, verification and service assurance in a more effective, efficient and robust way. Network Automation fundamentals as well as the choice and use of appropriate practices are illustrated through a combination of presentation and best practice examples. The topic is relevant for network planners and administrators, engineers and system integrators for both enterprises and service providers.
The document discusses various network architectures including Token Ring, Ethernet, FDDI, AppleTalk, ARCNET, and MAN systems. Token Ring uses a logical ring topology and token passing for data transfer. It has advantages like no data collisions but disadvantages if links are malfunctioning. Ethernet uses CSMA/CD and can use any physical topology. FDDI provides high performance over fiber optic cables in a token ring architecture. AppleTalk was an early client-server system for Macintosh. ARCNET uses token passing over coaxial cable and supports up to 255 nodes. MAN connects different LANs over large distances.
The document discusses network layer concepts including packet switching, IP addressing, and fragmentation. It provides details on:
- Packet switching breaks data into packets that are routed independently and reassembled at the destination. This allows for more efficient use of bandwidth compared to circuit switching.
- IP addresses in IPv4 are 32-bit numbers that identify devices on the network. Addresses are expressed in decimal notation like 192.168.1.1. Fragmentation breaks packets larger than the MTU into smaller fragments for transmission.
This chapter reviews basic switching concepts as a refresher for the CCNP SWITCH certification, including hubs and switches, bridges and switches, the evolution of switches, broadcast domains, MAC addresses, Ethernet frame formats, basic switching functions, VLANs, spanning tree protocol, trunking, port channels, and multilayer switching. It provides objectives for topics that will be covered in more depth in later chapters.
CCNA Basic Switching and Switch ConfigurationDsunte Wilson
This document provides an overview of basic switching concepts and Cisco switch configuration. It explains Ethernet and how switches work to segment networks and reduce collisions. Switches operate at the data link layer and learn MAC addresses to forward frames efficiently. The document discusses switch configuration using commands like hostname, interface, duplex, and port security. It compares switching methods like store-and-forward and cut-through forwarding. The summary reiterates how switches divide collision domains to improve performance over shared-medium Ethernet.
This document provides an overview of Multi-Protocol Label Switching (MPLS) technology. It discusses MPLS fundamentals, components, operations, applications for traffic engineering, virtual private networks, and any transport over MPLS. It also outlines topics like MPLS label distribution, virtual private network models, and future developments in MPLS. The document is intended to guide readers on key concepts in MPLS and provide background for further study.
This document provides an overview of Ethernet in a presentation for a computer networks class. It begins with an introduction to Ethernet and network topologies. The technology section discusses Ethernet standards, frame formats, and cable types. Devices covered include switches, routers, and the differences between them. Applications like firewalls and IP spoofing are also mentioned. The summary reiterates the key topics discussed, including the introduction of Ethernet, technologies and devices, and applications. It also outlines the future of Ethernet, such as vehicular uses and standardizing software-defined networking.
Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) is a set of communication protocols that provides digital transmission of voice, video, and data over telephone lines or normal telephone cables. ISDN was developed in the 1970s and provides end-to-end digital connectivity over digital media. ISDN services include bearer services to transfer information between networks, teleservices to allow networks to process content, and supplementary services that provide additional functionality.
Frame Relay is a WAN protocol that operates at the physical and data link layers using packet switching technology. It provides connection-oriented virtual circuits between devices identified by a data-link connection identifier. Frame Relay supports both permanent virtual circuits that are always active and switched virtual circuits that are temporarily established for data transfer. It implements congestion notification using FECN, BECN and discard eligibility bits and uses CRC for error checking but not correction.
La capa de transporte proporciona funciones como segmentación de datos, control de flujo, confiabilidad y direccionamiento de puertos. Los protocolos TCP y UDP operan en esta capa, donde TCP ofrece comunicación fiable mediante secuenciación, acuses de recibo y retransmisión, mientras que UDP es más simple y no confiable.
A process by which certain foods like fruits and vegetables are prevented from getting spoilt for a long period of time. The colour, taste and nutritive value of the food is also preserved.
When you keep fruits, vegetables or left over dal in the
refrigerator or in a cool place, will this be called food preservation? No, because you can store fruits and vegetables or left over dal in this state for a few days only
The document discusses the OSI model and TCP/IP model for networking. It provides details on the seven layers of the OSI model and five layers of the TCP/IP model. Key points covered include functions of each layer like the physical layer dealing with physical connections, data link layer dealing with MAC addresses, network layer dealing with logical addressing, and transport layer dealing with reliable data transmission.
The present condition in Industry is that they are using the crane system to carry the parcels from one place to another, including harbors. Some times the lifting of big weights may cause the breakage of lifting materials and will cause damage to the parcels too. Application of the proposed system is for industries. The robot movement depends on the track. Use of this robot is to transport the materials from one place to another place in the industry.
A robot is a machine designed to execute one or more tasks repeatedly, with speed and precision. There are as many different types of robots as there are tasks for them to perform. A robot can be controlled by a human operator, sometimes from a great distance. In such type of applications wireless communication is more important.
In robotic applications, generally we need a remote device to control. If we use IR remote device, it is just limited to meters distance and also if any obstacle is in between its path then there will be no communication. If we consider, RF modules for remote operations there is no objection whether an obstacle is present in its path. So that it is very helpful to control robot.
RF modules itself can generates its carrier frequency which is around 2.4 GHz. We need to generate serial data using micro controller and fed to the RF transmitting module. On other side RF receiver receives sent data as RF signals and given to another micro controller. Here, RF receiver itself demodulates the data from carrier signal and generate serial data as output.
A PROJECT REPORT
On
CISCO CERTIFIED NETWORK ASSOCIATE
A computer network, or simply a network, is a collection of computer and other hardware components interconnected by communication channels that allow sharing of resources and information. Where at least one process in one device is able to send/receive data to/from at least one process residing in a remote device, then the two devices are said to be in a network. Simply, more than one computer interconnected through a communication medium for information interchange is called a computer network.
