The application of earlier course works in this project is summarized in Table 1.2:
Table 1.2 Application of earlier course work
Course Work Application in Project
Structural Analysis Analysis of loads, stresses and deformations of structural elements.
Structural Design Design of deck slab, girder, cables, suspenders as per codes.
Concrete Technology Design of M25 grade concrete mix.
Steel Structures Design of reinforcement details.
Geotechnical Engineering Foundation design not included in scope.
Planning analysis design the overhead circular water tank in seerapalayam pan...Subash thangaraj
To forecasting the population of the seerapalayam panchayat. To calculate the estimation of water quantity need in Domestic, and industrial purpose. After the calculation planning analysis and design the overhead circular water tank in economically.
The document describes a topographic survey conducted for the construction of a new railway bridge. It discusses using a topographic map to identify potential alignment options for the railway track. A field survey was then carried out using a total station to determine the central line alignment and elevation levels at different points. Soil exploration work, including lab testing, was also performed. Following this, the land acquisition process began by contacting local authorities to purchase the necessary land from owners. Foundation excavation work then commenced based on the ground conditions. Piers were constructed using a total station to ensure proper alignment. Bed blocks were then marked for placing precast girders. Sleepers were later laid to allow for track alignment along the central line.
ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF G+3 STOREY BUILDINGUSING STAAD PRO vi8 SoftwareAbhinav Verma
This document provides an overview of a summer internship project involving the analysis and design of a G+3 storey building using STAAD Pro v8i software. The project was conducted under the guidance of Dr. Pabitra Ranjan Maiti at IIT BHU over 6 weeks in June-July 2017. The project involved modeling the building in STAAD Pro, analyzing its structural components, and designing beams, columns, slabs, and footings according to the Indian code IS 456. The document outlines the process of structural analysis and design in STAAD Pro and summarizes the design considerations for typical structural elements.
Presentation on construction of cable stay bridge - a modern technique for su...Rajesh Prasad
This document provides details about the construction of a cable-stayed bridge in Bardhaman, India. The bridge has a main span of 124 meters and side spans of 64.5 meters. It is constructed with precast concrete segments and steel pylons that are 62 meters high. The bridge construction involves casting piers and segments, erecting the steel pylons and towers, and then incrementally launching the concrete segments and installing the stay cables to complete the bridge deck.
This document provides an overview of ACI 318-19, the Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete, and the accompanying ACI 318R-19 Commentary. It discusses the purpose and scope of the code, as well as how it was developed through an ANSI consensus process. Key points include that the code provides minimum requirements for structural concrete design and construction, and is intended to be adopted by legal jurisdictions as part of their building codes. The commentary provides supplementary information to help explain and interpret the code requirements.
Workshop under the Capacity Building Programme of the Southern Road Connectivity Project / Expressway Connectivity Improvement Plan Project, March 2016
Prestressed concrete is concrete that is placed under compression using tensioned steel strands, cables, or bars. This is done through either pre-tensioning or post-tensioning. In pre-tensioning, the steel components are tensioned before the concrete is poured, while in post-tensioning, the steel components are tensioned after the concrete has hardened. Prestressed concrete provides benefits over reinforced concrete like lower construction costs, thinner structural elements, and longer spans between supports.
This document discusses reinforced concrete columns. It begins by defining columns and different column types, including based on shape, reinforcement, loading conditions, and slenderness ratio. Short columns fail due to material strength while slender columns are at risk of buckling. The document covers column design considerations like unsupported length and effective length. It provides examples of single storey building column design and discusses minimum longitudinal reinforcement requirements in columns.
Planning analysis design the overhead circular water tank in seerapalayam pan...Subash thangaraj
To forecasting the population of the seerapalayam panchayat. To calculate the estimation of water quantity need in Domestic, and industrial purpose. After the calculation planning analysis and design the overhead circular water tank in economically.
The document describes a topographic survey conducted for the construction of a new railway bridge. It discusses using a topographic map to identify potential alignment options for the railway track. A field survey was then carried out using a total station to determine the central line alignment and elevation levels at different points. Soil exploration work, including lab testing, was also performed. Following this, the land acquisition process began by contacting local authorities to purchase the necessary land from owners. Foundation excavation work then commenced based on the ground conditions. Piers were constructed using a total station to ensure proper alignment. Bed blocks were then marked for placing precast girders. Sleepers were later laid to allow for track alignment along the central line.
ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF G+3 STOREY BUILDINGUSING STAAD PRO vi8 SoftwareAbhinav Verma
This document provides an overview of a summer internship project involving the analysis and design of a G+3 storey building using STAAD Pro v8i software. The project was conducted under the guidance of Dr. Pabitra Ranjan Maiti at IIT BHU over 6 weeks in June-July 2017. The project involved modeling the building in STAAD Pro, analyzing its structural components, and designing beams, columns, slabs, and footings according to the Indian code IS 456. The document outlines the process of structural analysis and design in STAAD Pro and summarizes the design considerations for typical structural elements.
Presentation on construction of cable stay bridge - a modern technique for su...Rajesh Prasad
This document provides details about the construction of a cable-stayed bridge in Bardhaman, India. The bridge has a main span of 124 meters and side spans of 64.5 meters. It is constructed with precast concrete segments and steel pylons that are 62 meters high. The bridge construction involves casting piers and segments, erecting the steel pylons and towers, and then incrementally launching the concrete segments and installing the stay cables to complete the bridge deck.
This document provides an overview of ACI 318-19, the Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete, and the accompanying ACI 318R-19 Commentary. It discusses the purpose and scope of the code, as well as how it was developed through an ANSI consensus process. Key points include that the code provides minimum requirements for structural concrete design and construction, and is intended to be adopted by legal jurisdictions as part of their building codes. The commentary provides supplementary information to help explain and interpret the code requirements.
Workshop under the Capacity Building Programme of the Southern Road Connectivity Project / Expressway Connectivity Improvement Plan Project, March 2016
Prestressed concrete is concrete that is placed under compression using tensioned steel strands, cables, or bars. This is done through either pre-tensioning or post-tensioning. In pre-tensioning, the steel components are tensioned before the concrete is poured, while in post-tensioning, the steel components are tensioned after the concrete has hardened. Prestressed concrete provides benefits over reinforced concrete like lower construction costs, thinner structural elements, and longer spans between supports.
This document discusses reinforced concrete columns. It begins by defining columns and different column types, including based on shape, reinforcement, loading conditions, and slenderness ratio. Short columns fail due to material strength while slender columns are at risk of buckling. The document covers column design considerations like unsupported length and effective length. It provides examples of single storey building column design and discusses minimum longitudinal reinforcement requirements in columns.