This document discusses Cisco Certified Network Associate (CCNA) certification and networking concepts. It includes:
- An overview of the CCNA certification and what skills it demonstrates in networking areas like LANs, WANs, routing protocols, and network access.
- Explanations of common networking devices, topologies, protocols like IP addressing and routing, and models like the OSI model.
- Descriptions of static and dynamic routing, protocols like RIP, OSPF, EIGRP, and commands used to configure routers.
1) The document discusses the installation and commissioning of a Nokia Flexi EDGE BTS. It provides an overview of the GSM system and BTS functions.
2) It describes the various components of the Nokia Flexi EDGE BTS including the EDGE System Module (ESMA), Dual TRX Module (EXxA), Dual Duplexer Module (ERxA), and Wideband Combiner (EWxA).
3) The commissioning process involves 12 steps like hardware installation, software configuration, RF parameter checks, traffic tests and O&M integration to activate the BTS in the live network.
Routers are networking devices that connect different networks. This document discusses router basics including Cisco router models, external and internal parts of routers, software used to configure routers, and basic router configuration tasks like setting passwords, configuring interfaces, and setting static and default routes. It provides a step-by-step guide to initial router setup and configuration.
Router connects different networks located at geographical locations. It has various interfaces like Ethernet, Serial and supports protocols like RIP, OSPF for dynamic routing. The document provides details about Cisco router components, configuration, interfaces, routing protocols, troubleshooting commands and backup/restoration process using TFTP server.
This document provides an overview of Cisco router configuration, including:
1) The various components of a Cisco router and their functions, such as ROM, RAM, flash memory, and NVRAM.
2) The steps to initially configure a new Cisco router, such as setting the hostname and passwords, configuring interfaces with IP addresses, and saving the configuration.
3) Where the running and startup configurations are stored and how they can be viewed, copied between locations, or restored from an external host.
This document discusses the basic components and configuration of a Cisco router. It describes the hardware components such as RAM, ROM, flash memory and NVRAM that store data and software. It also explains the boot process and how the configuration register controls boot options. The document provides an overview of how to configure interfaces, routing protocols, and view configurations through commands.
The document discusses Cisco routers and routing concepts. It provides details about Cisco router components, configuration, interfaces, routing protocols like RIP and IGRP, and autonomous systems. Cisco routers range from small access layer routers like the 700 series to large core routers like the 12000 series. Configuration is done through the console port initially and involves tasks like setting the hostname, passwords, interfaces and routing.
The document provides information on configuring Cisco routers, including:
- Cisco IOS software uses different command modes to access groups of commands, including user EXEC, privileged EXEC, and configuration modes.
- IP addresses, routing protocols, and other settings are configured in privileged EXEC or configuration modes using commands like interface, ip address, router rip/ospf/eigrp, and more.
- Router and link status can be checked using LED indicators on ports and transceiver modules.
One of the most basic networking courses is provided by Cisco Systems via the Cisco Networking Academy.
The academy provides a comprehensive program allowing students to get started in information technology and have multiple certifications.
Cisco created academies in 9,000 learning institutions spread across more than 170 countries that offer the Cisco Networking Academy curriculum.
The Associate level of Cisco Certifications can begin directly with CCNA for network installation, operations and troubleshooting or CCDA for network design. Think of the Associate Level as the foundation level of networking certification.
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A router is a networking device that operates at the network layer and connects different networks. It selects the best and shortest path for packet forwarding based on its routing table, and can filter traffic using access control lists. Routers have various ports including console, auxiliary, Ethernet LAN ports, and serial WAN ports used to connect to other routers and modems. The Cisco IOS software controls router functions and is loaded during bootup from flash memory or a TFTP server.
Cisco Internetworking Operating System (ios)Netwax Lab
Cisco IOS (originally Internetwork Operating
System) is software used on most Cisco Systems
routers and current Cisco network switches.
(Earlier switches ran CatOS.) IOS is a package of
routing, switching, internetworking and
telecommunications functions integrated into a
multitasking operating system.
The document provides an overview of configuring a network operating system using Cisco IOS. It discusses accessing Cisco IOS devices through the console port or remotely using Telnet or SSH. It describes the command line interface and command structure of Cisco IOS, including different modes like privileged EXEC mode, global configuration mode, and interface configuration mode. It also covers setting the hostname, limiting access, saving configurations, and verifying connectivity between devices on the network.
This document provides an overview of managing Cisco IOS, including the router boot sequence, locating the IOS software, configuration register settings, recovering passwords, backing up and restoring the IOS, backing up and restoring router configurations, and Cisco Discovery Protocol (CDP). The router boot sequence involves POST, loading the IOS software from flash, and loading the startup-config from NVRAM. The configuration register controls how the router boots. Passwords can be recovered by changing this register. The IOS and configurations can be backed up to FTP/TFTP and restored. CDP allows administrators to gather hardware and protocol info about neighboring devices.
This document provides an overview of managing Cisco IOS, including the router boot sequence, locating the IOS software, configuration register settings, recovering passwords, backing up and restoring the IOS, backing up and restoring router configurations, and Cisco Discovery Protocol (CDP). The router boot sequence involves POST, loading the IOS software from flash, and loading the startup-config from NVRAM. The configuration register controls how the router boots. Passwords can be recovered by changing this register. The IOS and configurations can be backed up to FTP/TFTP and restored. CDP is used to gather hardware and protocol info about neighboring devices.
The document provides information on Cisco IOS modes of operation including:
- User EXEC mode allows basic commands and is the initial mode when connecting. Privileged EXEC requires a password and has additional commands.
- Global configuration mode allows modifying system-wide settings and is accessed from privileged EXEC. Interface configuration customizes individual interfaces.
- IP addresses are configured by entering interface configuration mode and using the ip address command. Routing protocols like RIP and OSPF are configured in global mode by specifying networks and other options.
Cisco routers have different command modes including user EXEC, privileged EXEC, global configuration, and interface configuration modes. Each mode provides access to different commands. Common routing protocols like RIP, OSPF, IGRP, and BGP can be configured through commands in global and router configuration modes. The status of router interfaces and links can be checked using LED indicators on the router and connected transceivers.
The document provides information on Cisco IOS modes of operation including:
- User EXEC mode allows basic commands and is the initial mode when connecting. Privileged EXEC requires a password and has additional commands.
- Global configuration mode allows modifying system-wide settings and is accessed from privileged EXEC. Interface configuration customizes individual interfaces.
- IP addresses are configured by entering interface configuration mode and using the ip address command. Routing protocols like RIP and OSPF are configured in global mode by specifying router commands and network numbers.
Cisco routers have different command modes including user EXEC, privileged EXEC, global configuration, and interface configuration modes. Each mode provides access to different commands. Common routing protocols like RIP, OSPF, IGRP, and BGP can be configured through commands in global and router configuration modes. The status of router interfaces and links can be checked using LED indicators on the router and connected transceivers.
An embedded system is a computer system designed to do one or a few dedicated and/or specific functions often with real-time computing constraints. It is embedded as part of a complete device often including hardware and mechanical parts. By contrast, a general-purpose computer, such as a personal computer (PC), is designed to be flexible and to meet a wide range of end-user needs. Embedded systems control many devices in common use today.
Physically, embedded systems range from portable devices such as digital watches and MP3 players, to large stationary installations like traffic lights, factory controllers, or the systems controlling nuclear power plants. Complexity varies from low, with a single microcontroller chip, to very high with multiple units, peripherals and networks mounted inside a large chassis or enclosure.
The present condition in Industry is that they are using the crane system to carry the parcels from one place to another, including harbors. Some times the lifting of big weights may cause the breakage of lifting materials and will cause damage to the parcels too. Application of the proposed system is for industries. The robot movement depends on the track. Use of this robot is to transport the materials from one place to another place in the industry.
A robot is a machine designed to execute one or more tasks repeatedly, with speed and precision. There are as many different types of robots as there are tasks for them to perform. A robot can be controlled by a human operator, sometimes from a great distance. In such type of applications wireless communication is more important.
In robotic applications, generally we need a remote device to control. If we use IR remote device, it is just limited to meters distance and also if any obstacle is in between its path then there will be no communication. If we consider, RF modules for remote operations there is no objection whether an obstacle is present in its path. So that it is very helpful to control robot.
RF modules itself can generates its carrier frequency which is around 2.4 GHz. We need to generate serial data using micro controller and fed to the RF transmitting module. On other side RF receiver receives sent data as RF signals and given to another micro controller. Here, RF receiver itself demodulates the data from carrier signal and generate serial data as output.
This document is a project report submitted by Saurabh Bansal in partial fulfillment of a B.Tech degree in Electronics and Communication Engineering. The report contains 9 chapters that discuss topics related to computer networking including network types, devices, topologies, the OSI model, IP routing, addressing, access control lists, network address translation, and virtual LANs. During an internship, the author gained hands-on experience working in an actual IT environment and data center, learning about new technologies and procedures to help build their career in the field.
This document provides an overview and summary of a project report on the installation, commissioning, and planning of a Nokia Flexi Edge BTS (Base Transceiver Station). It was submitted by Saurabh Bansal, an electronics and communications engineering student, under the guidance of his professor Sumit Singh Dhanda. The report includes sections on the history of Nokia Siemens Networks, an overview of BTS components and functions, radio frequency details, operations, administration, maintenance, provisioning, and commissioning of the Nokia Flexi Edge BTS site.
The document summarizes the internship work of installing and commissioning a Nokia Flexi Edge BTS. It provides background on BTS and GSM technology, explaining that a BTS facilitates wireless communication between user equipment and a network. The internship involved site surveying, radio planning, installing Huawei BTS equipment, and testing the integrity of the system to extend the efficiency of the GSM network.
This document discusses the evolution of wireless technologies from 1G to 4G. It provides information on key technologies such as 3G, 4G, OFDMA and MIMO. Some of the main points discussed are:
- The progression from 1G focusing on voice to 2G incorporating SMS and MMS to 3G enabling wireless internet and video calling.
- 4G aims to provide ultra-broadband services with data transfer rates up to 100MB/sec for applications like mobile TV and telemedicine.
- Key 4G technologies that will be used include OFDMA, MIMO, smart antennas and a hybrid network architecture to allow for high bandwidth and flexible coverage.
- Realizing 4G faces challenges
This document discusses 4G cellular communication systems. It begins with definitions of 4G and an overview of the evolution of data standards from 0G to 4G. Key points include that 4G will be fully packet-switched and provide speeds up to 100 Mbps on the move and 1 Gbps stationary. The document then covers WiMAX as a 4G technology, possibilities of 4G like enhanced mobile gaming and virtual presence, and concludes with thoughts on the road ahead for 4G adoption and availability.
Saurabh Bansal presented on 4G technology. He began by defining 4G and comparing its key parameters to 3G, noting that 4G aims to provide high-speed, high-capacity, low-cost IP services. He described some of the key technologies required for 4G like MIMO and OFDMA. Bansal also discussed potential 4G applications in areas like mobile gaming, telemedicine, and broadband access. He concluded by noting the challenges in developing technologies needed to handle 4G's intensive algorithms and wide bandwidth requirements.
Here are three key reasons for researching 4G technology even though 3G has not been fully deployed yet:
1. Meeting future needs - 3G performance may not be sufficient to support future high-bandwidth applications like multimedia, full-motion video, and wireless teleconferencing that will demand much higher speeds and capacities. 4G research aims to develop a technology that can extend capabilities by an order of magnitude beyond 3G.