The document provides details on the design procedure for beams. It discusses estimating loads, analyzing beams to determine shear forces and bending moments, and designing beams. The design process involves selecting the beam size and shape, calculating the effective span, determining critical moments and shears, selecting reinforcement, and checking requirements such as shear capacity, deflection limits, and development lengths. An example problem demonstrates designing a singly reinforced concrete beam with a span of 5 meters to support a working live load of 25 kN/m.
Influence line diagram for model arch bridgekunalsahu9883
The Lupu Bridge in Shanghai, China is a steel box section tied arch bridge with a main span of 550m, making it the largest arch bridge in the world when it was completed. A tied arch bridge design was used because the ground conditions on either side of the river were unsuitable for the large forces from a normal arch bridge. The bridge was analyzed using structural analysis software to determine member forces and deformations under load. The bridge is an impressive engineering feat that helped advance Chinese bridge engineering.
This document provides calculations and reinforcement details for the design of a water tank. It calculates the required capacity, dimensions, and structural properties of the tank. Moment and shear force calculations are performed based on the tank geometry and material properties. Reinforcement amounts, sizes, and spacing are designed for the long wall based on resisting the calculated hogging moment and shear force. Stress checks are also performed to ensure design code compliance.
This document summarizes the key aspects of loadbearing masonry construction. It discusses the advantages of masonry, including its ability to provide structure, insulation, and fire protection simultaneously. It also describes the development of modern codes of practice, which have expanded the use of loadbearing masonry beyond empirical rules to the rational design of multi-storey buildings. The document outlines basic design considerations for loadbearing masonry, such as compatible building typologies, and provides a high-level classification of masonry wall systems.
International Bridge Design Standards and ApproachesAIT Solutions
Workshop under the Capacity Building Programme of the Southern Road Connectivity Project / Expressway Connectivity Improvement Plan Project, March 2016
Analysis and design of pre engineered building using is 800:2007 and Internat...Pratik R. Atwal
The document discusses the analysis and design of a pre-engineered building (PEB) using IS800:2007 and international standards. It summarizes literature on PEBs and their advantages over conventional buildings. The objective is to design a G+3 school building using different codes and compare the structural weight. Load combinations and section classifications according to different codes are presented. The design is carried out for the building and results show the structural weight is reduced by 9.04% under BS5950, 23.97% under AISC-2010, and 27.19% under Eurocode 3, compared to IS800:2007.
The presentation summarizes the project work done on "Seismic Analysis of Elevated Water Tank". Elevated water tanks are important structures that serve the function of supplying municipal water to the civil community. The stability of such structure is highly uncertain in the eve of earthquake. This project analyses the performance of such a structure in the eve of earthquake.
The project is done as a course requirement for undergraduate degree in May 2013. The degree in pursuit was "Bachelor of Technology in Civil Engineering" in National Institute of Technology in Tiruchirappalli (INDIA). The authors were in final year of the study during the making of the project.
Design of overhead RCC rectangular water tankShoaib Wani
1) The document presents the design of a rectangular overhead water tank using reinforced concrete.
2) Rectangular tanks are used for smaller storage capacities, while circular tanks are used for larger capacities.
3) The designed RCC rectangular tank presented can store up to 240,000 liters of water.
4) Both theoretical design calculations and STAAD Pro modeling were used to analyze and design the tank.
2 marks Question with Answer for Design of Reinforced Cement Concrete Elements shielaBalanta2
This document contains a question bank with answers related to the design of reinforced cement concrete elements. It includes 37 questions covering topics like the definition of reinforced concrete, ingredients of plain cement concrete, imposed loads on buildings, working stress method assumptions, factor of safety, ultimate load design method, advantages of limit state method, partial safety factors, limit states of collapse and serviceability, stress-strain curves, nominal vs design concrete mixes, factors governing mix design, differences between working stress and limit state design methods, expressions for modulus of elasticity and flexural strength, formulas for neutral axis depth and lever arm factors, definitions of under reinforced, over reinforced and balanced sections, span to depth ratios, limiting neutral axis depth, characteristic strength, limit
Application of plate girders in steel constructionHaider Jafferi
This document discusses the applications of plate girders in steel construction. It begins by defining a plate girder as a type of beam constructed from steel plates that are bolted or welded together. Plate girders became popular in the late 1800s for railroad bridges and now are commonly used to construct short to medium span bridges for railroads, highways, and other traffic. Some common types of bridges that use plate girders are box girder bridges, beam bridges, multi-girder composite bridges, and half-through plate girder bridges. Plate girders offer advantages like strength, stability, and ability to accommodate heavy loads and long spans.
This document discusses prestressed concrete, which uses tensioned steel cables or bars to put concrete members into compression and increase their strength. It describes three main methods: pre-tensioned concrete where the steel is tensioned before the concrete is cast; bonded post-tensioned concrete where steel is tensioned after casting to compress the concrete; and unbonded post-tensioned concrete where greased steel is used to allow individual adjustment. Applications include buildings, bridges, nuclear reactors and earthquake resistant structures. Advantages are lower costs, thinner members, and increased spans.
This document provides information about pile foundations, including:
- Piles transfer structural loads through weak soil layers into stronger soils and rocks below.
- Common types of piles include pre-cast concrete, cast-in-situ concrete (e.g. Raymond, MacArthur), steel, timber, and composite piles.
- Piles are selected based on factors like soil properties, loading conditions, costs, and availability of materials. Proper pile type and design are necessary to safely support structures.
This document provides an introduction to prestressed concrete bridge design. It discusses how prestressing concrete induces compression to counteract tensile stresses from loading. Prestressed concrete allows for longer concrete bridge spans through precasting units that are lifted into place. The document covers methods of prestressing including pre-tensioning and post-tensioning. It also summarizes design considerations like serviceability limits, stress limitations, prestress losses, and establishes basic inequalities for prestress force and section properties. Magnel diagrams are introduced as a way to determine appropriate prestress force and eccentricity values.
Design of Reinforced Concrete Structure (IS 456:2000)MachenLink
This is the 1st Lecture Series on Design Reinforced Cement Concrete (IS 456 -2000).
In this video, you will learn about the objective of structural designing and then basic properties of concrete and steel.
Concrete properties like...
1. Grade of Concrete
2. Modulus of Elasticity
3. Characteristic Strength
4. Tensile Strength
5. Creep and Shrinkage
6. Durability
Reinforced Steel Properties....
1. Grade and types of steel
2. Yield Strength of Mild Steel and HYSD Bars
This document provides information about the design of a composite deck bridge. It includes an abstract describing the key components of a composite deck bridge. The introduction defines different bridge types. The main body describes the structural components of a composite deck bridge, including the RC slab, steel girders, and shear connectors. It outlines the design procedure and provides literature references. The conclusion indicates that site data will be collected and a composite deck bridge will be analyzed and designed using MIDAS software.