2. Global interoperability - The existence of multiple competing 3G standards makes roaming and interoperating across different 3G networks difficult. 4G research aims to establish a single global standard to enable true mobility and service portability worldwide.
3. Hybrid network capabilities - 3G is based mainly
Sri Guru Hargobind Ji - Bandi Chor Guru.pdfBalvir Singh
Sri Guru Hargobind Ji (19 June 1595 - 3 March 1644) is revered as the Sixth Nanak.
• On 25 May 1606 Guru Arjan nominated his son Sri Hargobind Ji as his successor. Shortly
afterwards, Guru Arjan was arrested, tortured and killed by order of the Mogul Emperor
Jahangir.
• Guru Hargobind's succession ceremony took place on 24 June 1606. He was barely
eleven years old when he became 6th Guru.
• As ordered by Guru Arjan Dev Ji, he put on two swords, one indicated his spiritual
authority (PIRI) and the other, his temporal authority (MIRI). He thus for the first time
initiated military tradition in the Sikh faith to resist religious persecution, protect
people’s freedom and independence to practice religion by choice. He transformed
Sikhs to be Saints and Soldier.
• He had a long tenure as Guru, lasting 37 years, 9 months and 3 days
Data Communication and Computer Networks Management System Project Report.pdfKamal Acharya
Networking is a telecommunications network that allows computers to exchange data. In
computer networks, networked computing devices pass data to each other along data
connections. Data is transferred in the form of packets. The connections between nodes are
established using either cable media or wireless media.
This is an overview of my current metallic design and engineering knowledge base built up over my professional career and two MSc degrees : - MSc in Advanced Manufacturing Technology University of Portsmouth graduated 1st May 1998, and MSc in Aircraft Engineering Cranfield University graduated 8th June 2007.
Covid Management System Project Report.pdfKamal Acharya
CoVID-19 sprang up in Wuhan China in November 2019 and was declared a pandemic by the in January 2020 World Health Organization (WHO). Like the Spanish flu of 1918 that claimed millions of lives, the COVID-19 has caused the demise of thousands with China, Italy, Spain, USA and India having the highest statistics on infection and mortality rates. Regardless of existing sophisticated technologies and medical science, the spread has continued to surge high. With this COVID-19 Management System, organizations can respond virtually to the COVID-19 pandemic and protect, educate and care for citizens in the community in a quick and effective manner. This comprehensive solution not only helps in containing the virus but also proactively empowers both citizens and care providers to minimize the spread of the virus through targeted strategies and education.
Online train ticket booking system project.pdfKamal Acharya
Rail transport is one of the important modes of transport in India. Now a days we
see that there are railways that are present for the long as well as short distance
travelling which makes the life of the people easier. When compared to other
means of transport, a railway is the cheapest means of transport. The maintenance
of the railway database also plays a major role in the smooth running of this
system. The Online Train Ticket Management System will help in reserving the
tickets of the railways to travel from a particular source to the destination.
2. 2
Cisco IOS
Cisco technology is built around the Cisco
Internetwork Operating System (IOS), which is the
software that controls the routing and switching
functions of internetworking devices.
A solid understanding of the IOS is essential for a
network administrator.
3. 3
The Purpose of Cisco IOS
As with a computer, a router or switch cannot function without an
operating system. Cisco calls its operating system the Cisco Internetwork
Operating System or Cisco IOS.
4. 4
Introduction to Routers
A router is a special type of computer. It has the same basic components as a standard desktop
PC. However, routers are designed to perform some very specific functions. Just as computers
need operating systems to run software applications, routers need the Internetwork Operating
System software (IOS) to run configuration files. These configuration files contain the
instructions and parameters that control the flow of traffic in and out of the routers. The many
parts of a router are shown below:
5. 5
Router Memory Components
ROM - Read Only Memory – Bootstrap/POST
FLASH Memory- IOS Images are kept here
- Erasable reprogrammable ROM
- Contents are kept on Power down or reload
RAM - Random Access memory
- Routing Tables
- Running Configuration
- Contents are lost on reboot
NVRAM - Start up configuration
- Configuration Register
- Contents are kept on reload
6. 6
ROM
Read-Only Memory
ROM has the following characteristics and functions:
Maintains instructions for power-on self test
(POST) diagnostics
Stores bootstrap program and basic operating
system software
Mini IOS
7. 7
RAM
Random Access Memory, also called dynamic RAM (DRAM)
RAM has the following characteristics and functions:
Stores routing tables
Holds ARP cache
Performs packet buffering (shared RAM)
Provides temporary memory for the configuration file of
the router while the router is powered on
Loses content when router is powered down or restarted
8. 8
NVRAM
Non-Volatile RAM
NVRAM has the following characteristics and functions:
Provides storage for the startup configuration file
Retains content when router is powered down or
restarted
Configuration Register – 16 bit register which decides
boot sequence
9. 9
Flash
Flash memory has the following characteristics and
functions:
Holds the operating system image (IOS)
Allows software to be updated without
removing and replacing chips on the processor
Retains content when router is powered down
or restarted
Can store multiple versions of IOS software
Is a type of electronically erasable,
programmable ROM (EEPROM)
10. 10
Interfaces
Interfaces have the following characteristics and functions:
Connect router to network for frame entry and exit
Can be on the motherboard or on a separate module
Types of interfaces:
Ethernet
Fast Ethernet
Serial
ISDN BRI
Loopback
Console
Aux
12. 12
Router Power-On/Bootup
Sequence
1. Perform power-on self test (POST).
2. Load and run bootstrap code.
3. Find the Cisco IOS software.
4. Load the Cisco IOS software.
5. Find the configuration.
6. Load the configuration.
7. Run the configured Cisco IOS software.
14. 14
After the Post…
After the POST, the following events occur as the router initializes:
Step 1
The generic bootstrap loader in ROM executes. A bootstrap is a simple set of instructions that
tests hardware and initializes the IOS for operation.
Step 2
The IOS can be found in several places. The boot field of the configuration register determines
the location to be used in loading the IOS.
Step 3
The operating system image is loaded.
Step 4
The configuration file saved in NVRAM is loaded into main memory and executed one line at a
time. The configuration commands start routing processes, supply addresses for interfaces,
and define other operating characteristics of the router.
Step 5
If no valid configuration file exists in NVRAM, the operating system searches for an available
TFTP server. If no TFTP server is found, the setup dialog is initiated.
15. 15
Loading the Cisco IOS Software
From Flash Memory
• The flash memory file is decompressed into RAM.
16. 16
Loading the Configuration
• Load and execute the configuration from NVRAM.
• If no configuration is present in NVRAM, enter setup mode.
21. 22
Establishing a
HyperTerminal Session
Take the following steps to connect a terminal to the console port on the router:
First, connect the terminal using the RJ-45 to RJ-45 rollover cable and an RJ-45 to
DB-9 or RJ-45 to DB-25 adapter.
Then, configure the terminal or PC terminal emulation software for 9600 baud, 8
data bits, no parity, 1 stop bit, and no flow control.
24. 25
Router LED Indicators
Cisco routers use LED indicators to provide status information. Depending
upon the Cisco router model, the LED indicators will vary. An interface LED
indicates the activity of the corresponding interface. If an LED is off when
the interface is active and the interface is correctly connected, a problem
may be indicated. If an interface is extremely busy, its LED will always be
on. The green OK LED to the right of the AUX port will be on after the
system initializes correctly.
26. 27
Router User Interface Modes
The Cisco command-line interface (CLI) uses a hierarchical structure. This structure
requires entry into different modes to accomplish particular tasks.
Each configuration mode is indicated with a distinctive prompt and allows only
commands that are appropriate for that mode.
As a security feature the Cisco IOS software separates sessions into two access
levels, user EXEC mode and privileged EXEC mode. The privileged EXEC mode is
also known as enable mode.
29. 30
CLI Command Modes
All command-line interface (CLI) configuration changes to a Cisco router are made
from the global configuration mode. Other more specific modes are entered
depending upon the configuration change that is required.
Global configuration mode commands are used in a router to apply configuration
statements that affect the system as a whole.
The following command moves the router into global configuration mode
Router#configure terminal (or config t)
Router(config)#
When specific configuration modes are entered, the router prompt changes to
indicate the current configuration mode.
Typing exit from one of these specific configuration modes will return the router to
global configuration mode. Pressing Ctrl-Z returns the router to all the way back
privileged EXEC mode.
30. 31
Show Version Command
wg_ro_a#show version
Cisco Internetwork Operating System Software
IOS (tm) 2500 Software (C2500-JS-L), Version 12.0(3), RELEASE SOFTWARE (fc1)
Copyright (c) 1986-1999 by cisco Systems, Inc.
Compiled Mon 08-Feb-99 18:18 by phanguye
Image text-base: 0x03050C84, data-base: 0x00001000
ROM: System Bootstrap, Version 11.0(10c), SOFTWARE
BOOTFLASH: 3000 Bootstrap Software (IGS-BOOT-R), Version 11.0(10c), RELEASE SOFTWARE(fc1)
wg_ro_a uptime is 20 minutes
System restarted by reload
System image file is "flash:c2500-js-l_120-3.bin"
(output omitted)
--More--
Configuration register is 0x2102
32. 33
show running-config and
show startup-config Commands
wg_ro_c#show startup-config
Using 1359 out of 32762 bytes
!
version 12.0
!
-- More --
wg_ro_c#show running-config
Building configuration...
Current configuration:
!
version 12.0
!
-- More --
In NVRAMIn RAM
• Displays the current and saved configuration
33. 34
Configurations in two locations - RAM and NVRAM.
•The running configuration is stored in RAM.
•Any configuration changes to the router are made to the
running-configuration and take effect immediately after the
command is entered.
•The startup-configuration is saved in NVRAM and is loaded into
the router's running-configuration when the router boots up.
• To save the running-configuration to the startup configuration,
type the following from privileged EXEC mode (i.e. at the
"Router#" prompt.)
Router# copy run start
Saving Configurations
35. 36
Configuring a Router’s Name
A router should be given a unique name as one of the first
configuration tasks.
This task is accomplished in global configuration mode using
the following commands:
Router(config)#hostname Gates
Gates(config)#
As soon as the Enter key is pressed, the prompt changes from
the default host name (Router) to the newly configured host
name (which is Gates in the example above).
37. 38
Message Of The Day (MOTD)
A message-of-the-day (MOTD) banner can be displayed on all
connected terminals.
Enter global configuration mode by using the command config t
Enter the command
banner motd # Welcome to Gates Training #.
Save changes by issuing the command copy run start
38. 39
Privileged Mode Command
# show startup-config
# show running-config
# show version
# show flash
# show interfaces
# show interfaces s 0
# show history
# show terminal
# terminal history size 25
39. 40
Password
Passwords restrict access to routers.
Passwords should always be configured for virtual terminal
lines and the console line.
Passwords are also used to control access to privileged EXEC
mode so that only authorized users may make changes to the
configuration file.
40. 41
Passwords
There are five passwords for Router
Privileged Mode Password – 2
Line Console Password
Auxiliary Port Password
Telnet Password
45. 46
Configuring a Telnet Password
A password must be set on one or more of the virtual
terminal (VTY) lines for users to gain remote access to the
router using Telnet.
Typically Cisco routers support five VTY lines numbered 0
through 4.
47. 48
Encrypting Passwords
Only the enable secret password is encrypted by default
Need to manually configure the user-mode and enable
passwords for encryption
To manually encrypt your passwords, use the service
password-encryption command
Router#config t
Enter configuration commands, one per line. End with CNTL/Z.