1. The document discusses plate girders, which are large flexural members made of welded steel plates used in bridges and buildings.
2. Plate girders are fabricated by welding steel plates to form the web and two flanges.
3. The web resists shear forces while the flanges resist bending moments. Thin, deep webs are prone to buckling under shear forces.
This document summarizes the design of a circular overhead water tank with the following key details:
- The tank will be located in Panchampalli village and have a capacity of 750 cubic meters to serve a population of 1873 people.
- The tank dimensions include a 15 meter height and 12.6 meter diameter.
- The structural components including the dome, wall, ring beam, floor slab, columns, and footings will be designed using the Limit State method.
- STAAD and AutoCAD software will be used to analyze and detail the structural design. Reinforcement will be designed to resist forces from water pressure and other loads.
non destructive concrete testing equipment
non destructive concrete testing methods
non destructive test Penetration method
Rebound hammer method
Pull out test method
Ultrasonic pulse velocity method
Radioactive methods
methods of testing concrete
concrete strength testing methods
types of non destructive testing
non destructive concrete testing equipment
concrete tests pdf
destructive and non destructive testing
concrete testing procedures
non destructive test for concrete
destructive and non destructive testing
non destructive testing pdf
types of non destructive testing
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non destructive testing methods ppt
The document discusses cable suspension bridges. It provides an introduction that describes the key components of a suspension bridge, including two main cables that are anchored and pass over towers, suspending the central deck. It then covers various topics related to suspension bridge design and construction, such as the different types of bridges, components, use of anchorages, evolution of the design, structural analysis and loads, construction sequence, software used, potential structural failures, examples of bridges in India, and advantages and disadvantages.
This document provides information on bridge planning, design, classification and components. It discusses:
1. The key steps in bridge planning including studying needs, alternatives, design and implementation.
2. Common bridge classifications including material (masonry, concrete, steel), structural type (slab, girder, truss), and purpose (road, rail).
3. The main components of a typical T-beam bridge including the deck slab, longitudinal girders, cross girders, abutments and foundations. Methods for designing the deck slab and cantilever portions are outlined.
The document provides details on the design procedure for beams. It discusses estimating loads, analyzing beams to determine shear forces and bending moments, and designing beams. The design process involves selecting the beam size and shape, calculating the effective span, determining critical moments and shears, selecting reinforcement, and checking requirements such as shear capacity, deflection limits, and development lengths. An example problem demonstrates designing a singly reinforced concrete beam with a span of 5 meters to support a working live load of 25 kN/m.
Influence line diagram for model arch bridgekunalsahu9883
The Lupu Bridge in Shanghai, China is a steel box section tied arch bridge with a main span of 550m, making it the largest arch bridge in the world when it was completed. A tied arch bridge design was used because the ground conditions on either side of the river were unsuitable for the large forces from a normal arch bridge. The bridge was analyzed using structural analysis software to determine member forces and deformations under load. The bridge is an impressive engineering feat that helped advance Chinese bridge engineering.
This document provides calculations and reinforcement details for the design of a water tank. It calculates the required capacity, dimensions, and structural properties of the tank. Moment and shear force calculations are performed based on the tank geometry and material properties. Reinforcement amounts, sizes, and spacing are designed for the long wall based on resisting the calculated hogging moment and shear force. Stress checks are also performed to ensure design code compliance.
This document summarizes the key aspects of loadbearing masonry construction. It discusses the advantages of masonry, including its ability to provide structure, insulation, and fire protection simultaneously. It also describes the development of modern codes of practice, which have expanded the use of loadbearing masonry beyond empirical rules to the rational design of multi-storey buildings. The document outlines basic design considerations for loadbearing masonry, such as compatible building typologies, and provides a high-level classification of masonry wall systems.
International Bridge Design Standards and ApproachesAIT Solutions
Workshop under the Capacity Building Programme of the Southern Road Connectivity Project / Expressway Connectivity Improvement Plan Project, March 2016
Analysis and design of pre engineered building using is 800:2007 and Internat...Pratik R. Atwal
The document discusses the analysis and design of a pre-engineered building (PEB) using IS800:2007 and international standards. It summarizes literature on PEBs and their advantages over conventional buildings. The objective is to design a G+3 school building using different codes and compare the structural weight. Load combinations and section classifications according to different codes are presented. The design is carried out for the building and results show the structural weight is reduced by 9.04% under BS5950, 23.97% under AISC-2010, and 27.19% under Eurocode 3, compared to IS800:2007.
The presentation summarizes the project work done on "Seismic Analysis of Elevated Water Tank". Elevated water tanks are important structures that serve the function of supplying municipal water to the civil community. The stability of such structure is highly uncertain in the eve of earthquake. This project analyses the performance of such a structure in the eve of earthquake.
The project is done as a course requirement for undergraduate degree in May 2013. The degree in pursuit was "Bachelor of Technology in Civil Engineering" in National Institute of Technology in Tiruchirappalli (INDIA). The authors were in final year of the study during the making of the project.
Design of overhead RCC rectangular water tankShoaib Wani
1) The document presents the design of a rectangular overhead water tank using reinforced concrete.
2) Rectangular tanks are used for smaller storage capacities, while circular tanks are used for larger capacities.
3) The designed RCC rectangular tank presented can store up to 240,000 liters of water.
4) Both theoretical design calculations and STAAD Pro modeling were used to analyze and design the tank.
2 marks Question with Answer for Design of Reinforced Cement Concrete Elements shielaBalanta2
This document contains a question bank with answers related to the design of reinforced cement concrete elements. It includes 37 questions covering topics like the definition of reinforced concrete, ingredients of plain cement concrete, imposed loads on buildings, working stress method assumptions, factor of safety, ultimate load design method, advantages of limit state method, partial safety factors, limit states of collapse and serviceability, stress-strain curves, nominal vs design concrete mixes, factors governing mix design, differences between working stress and limit state design methods, expressions for modulus of elasticity and flexural strength, formulas for neutral axis depth and lever arm factors, definitions of under reinforced, over reinforced and balanced sections, span to depth ratios, limiting neutral axis depth, characteristic strength, limit
Application of plate girders in steel constructionHaider Jafferi
This document discusses the applications of plate girders in steel construction. It begins by defining a plate girder as a type of beam constructed from steel plates that are bolted or welded together. Plate girders became popular in the late 1800s for railroad bridges and now are commonly used to construct short to medium span bridges for railroads, highways, and other traffic. Some common types of bridges that use plate girders are box girder bridges, beam bridges, multi-girder composite bridges, and half-through plate girder bridges. Plate girders offer advantages like strength, stability, and ability to accommodate heavy loads and long spans.