Router(config)#service password-encryption
48. 49
Disable Passwords
Gates(config)# no enable password
Gates(config)# no enable secret
For the Console
Gates(config)# line con 0
Gates(config)# no password
Gates(config)# line vty 0 4
Gates(config)# no password
49. 50
LAB – Interface Configuration
S0 S0E0
10.0.0.1
10.0.0.2
30.0.0.220.0.0.1
20.0.0.2 30.0.0.1
A
S0
E0
40.0.0.2
40.0.0.1
B
S1
50. 51
Descriptions
Setting descriptions on an interface is helpful to
the administrator
Only locally significant
R1(config)#int e0
R1(config-if)#description Sales Lan
R1(config-if)#int s0
R1(config-if)#desc Wan to Mumbai
51. 52
Configuring Interfaces
An interface needs an IP Address and a Subnet Mask to be configured.
All interfaces are “shutdown” by default.
The DCE end of a serial interface needs a clock rate.
R1#config t
R1(config)#int e0
R1(config)#Description Connoted to Host
R1(config-if)#ip address 10.0.0.1 255.0.0.0
R1(config-if)#no shutdown
R1(config-if)#exit
R1(config)#interface serial 0
R1(config-if)#ip address 20.0.0.1 255.255.255.0
R1(config-if)# bandwidth 64
R1(config-if)#clock rate 64000 (required for serial DCE only)
R1(config-if)#no shutdown
R1(config-if)#exit
R1(config)#exit
R1#
On new routers, Serial 1 would be just Serial 0/1 and e0 would be f0/0.
s = serial e = Ethernet f = fast Ethernet
54. 55
Saving and Erasing Configurations
To copy RAM to NVRAM
# copy run startup-config
To remove all configuration
# erase startup-config
# reload
56. 57
Objectives
Upon completion of this chapter, you will
be able to complete the following tasks:
Distinguish the use and operation of static and
dynamic routes
Configure and verify a static route
Identify how distance vector IP routing protocols
such as RIP and IGRP operate on Cisco routers
Enable Routing Information Protocol (RIP)
Enable Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP)
Verify IP routing with show and debug commands
57. 58
Routing
The process of transferring data from one local area
network to another
Layer 3 devices
Routed protocol Enables to forward packet from one
router to another – Ex – IP, IPX
Routing protocol sends and receives routing
information packets to and from other routers – Ex -
RIP, OSPF , IGRP
Routing protocols gather and share the routing
information used to maintain and update routing
tables.
That routing information is in turn used to route a
routed protocol to its final destination
59. 60
To route, a router needs to know:
Destination addresses
Sources it can learn from
Possible routes
Best route
What is Routing?
172.16.1.010.120.2.0
60. 61
What is Routing? (cont.)
Network
Protocol
Destination
Network
Connected
Learned
10.120.2.0
172.16.1.0
Exit
Interface
E0
S0
Routed Protocol: IP
Routers must learn destinations that are not
directly connected
172.16.1.010.120.2.0
E0
S0
61. 62
Route Types
Static routing - network administrator configures
information about remote networks manually. They are
used to reduce overhead and for security.
Dynamic routing - information is learned from other
routers, and routing protocols adjust routes
automatically.
Because of the extra administrative requirements, static
routing does not have the scalability of dynamic routing.
62. 63
IP Routing Process
Step-by-step what happens when Host A wants to
communicate with Host B on a different network
A user on Host A pings Host B’s IP address.
E0 E1
10.0.0.1
10.0.0.2
A B 20.0.0.2
20.0.0.1
63. 65
LAB – Interface Configuration
S0 S0E0
10.0.0.1
10.0.0.2
30.0.0.220.0.0.1
20.0.0.2 30.0.0.1
A
S0
E0
40.0.0.2
40.0.0.1
B
S1
64. 66
Test The Connection
• Host A can ping router R1 and R2
• To enable Host A to Ping Host B we need to configure
Routes
66. 68
Static Routes
Benefits
No overhead on the router CPU
No bandwidth usage between routers
Adds security
Disadvantage
Administrator must really understand the internetwork
If a network is added to the internetwork, the
administrator has to add a route to it on all routers
Not feasible in large networks
68. 70
ip route The command used to create the static route.
destination_network The network you’re placing in the routing table.
mask The subnet mask being used on the network.
next-hop_address The address of the next-hop router that will receive the packet
and forward it to the remote network. This is a router interface that’s on a directly
connected network.
exitinterface You can use it in place of the next-hop address if you want, but it’s
got to be on a point-to-point link, such as a WAN
administrative_distance By default, static routes have an administrative
distance of 1 (or even 0 if you use an exit interface instead of a next-hop address)
permanent If the interface is shut down, or the router can’t communicate to the
next-hop router, the route will automatically be discarded from the routing table.
Choosing the permanent option keeps the entry in the routing table no matter what
happens.
ip route [destination_network] [mask] [next-hop_address or exitinterface]
[administrative_distance] [permanent
Static Route Configuration
R1(config)#ip route 30.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 20.0.0.2
70. 72
Verifying Static
Route Configuration
After static routes are configured it is important to verify that
they are present in the routing table and that routing is
working as expected.
The command show running-config is used to view the
active configuration in RAM to verify that the static route was
entered correctly.
The show ip route command is used to make sure that the
static route is present in the routing table.