This document discusses prestressed concrete, which uses tensioned steel cables or bars to put concrete members into compression and increase their strength. It describes three main methods: pre-tensioned concrete where the steel is tensioned before the concrete is cast; bonded post-tensioned concrete where steel is tensioned after casting to compress the concrete; and unbonded post-tensioned concrete where greased steel is used to allow individual adjustment. Applications include buildings, bridges, nuclear reactors and earthquake resistant structures. Advantages are lower costs, thinner members, and increased spans.
This document provides information about pile foundations, including:
- Piles transfer structural loads through weak soil layers into stronger soils and rocks below.
- Common types of piles include pre-cast concrete, cast-in-situ concrete (e.g. Raymond, MacArthur), steel, timber, and composite piles.
- Piles are selected based on factors like soil properties, loading conditions, costs, and availability of materials. Proper pile type and design are necessary to safely support structures.
This document provides an introduction to prestressed concrete bridge design. It discusses how prestressing concrete induces compression to counteract tensile stresses from loading. Prestressed concrete allows for longer concrete bridge spans through precasting units that are lifted into place. The document covers methods of prestressing including pre-tensioning and post-tensioning. It also summarizes design considerations like serviceability limits, stress limitations, prestress losses, and establishes basic inequalities for prestress force and section properties. Magnel diagrams are introduced as a way to determine appropriate prestress force and eccentricity values.
Design of Reinforced Concrete Structure (IS 456:2000)MachenLink
This is the 1st Lecture Series on Design Reinforced Cement Concrete (IS 456 -2000).
In this video, you will learn about the objective of structural designing and then basic properties of concrete and steel.
Concrete properties like...
1. Grade of Concrete
2. Modulus of Elasticity
3. Characteristic Strength
4. Tensile Strength
5. Creep and Shrinkage
6. Durability
Reinforced Steel Properties....
1. Grade and types of steel
2. Yield Strength of Mild Steel and HYSD Bars
This document provides information about the design of a composite deck bridge. It includes an abstract describing the key components of a composite deck bridge. The introduction defines different bridge types. The main body describes the structural components of a composite deck bridge, including the RC slab, steel girders, and shear connectors. It outlines the design procedure and provides literature references. The conclusion indicates that site data will be collected and a composite deck bridge will be analyzed and designed using MIDAS software.
1. The document discusses plate girders, which are large flexural members made of welded steel plates used in bridges and buildings.
2. Plate girders are fabricated by welding steel plates to form the web and two flanges.
3. The web resists shear forces while the flanges resist bending moments. Thin, deep webs are prone to buckling under shear forces.
This document summarizes the design of a circular overhead water tank with the following key details:
- The tank will be located in Panchampalli village and have a capacity of 750 cubic meters to serve a population of 1873 people.
- The tank dimensions include a 15 meter height and 12.6 meter diameter.
- The structural components including the dome, wall, ring beam, floor slab, columns, and footings will be designed using the Limit State method.
- STAAD and AutoCAD software will be used to analyze and detail the structural design. Reinforcement will be designed to resist forces from water pressure and other loads.
non destructive concrete testing equipment
non destructive concrete testing methods
non destructive test Penetration method
Rebound hammer method
Pull out test method
Ultrasonic pulse velocity method
Radioactive methods
methods of testing concrete
concrete strength testing methods
types of non destructive testing
non destructive concrete testing equipment
concrete tests pdf
destructive and non destructive testing
concrete testing procedures
non destructive test for concrete
destructive and non destructive testing
non destructive testing pdf
types of non destructive testing
non destructive testing methods
non destructive testing methods ppt
The document discusses cable suspension bridges. It provides an introduction that describes the key components of a suspension bridge, including two main cables that are anchored and pass over towers, suspending the central deck. It then covers various topics related to suspension bridge design and construction, such as the different types of bridges, components, use of anchorages, evolution of the design, structural analysis and loads, construction sequence, software used, potential structural failures, examples of bridges in India, and advantages and disadvantages.
This document provides information on bridge planning, design, classification and components. It discusses:
1. The key steps in bridge planning including studying needs, alternatives, design and implementation.
2. Common bridge classifications including material (masonry, concrete, steel), structural type (slab, girder, truss), and purpose (road, rail).
3. The main components of a typical T-beam bridge including the deck slab, longitudinal girders, cross girders, abutments and foundations. Methods for designing the deck slab and cantilever portions are outlined.
Undergraduate major project_-_design_ofVijay Singh
This document describes the design of a T-beam rail-over-bridge submitted by 9 students for their Bachelor of Technology degree in Civil Engineering. It includes an introduction to bridge types and T-beam bridges. It then outlines the contents which will cover the design of the deck slab, cantilever slab, longitudinal and cross girders, and bearings. Design calculations and reinforcement details will be provided for each component.
This document provides information on the design of a T-beam bridge using the working stress method. It discusses the key components of a T-beam bridge including the deck slab, longitudinal girders, cross girders, abutments, and foundations. It also describes the design procedures for these components, focusing on the deck slab, cantilever slab, longitudinal girders, and cross girders. Methods for calculating bending moments and determining reinforcement are covered.
1. Stress-ribbon bridges consist of slender concrete deck segments placed over bearing cables in a catenary shape. The deck segments are prestressed to stiffen the structure and provide stability to the cables. These bridges have smooth, curved shapes that blend into the environment and clearly show the flow of internal forces.
2. A new type of stress-ribbon bridge combines the structure with an arch to support or suspend the deck. This helps address the disadvantage of large horizontal forces in classical stress-ribbon bridges. Physical models have proven the structural behavior of stress-ribbon bridges supported by arches.
3. Several stress-ribbon bridges have been built that combine the structure with an arch, including pedestrian
The document provides details on the design of the third phase of the Thannermukkom salt water barrier bridge. It includes the design of the following bridge components:
1) Deck slab using Pigeaud's curves to calculate bending moments from dead and live loads.
2) Cantilever slab, longitudinal girders, cross girders, bearings, pedestals, operating platform, pier, pier cap, pile, pile cap and apron designed based on codes and previous project details.
3) Pier design carried out using STAAD Pro software. Reinforced concrete grade M30 and steel grade Fe415 are used.
The preliminary dimensions and design loads as per IRC codes are
Stress ribbon and cable supported pedestrian bridgesMasum Majid
This document discusses the analysis and design of stress ribbon and cable supported pedestrian bridges. It begins with an introduction to stress ribbon bridges, which consist of tensioned cables embedded in a thin concrete deck that directly supports pedestrian loads. Several structural systems for cable supported bridges are then presented, including stress ribbon structures, suspension bridges, and cable-stayed bridges. The document focuses on analyzing the static and dynamic behavior of stress ribbon structures through modeling and examples. It evaluates how the stiffness of the concrete deck influences structural response to loading. The key findings are that a fully prestressed concrete deck provides both tension and bending stiffness, improving the bridge's load carrying ability and stiffness compared to alternatives like timber boards or partially prestressed concrete.
This document discusses stress ribbon bridges. It provides an introduction to stress ribbon bridges, describing them as slender concrete deck segments placed on bearing cables shaped like a catenary curve. It explains their construction, comparing them to simple suspension bridges. Advantages include being economical, aesthetic, environmentally friendly structures that require little material and can be erected without falsework. Stress ribbon bridges transfer loads via tension in the thin, precast concrete deck between cable-anchored abutments.
The document discusses stress ribbon bridges, which are a type of suspension bridge where cables are embedded in the deck below the walking surface. Stress ribbon bridges follow a catenary profile and transmit loads via tension in the sagging deck to anchored abutments. The document outlines the history, form, construction techniques, applications, advantages, and recent advances of stress ribbon bridges. Stress ribbon bridges are economically efficient, aesthetically pleasing, require minimal maintenance, and can be erected without falsework.
The document summarizes different types of bridges, focusing on suspension bridges. It defines suspension bridges as having cables suspended between towers to support vertical cables carrying the weight of the deck. Suspension bridges allow for the longest spans of any bridge type, from 2,000 to 7,000 feet. The document also discusses structural analysis of suspension bridges, with tension in main cables and compression in towers transferring weight through anchorages. Famous examples given are the Golden Gate Bridge and Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge.
W.h.mosley, j.h.bungey. reinforced concrete design bookReyam AL Mousawi
This document summarizes a textbook on reinforced concrete design. It describes the textbook as setting out the principles of limit state design and its application to reinforced and prestressed concrete members and structures. The fourth edition incorporates information on a recently introduced British standard code for water-retaining structures. The authors have also made some minor revisions to other parts of the book.
Suspension bridges have several key components: cables that suspend the roadway from towers, towers that stabilize the cables, and anchorages that provide structure and keep the cables tight. A typical construction process involves building tower foundations, erecting the towers, installing saddles and cables between the towers, adding vertical suspender cables to hang the roadway, and constructing the deck between the towers. The main forces in a suspension bridge are tension in the cables and compression in the towers. Some of the world's largest suspension bridges include the Akashi Kaikyō Bridge in Japan and the Sidu River Bridge in China.
This document provides an overview of different types of bridges, including their basic designs, histories, and functions. It discusses beam bridges, arch bridges, suspension bridges, cantilever bridges, truss bridges, cable-stayed bridges, floating bridges, and culverts. The document describes the key forces and materials involved in each bridge type and how they are able to span different distances. It also gives brief histories on the development of bridges from ancient times to modern innovations in bridge engineering.
The document summarizes the design of beam-and-slab systems. It describes how the one-way slab is designed as a continuous slab spanning the beam supports using moment distribution methods or a simplified coefficient method. Interior beams are designed as T-beams and edge beams as L-beams, which provide greater flexural strength than conventional beams. The beam and slab must be securely connected to transfer shear forces between them. The slab is reinforced as a one-way system and the beams are designed as simply supported beams spanning their supports.
The document discusses different types of bridges. It describes beam bridges as the simplest type that uses horizontal beams supported by piers on each end. Arch bridges carry weight outward along a curved arch to supports at each end. Suspension bridges suspend the roadway from main cables running from towers to anchorages at both ends, allowing very long spans. Cable-stayed bridges resemble suspension bridges but have cables attached directly to towers, which bear the load instead of transmitting it through cables.
The document discusses bridge types, components, selection criteria, and design considerations. It begins by defining what a bridge is and its purpose in transportation systems. It then covers typical bridge components and various structural forms for bridges based on material, span length, and other factors. Key criteria for selecting bridge types include span length, site conditions, cost, and aesthetics. The document emphasizes that aesthetic design requires considering function, proportion, harmony, order/rhythm, and contrast/texture to create pleasing structures that blend with their environments.
This document discusses suspension bridges. It describes how suspension bridges work, with the deck hung below cables on vertical suspenders. The key elements of suspension bridges are identified as the main cable, suspenders, decking/stiffening girder, supporting towers, and anchor cables. Forces on different parts of the suspension bridge are analyzed. Examples of large modern suspension bridges, like the Sunshine Skyway Bridge and Akashi Kaikyo Bridge, are provided.
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Modelling Analysis and Design of Self Anchored Suspension Bridge
1. PROJECT REPORT
on
MODELLING, ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF
SELF-ANCHORED SUSPENSION BRIDGE
Submitted in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree
of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
in
CIVIL ENGINEERING
by
GRANDHI VENKATA ROHIT 1011010072
GURU KESAV KUMAR K 1011010075
JHASTHI SATHISH RAO 1011010084
MIRZA ABDUL BASIT BEIGH 1011010112
Under the guidance of
Mrs. B. VELVIZHI
Assistant Professor (O.G)
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
SRM UNIVERSITY
(Under section 3 of UGC Act, 1956)
SRM Nagar, Kattankulathur- 603203
Kancheepuram District
APRIL 2014
2. ii
PROJECT REPORT
on
MODELLING, ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF
SELF-ANCHORED SUSPENSION BRIDGE
Submitted in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree
of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
in
CIVIL ENGINEERING
by
GRANDHI VENKATA ROHIT 1011010072
GURU KESAV KUMAR K 1011010075
JHASTHI SATHISH RAO 1011010084
MIRZA ABDUL BASIT BEIGH 1011010112
Under the guidance of
Mrs. B. VELVIZHI
Assistant Professor (O.G)
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
SRM UNIVERSITY
(Under section 3 of UGC Act, 1956)
SRM Nagar, Kattankulathur- 603203
Kancheepuram District
APRIL 2014
3. iii
BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE
Certified that this project report titled “MODELLING,
ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF SELF-ANCHORED SUSPENSION
BRIDGE” is the bonafide work of GRANDHI VENKATA ROHIT
(1011010072), GURU KESAV KUMAR K (1011010075), JHASTHI
SATHISH RAO (1011010084), and MIRZA ABDUL BASIT BEIGH
(1011010112) who carried out the project under my supervision. Certified
further, that to the best of my knowledge the work reported herein does not
form part of any other project report or dissertation on the basis of which a
degree or award was conferred on an earlier occasion or any other
candidate.