71. 73
S0 S0E0
10.0.0.1
10.0.0.2
30.0.0.220.0.0.1
20.0.0.2 30.0.0.1
A
S0
E0
40.0.0.2
40.0.0.1
B
S1
R1# config t
R1(config)#no ip route 30.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 20.0.0.2
R1(config)#no ip route 40.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 20.0.0.2
R2# config t
R2(config)#no ip route 10.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 20.0.0.1
R2(config)#no ip route 40.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 30.0.0.2
R3# config t
R3(config)#no ip route 10.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 30.0.0.1
R3(config)#no ip route 20.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 30.0.0.1
Removing IP Route
72. 74
Default Routes
• Can only use default routing on stub networks
• Stub networks are those with only one exit path out of
the network
• The only routers that are considered to be in a stub
network are R1 and R3
S0
S0E0
E010.0.0.1
10.0.0.2 40.0.0.2
20.0.0.1
20.0.0.2
30.0.0.1
A B
S0
S1
30.0.0.2
40.0.0.1
73. 75
Stub Network
ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 172.16.2.2
Default Routes
172.16.2.1
SO
172.16.1.0
B
172.16.2.2
Network
A B
This route allows the stub network to reach all known
networks beyond router A.
10.0.0.0
74. 76
Configuring Default Routes
Default routes are used to route packets with destinations that do not
match any of the other routes in the routing table.
A default route is actually a special static route that uses this format:
ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 [next-hop-address | outgoing interface]
This is sometimes referred to as a “Quad-Zero” route.
Example using next hop address:
Router(config)#ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 172.16.4.1
Example using the exit interface:
Router(config)#ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 s0/0
76. 78
Default Route LAB
Configuration
S0
S0E0
E0
10.0.0.1
10.0.0.2 40.0.0.2
20.0.0.1
20.0.0.2
30.0.0.1
A B
S0
S1
30.0.0.2
40.0.0.1
R1# config t
R1(config)#ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 20.0.0.2
R3# config t
R3(config)#ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 30.0.0.1
R2# config t
R2(config)#ip route 10.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 20.0.0.1
R2(config)#ip route 40.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 30.0.0.2
77. 79
What is a Routing Protocol?
Routing protocols are
used between
routers to determine
paths and maintain
routing tables.
Once the path is
determined a router can
route a routed protocol.
Network
Protocol
Destination
Network
Connected
RIP
IGRP
10.120.2.0
172.16.2.0
172.17.3.0
Exit
Interface
E0
S0
S1
Routed Protocol: IP
Routing protocol: RIP, IGRP
172.17.3.0
172.16.1.010.120.2.0
E0
S0
78. 80
Autonomous System
AS 2000
AS 3000
IGP
Interior Gateway Protocols are
used for routing decisions
within an Autonomous System.
Exterior Gateway
Protocols are used
for routing between
Autonomous Systems
EGP
AS 1000
An Autonomous System (AS) is a group of IP networks, which has a
single and clearly defined routing policy.
Group of routers which can exchange updates
AS are identified by numbers
Fig. 48 IGP and EGP (TI1332EU02TI_0004 The Network Layer, 67)
All Routing protocols are categorized as IGP or EGP
Routing Categories
79. 81
IGP
Interior Gateway Protocol
(IGP)
Exterior Gateway
Protocol (EGP)
EGP
EGP
EGP
Interior Gateway Protocol
(IGP)
AS 1000
AS 2000
AS 3000
Fig. 49 The use of IGP and EGP protocols (TI1332EU02TI_0004 The Network Layer, 67)
Routing Categories
80. 82
An autonomous system is a collection of networks under a
common administrative domain.
IGPs operate within an autonomous system.
EGPs connect different autonomous systems.
Autonomous Systems: Interior or
Exterior Routing Protocols
82. 84
Distance Vector
RIP V1
IGRP
RIP V2
Link state
OSPF
Hybrid
EIGRP
Types or Classes of Routing
Protocols
83. 85
Classful Routing Overview
Classful routing protocols do not include the subnet mask with the
route advertisement.
Within the same network, consistency of the subnet masks is
assumed.
Summary routes are exchanged between foreign networks.
Examples of classful routing protocols:
RIP Version 1 (RIPv1)
IGRP
84. 86
Classless Routing Overview
Classless routing protocols include the subnet mask with
the route advertisement.
Classless routing protocols support variable-length
subnet masking (VLSM) and subnetting
Examples of classless routing protocols:
RIP Version 2 (RIPv2)
EIGRP
OSPF
IS-IS
85. 87
• Routers pass periodic copies of routing table to neighbor
routers and accumulate distance vectors.
Distance Vector Routing
Protocols
86. 88
Distance Vector
Uses Bellman Ford Algorithm
It needs to find out the shortest path from one network to other
How to determine which path is best?
192.168.10.1
192.168.20.1
87. 89
Distance Vector
There are two Distance Vector Protocol, Both uses different metric
RIP – Hops
IGRP - Composite
192.168.10.1
192.168.20.1
88. 90
Distance Vector
DV protocol are known as Routing by rumor
RIP uses only Hop count
RI routing table metric for 192.168.20.1 network will be
3
2
192.168.10.1
192.168.20.1
0
1
1
2
2
3R1
89. 91
Distance Vector
192.168.10.1
192.168.20.1
56 kbps
1 Mbps
1 Mbps
1 Mbps
56 kbps
• IGGRP uses bandwidth and delay as Metric
• RI routing table metric for 192.168.20.1 network will be
– 30
– 60
R1
10
10
10
30 30
192.168.10.1
94. 96
• Router C concludes that the best path to network
10.4.0.0 is through router B.
Inconsistent Routing Entries
(Cont.)
95. 97
• Router A updates its table to reflect the new but
erroneous hop count.
Inconsistent Routing Entries
(Cont.)
96. 98
Hop count for network 10.4.0.0 counts to infinity.
Count to Infinity
97. 99
• Packets for network 10.4.0.0 bounce (loop) between
routers B and C.
Routing Loops
98. 100
• Define a limit on the number of hops to prevent
infinite loops.
Defining a Maximum
99. 101
Maximum Hop Count
• One way of solving routing loop problem is to define a
maximum hop count.