Signature of the Guide Signature of the HOD
Mrs. B. VELVIZHI Dr. R. ANNADURAI
Assistant Professor (O.G) Professor & Head
Department of Civil Engineering Department of Civil
Engineering SRM University SRM University
Kattankulathur- 603203 Kattankulathur- 603203
INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER
DATE:
4. iv
ABSTRACT
The objective of this study is to Model, Analyze and Design an
optimized Self Anchored Suspension Bridge with sustainable features. With
regard to this the whole process of study would be to design the basic
elements conforming to the most sustainable and optimized design
procedure and that it would be analyzed and modeled to fulfill this criterion.
With regard to Model fabrication (Prototype), the materials used are the
plywood sheets, Aluminium C sections and Aluminium L sections, plastic
wires, nuts, bolts etc.
Genuine focus has been given to the realistic design constraints
which are of a very great significance. These include economic, safety and
political constraints.
After the introduction, the scope, objectives and necessity follow
up and they are succeeded by the literature review and results and
discussion chapter. The results and discussion chapter gives the complete
modeling, analysis and design of the project. The Sag and Span ratio in the
Result and discussion will decide the stability of this structure. The study
includes extensive design of the deck slab, girder, cables which form the
most fundamental elements of this study. A suitable conclusion giving a
synopsis of work concludes the work.
5. v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We would like to place on record, our greatly thanks Dr. T. P. GANESAN,
Pro-Vice Chancellor (P&D) for providing facilities and help in carrying out this project.
We also thank Dr. C. MUTHAMIZHCHELVAN, Director (Engineering and
Technology), for the stimulus provided.
We wish to express our sincere thanks and gratitude to Dr. R. ANNADURAI,
Professor and Head of Department, Department of Civil Engineering, for his valuable
encouragement for completion of this project work.
We express our sincere thanks to the Coordinator Dr. K.GUNASEKARAN,
Professor, for his guidance and the positive comments during the conduct of review
sessions, which helped us to proceed in right direction in the project.
We hereby acknowledges with deep sense of gratitude the valuable guidance,
encouragement and suggestions given by our Guide, Mrs. B.VELVIZHI, Assistant
Professor (O.G), Department of Civil Engineering, who has been a constant source of
inspiration throughout this project.
Also, we would like to take this opportunity to thank all teaching and non-
teaching staff members in the Department of Civil Engineering, for their direct and
indirect help in completing the project and beyond all ALMIGHTY GOD for blessings.
We also thank the staff of SRM DTP section for their efforts in producing
this project. We record our sincere thanks to our parents for the support and motivation.
We kindly acknowledge the help provided by our friends for successful completion of
project work.
GRANDHI VENKATA ROHIT
GURU KESAV KUMAR K
JHASTHI SATHISH RAO
MIRZA ABDUL BASIT BEIGH
6. vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER TITLE PAGE
ABSTRACT iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT v
LIST OF TABLES ix
LIST OF FIGURES x
ABBREVATIONS xii
1 OVERVIEW 1
1.1 OBJECTIVE 1
1.2 NECESSITY 1
1.3 SCOPE 1
1.4 METHODOLOGY 1
1.5 MAJOR DESIGN EXPERIENCE 3
1.6 REALISTIC DESIGN CONSTRAINTS 3
1.7 REFERENCE TO CODES AND STANDARS 3
1.8 APPLICATION OF EARLIER COURSE WORKS 4
1.9 MULTIDISCIPLINARY AND TEAM WORK 5
1.10 SOFTWARES / EQUIPMENTS USED 6
2 INTRODUCTION 7
2.1 GENERAL 7
2.1.1 Structural Components 7
2.2 LITERATURE REVIEW 9
2.2.1 Self Anchored Bridges 9
2.2.2 Suspension Bridges 10
2.2.3 Suspension Bridges and Static Behavior 11
7. vii
2.3 SUMMARY OF LITERATURE REVIEW 12
3 OBJECTIVES AND SCOPE 13
3.1 OBJECTIVES 13
3.2 SCOPE 13
3.3 MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY 14
4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 15
4.1 MODELLING 15
4.1.1 Deck 16
4.1.2 Pylon 16
4.1.3 Suspenders 17
4.1.4 Angle between Main Cable and Pylon 17
4.1.5 Longitudinal Elevation 18
4.1.6 Specifications of the Model 18
4.2 ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURE 19
4.2.1 Analysis of Loads 19
4.2.1.1 Dead Load 19
4.2.1.2 Live Load 19
4.2.1.3 Dynamic Loading 22
4.2.1.4 Longitudinal forces 23
4.2.1.5 Wind Load 23
4.2.1.6 Forces due to Curvature 24
4.2.2 Estimation of Loads 24
4.2.2.1 Calculation of live load 24
4.2.3 Analysis of Cable properties 25
4.2.3.1 Sag in the Main Cable 26
4.2.3.2 Cable Tension 27
4.2.3.3 Length of the Cable 28
4.3 DESIGN 29
4.3.1 Design of Deck 29
8. viii
4.3.1.1 Design of interior slab panel 30
4.3.1.2 Design of Slab 36
4.3.2 Design of Main Cables 38
4.3.3 Design of Hangers 43
4.3.4 Design of Longitudinal Girder 45
4.3.4.1 Dead Load of Main Girder 46
4.3.4.2- Dead Load Bending Moment and 47
Shear of Main Girder
4.3.4.3 Live Load Bending Moment 47
4.3.4.4 Sectional properties of Girder 48
4.3.4.5 Check for Adequacy 49
4.3.4.6 Sections 49
4.3.4.7 Permissible Tender Zone 50
At Support Section
4.3.4.8 Check for Stress 51
4.3.4.9 Check for Ultimate Flexural 52
Strength of Beam
4.3.4.10 Check for Ultimate Shear 53
Strength of the Beam
4.3.4.11 Design of Supplementary Reinforcement 55
4.3.4.12 Design of End Blocks 56
5 CONCLUSION 57
5.1 CONCLUSION 57
5.2 FUTURE SCOPE 57
REFERENCES 58
9. ix
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE TITLE PAGE
1.1 Codes and standards 4
1.2 Application of earlier course work 5
4.1 Modulus of Elasticity of Road and Strands 39
as per IS 9282:2002
10. x
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE TITLE PAGE
1.1 Methodology of the project 2
2.1 Suspension bridge components 8
2.2 Deformations and forces of a suspension bridge 11
4.1 Photograph of scale reduced model in a 15
self-anchored suspension bridge
4.2 3D Model of the deck 16
4.3 Model of pylon frame 16
4.4 Modelling of suspenders for the prototype 17
4.5 Angle specification 17
4.6 Longitudinal section of 18
self-anchored suspension bridge
4.7 Traffic load over full length 20
4.8 Traffic load on the main span 20
4.9 Traffic load on the side span 20
4.10 One side full length loading of deck 21
4.11 Alternate side loading of the deck 21
4.12 One side main span loading 22
4.13 Impact percentage curve 22
4.14 IRC class AA loading 25
4.15 Dimensions of each slab panel 31
4.16 Pigeaud’s curve moment coefficients for slab 31
4.17 Pigeaud’s curve for moment coefficients 32
M1 for K= 0.5
11. xi
4.18 Pigeaud’s curve for moment coefficients 33
M2 for K = 0.5
4.19 Representation of dispersion of load on deck slab 35
4.20 Graph between Δσ, η to find allowable cable stress 41
4.21 Arrangement of class AA loads for maximum 45
eccentricity on deck
4.22 Dimensions of main girder 46
4.23 ILD for live load bending moment over deck 47
4.24 Placement of cables at center span section 50
4.25 Arrangement of cables at support section 51
12. xii
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS
Ast – Area of tensile reinforcement
Ast, min – Minimum area of tensile reinforcement
fck – Characteristic compressive strength of concrete
fy – Characteristic yield strength of steel
I.S - Indian Standard
Mu – Ultimate moment
Mu,lim – Limiting moment of resistance
Mu, max – Ultimate maximum moment
Mux – Design moment about x-x axis
Muy – Design moment about y-y axis
pt – Percentage of tension reinforcement
Pu – Design axial load for limit state design
τc – Shear stress in concrete
τv – Nominal shear stress
Vu – Shear force due to factored loads
Vu, max – Ultimate maximum shear force
Xu,max – Maximum depth of neutral axis in
limit state of design
υr – Diameter of bar
13. 1
CHAPTER 1
OVERVIEW
1.1 OBJECTIVE
The objective of the project is to achieve the most optimised model of a
Self-Anchored Suspension Bridge using steel-concrete composites.
1.2 NECESSITY
The basic necessity of this type of bridge is to deal with the traffic
congestion on the NH-45 due to SRM University, B.S.Abdur Rahman University and
Vandalur Zoo. It would help to regulate the traffic flow which would be very helpful
in reduction of the congestion during the peak hours.
1.3 SCOPE
The scope of this project includes Modelling (Prototype and Virtual –
reduced scale), Analysis and Design of various components of Self-Anchored
Suspension Bridge structure like girder, deck, main cables, suspenders etc.
1.4 METHODOLOGY
The Methodology followed in working of this project has been very
comprehensive. After formation of the objective and site selection literature
survey was carried out. Literature survey included referring the earlier such work
done in journals, conferences and books. Thereafter the Indian Standard Codes
which were used during the work were taken into consideration so that a clear
view about the whole project could be available.
The analytical work was preceded by modelling of a prototype which was
scale reduced and it was instrumental in understanding the intricacies behind the
14. 2
practical work Thus it provided the project with a unique experience of having
exposed to practical domain of understanding. The modelling was also done using
software packages and then analysed to get an optimised model which was
later on judiciously designed.
The flow chart for the methodology followed is shown in Figure 1.1
Fig 1.1 Methodology of the project
REFERENCE
BOOKS
SITE SELECTION/STUDY AREA
(NEAR SRM UNIVERSITY)
FORMATION OF OBJECTIVE
MODELLING OF THE
STRUCTURE
LITERATURE
SURVEY
IS CODE BOOKS
ANALYSIS OF VARIOUS LOADS ACTING
ON THE STRUCTURE (DEAD LOAD, LIVE
LOAD, MOVING LOAD, COMBINED LOAD)
DESIGN OF STRUCTURAL
ELEMENTS AND
ASSEMBLING
OUTCOME
15. 3
1.5 MAJOR DESIGN EXPERIENCE
Analysis and design of suspension bridge (prototype) components.
Deck
Girder
Main cable
Suspenders
1.6 REALISTIC DESIGN CONSTRAINTS
1. Social constraints: Since the construction activities are going to be over
a National Highway during construction, traffic congestion may be
expected. This constraint has been overcome by ensuring alternate route
at the site of work so that the normal traffic can commence regularly and
the work also progresses as planned.
2. Political constraints: This project will have to seek permission from the
Ministry of Road and Transportation. It also requires complete
cooperation from Central and State governments and Local Political
Leaders. This constraint has been overcome by timely action of seeking
help from the concerned authorities for the smooth functioning of the
project during the given duration of the work.
3. Economic constraints: The project involves huge financial cost and
utilization of huge resources including man power hence economic
viability has to be considered. This has been overcome by timely
involving the concerned government authorities so that the flow of
inventory and stock is consistent and the scarcity should not let the work
be delayed
1.7 REFERENCE TO CODES AND STANDARDS
As far as the codes and standards are concerned, for the design of some
components such as slabs, girder and deck, the Indian Standard (IS) codes have been
used. These codes and standards haven been very much instrumental in working on
the project by providing genuine assumptions, and easy methods and ways of
16. 4
construction techniques. The codes and standards used in this project are shown in
Table 1.1.
Table 1.1 Codes and Standards
CODES/STANDARDS CONTEXT
IRC 5:1998 Standard Specifications and Code of Practice for
Road Bridges (Section-1: General Features of
Design).
IRC 6:2010 Standard Specifications and Code of Practice for
Road Bridges (Section-2: Loads and Stresses).
IRC 18: 2000 Code of Practice for Composition of Bridge
Specifications and Standards.
IRC 21:2000 Code of Practice for Road Bridges (Section-III:
Cement Concrete).
IRC 22:1986 Standard Specifications and Code of Practice for
Road Bridge (Section-6: Composite Construction).
IS 456 :2000 Code of Practice for Plain and Reinforced Concrete.
IS 9282: 2002 Specification for Wire Ropes and Strands for
Suspension Bridges.
IS 875: 1987 (Part III) Code of Practice for Design Wind Loads for
buildings.
1.8 APPLICATION OF EARLIER COURSE WORK
This project is a multidisciplinary project. Hence the work done in this
project is a combination of courses taken in various subjects.
Therefore the application of earlier course works in this project work
regulates the flow, understanding and application of knowledge in a gradual way.
The knowledge gained from some of the earlier courses is used in this project and are
listed in Table 1.2.