• RIP permits a hop count of up to 15, so anything that
requires 16 hops is deemed unreachable
• The maximum hop count will control how long it takes
for a routing table entry to become invalid
100. 102
• It is never useful to send information about a route back
in the direction from which the original information came.
Split Horizon
101. 103
Split Horizon
Solution to the Routing Loop problem
Split Horizon is a rule that routing
information cannot be sent back in the
direction from which it was received
Had split horizon been used in our
example, Router B would not have
included information about network
10.4.0.0 in its update to Router C.
102. 104
Route Poisoning
• Route Poisoning. Usually used in conjunction with split
horizon
• Route poisoning involves explicitly poisoning a routing
table entry for an unreachable network
• Once Router C learned that network 10.4.0.0 was
unavailable it would have immediately poisoned the
route to that network by setting its hop count to the
routing protocol’s infinity value
• In the case of RIP, that would mean a hop count of 16.
103. 105
Triggered Updates
New routing tables are sent to neighboring routers on a regular basis.
RIP updates occur every 30 seconds
However a triggered update is sent immediately in response to some
change in the routing table.
The router that detects a topology change immediately sends an update
message to adjacent routers that, in turn, generate triggered updates
notifying their adjacent neighbors of the change.
Triggered updates, used in conjunction with route poisoning, ensure that
all routers know of failed routes.
105. 107
Holddowns
• Holddowns are a technique used to ensure that a route recently
removed or changed is not reinstated by a routing table update
from another route
• Holddown prevents regular update messages from reinstating a
route that is going up and down (called flapping)
• Holddowns prevent routes from changing too rapidly by allowing
time for either the downed route to come back up
• Holddowns make a router wait a period of time before accepting an
update for a network whose status or metric has recently changed
108. 110
RIP Timers
• Route update timer Sets the interval (typically 30 seconds)
between periodic routing updates
• Route invalid timer Determines the length of time (180 seconds)
before a router determines that a route has become invalid
• Holddown timer This sets the amount of time during which
routing information is suppressed. This continues until either an
update packet is received with a better metric or until the holddown
timer expires. The default is 180 seconds
• Route flush timer Sets the time between a route becoming invalid
and its removal from the routing table (240 seconds).
109. 111
Routing Information Protocol
(RIP)
Routing Information Protocol (RIP) is a true distance-vector routing
protocol.
It sends the complete routing table out to all active interfaces every
30 seconds
RIP only uses hop count to determine the best way to a remote
network
It has a maximum allowable hop count of 15
AD is 120
Bellman-ford algorithm
Works well in small networks, but it’s inefficient on large networks
RIP version 1 uses only classful routing, which means that all
devices in the network must use the same subnet mask
RIP version 2 does send subnet mask information with the route
updates. This is called classless routing.
110. 112
Router Configuration
The router command starts a routing process.
The network command is required because it enables the
routing process to determine which interfaces participate in
the sending and receiving of routing updates.
An example of a routing configuration is:
Gates(config)#router rip
Gates(config-router)#network 172.16.0.0
The network numbers are based on the network class
addresses, not subnet addresses or individual host addresses.
111. 113
RIP Configuration
S0
S0
E0
E0
192.168.10.1
A B
S0
S1
R1# config t
R1(config)# )#router rip
R1(config)#network 192.168.10.0
R1(config)#network 192.168.20.0
R2# config t
R2(config)#router rip
R2(config)#network 192.168.20.0
R2(config)#network 192.168.30.0192.168.10.2
192.168.20.1
192.168.20.2
192.168.30.1
192.168.30.2 192.168.40.1
192.168.40.2
R3# config t
R3(config)# )#router rip
R3(config)#network 192.168.30.0
R3(config)#network 192.168.40.0
115. 117
Passive Interface
Passive-interface command prevents RIP update
broadcasts from being sent out a defined interface, but
same interface can still receive RIP updates
R1#config t
R1(config)#router rip
R1(config-router)#network 192.168.10.0
R1(config-router)#passive-interface serial 0
Passive-interface command depends upon the routing
protocol
RIP router with a passive interface will still learn about
the networks advertised by other routers
EIGRP, a passive-interface will neither send nor receive
updates.
116. 118
RIP Version 2 (RIPv2)
R1# config t
R1(config)# )#router rip
R1(config)#network 192.168.10.0
R1(config)#network 192.168.20.0
R1(config)#version 2
117. 119
Exercise - RIP Version 2
Configuration
S0
S0
E0
E0
192.168.0.16/29
A B
S0
S1
192.168.0.4/30 192.168.0.8/30
192.168.0.32/28
1. Find out the IP Address and SNM of each interfaces
123. 125
IGRP
Some of the IGRP key design characteristics emphasize the following:
It is a distance vector routing protocol.
Routing updates are broadcast every 90 seconds.
Bandwidth, load, delay and reliability are used to create a
composite metric.
The main difference between RIP and IGRP configuration is
that when you configure IGRP, you supply the autonomous
system number. All routers must use the same number in order
to share routing table information.
127. 130
Verifying the IGRP Routing Tables
LabA#sh ip route
[output cut]
I 192.168.50.0 [100/170420] via 192.168.20.2, Serial0/0
I 192.168.40.0 [100/160260] via 192.168.20.2, Serial0/0
I 192.168.30.0 [100/158360] via 192.168.20.2, Serial0/0
C 192.168.20.0 is directly connected Serial0/0
C 192.168.10.0 is directly connected, FastEthernet0/0
• The I means IGRP-injected routes. The 100 in [100/160360] is the
administrative distance of IGRP. The 160,360 is the composite
metric. The lower the composite metric, the better the route.
• To delete all routes
clear ip route
128. 131
Debug Commands
debug ip igrp events Command
summary of the IGRP routing information that is running on the
network.
debug ip igrp transactions Command
shows message requests from neighbor routers asking for an
update and the broadcasts sent from your router toward that
neighbor router.
no debug all – to turn off all debug