17. 5
Table 1.2 Application of earlier course work
SUBJECT
CODE
SUBJECT TITLE CONTEXT
CE 0201 Mechanics of Solids Evaluation of bending moment and
shear forces
CE 0202 Strength of Materials Evaluation of deflection
CE 0301 Structural Analysis-I Influence line and rolling loads
CE 0302 Structural Analysis-II Indeterminate Analysis
CE0104- Computer aided building
drawing
Plan, section, elevation of structure
CE0403- Transportation engineering Roadway design
CE0204- Structural Design - I Truss and pylons steel design
CE 0303- Structural Design-II Design of RCC structures
CE
ECN2-
Advanced Construction
Techniques
Study on general features of
Suspension Bridge
CE 0304 Structural Design III Pre stressing of the deck
1.9 MULTI DISCIPLINARY COMPONENTS
This project involves the interaction with various private and government
agencies. There has to be a genuine interaction with the State Road Transport
Corporation authorities, National Highway authority (NHA).
Chennai Metro Development Authority (CMDA) is the main body which
has to be consulted to seek permission regarding the new constructions over the
roads and anywhere over the new lands or even use the land for activities of
construction.
The State Road Transport Corporation officials provided majority of the
assistance required by providing data, experience and an overall idea of the
methodology in which the design of the bridge has to be conducted.
18. 6
The National Highway Authority (NHA) provides assistance by giving
the schematic maps, rules and regulations regarding the highway bridges
construction and the other necessary supplements for the construction. These play a
key role in the planning of the highway bridge construction.
The other Multidisciplinary components of the project work are given
below:
1. Modelling – Finite Element Concept
2. Analysis & Design – Structural Engineering
3. Deck Design and Moving Loads- Transportation Engineering.
4. Scale Reduction for prototype modelling.
These components have been used in this project. These form the
fundamental concepts of this project. Hence the work has been in accordance to set
standards so as to reach a sustainable outcome.
1.10 SOFTWARE/EQUIPMENT USED
The software has been used for modelling and analysis. Modelling has
also done by fabricating a model of a scale reduced prototype. The AutoCAD 2010 is
used for drawing the plan and sectional drawings.
The Software/Equipment to be used for the project is given as under:
1. AutoCAD 2010 : used for plan and sectional drawing.
2. ABAQUS- FEM-12 Software : used for modelling and analysis.
3. Prototype modelling : using scale reduction concept.
The software and equipments form a substantial part of this project work
and the main work of concern is modelling, analysis and design. These features are
instrumental in deciding these operations of the project work.
19. 7
CHAPTER 2
INTRODUCTION
2.1 GENERAL
Self-anchored suspension bridges differ from conventional suspension
bridges because they do not require massive end anchorages. Instead, the main cables
are secured to each end of the bridge deck, or stiffening girder, which carries the
horizontal component of cable tension. Therefore, the end support resists only the
vertical component of tension an advantage where the site cannot easily
accommodate external anchorages. Self-anchored main cables are fixed to the
stiffening girders instead of the anchorage; the axial compression is carried into the
girders (Ref.1).
Ochsendorf, J. et al (1999), have studied about self-anchored suspension
bridges and mentioned that the compression being equal to the horizontal component
and tension equal to the vertical , and it is balanced from the road decks own weight.
The effect of the design shows that suspension bridges do not apply any horizontal
forces towards the ground level (Ref. 1). This has been studied in course CE ECN2
Advanced Construction Techniques
2.1.1 Structural Components
The basic structural components of a suspension bridge system
are shown in Figure 2.1.
1. Stiffening girders/trusses: Longitudinal structures which support and
distribute moving vehicle loads, act as chords for the lateral system.
2. Main cables: A group of parallel wires bundled cables which support the
stiffening girders/trusses by hanger ropes and transfer loads to towers.
3. Main towers: Intermediate vertical structures which support main cables
and transfer the bridge loads gradually to the foundations.
20. 8
4. Self-Anchorages: Concrete blocks which anchor main cables and act as
end supports of a bridge.
Fig 2.1 Suspension bridge components
The success of the self-anchored suspension bridge is due to three main
aspects of its design.
1. The method of erection.
2. The use of suspending anchors.
3. The use of composite girders.
The second successful design aspect was the suspenders pre-tensioned to
avoid slackening under any load condition.
Because the stiffening girder supports the cable tension, the girder must be
placed before the main cable can be erected.
The analysis should include influence of the large axial force in the deck.
The force in stiffening girder is equal to horizontal component of main
cable tension.
The Sag of the main cable can be increased in order to reduce the value of
axial compression in the stiffening girder.
21. 9
In general, the SAG: SPAN ratio is 1:5 to 1:8 for self-anchored suspension
bridge, considerably greater than typical suspension bridges which have
around 1:10 (Ref.1).
2.2 LITERATURE REVIEW
Various journals and publications were referred to complete the literature
review of this study. The details of the sources referred to have been given in the
reference section. The gist of the concepts taken for the in depth understanding of the
analysis and design of the Self-Anchored Suspension Bridge has been summarised as
under.
2.2.1 Self Anchored Bridges
Summarizing the beginning, analysis, and future of self-anchored
suspension bridges, examines the development of this unique bridge form, its uses
over the past century, and its advantages and disadvantages. The Konohana Bridge in
Osaka, Japan, illustrates this type and provides a case study to compare conventional
suspension bridge theory with the results of a finite-element model. The final portion
of the paper evaluates the potential for self-anchored suspension bridge design, and
provides recommendations for design engineers. The goal here is to describe the
structural behaviour of self-anchored bridges in general and of the Konohana Bridge in
particular.
Classical Theories for Analysis:
Two theories govern the analysis of self-anchored suspension bridge. The
elastic theory and the deflection theory are in-plane analyses for the global suspension
bridge system. In the theories, the entire suspension bridge is assumed a continuous
body and the hanger ropes are closely spaced. Both of these analytical methods
assume:
The stiffening girder is horizontal and straight. The geometric moment of
inertia is constant.
The dead load of the stiffening girder and the cables is uniform. The
coordinates of the cable are parabolic.
22. 10
The cable is completely flexible and all dead loads are taken into the
cables.
Elastic Theory
Elastic theory gives the moment at any point on deck girder determined by
the Equation (2.1),
M = M’- h × y (2.1)
Where,
M’ live load moment of unsuspended girder
h horizontal component of cable tension produced by live load
y ordinate of main span cable curve
The elastic theory did not account for stiffening effect for the main cable
under tension, thus gave higher moments in the stiffening girder, thus the live load
moment produced in girder is reduced by the horizontal component of live load
tension in the cable. The economy of construction offered by deflection theory made
this theory absolute (Ref.1).
2.2.2 Suspension Bridges
Deflection Theory
The deflection theory is an extension of elastic theory. The bending
moment, M(x), of the stiffening girder after the loading the live load is shown in
Equation (2.2).
M(x) = M’(x) – Hp × y(x) – (Hw + Hp) n(x) (2.2)
Where,
M’(x) bending moment resulting from the live load applied to a simple
beam of the same span length as the stiffening girder
y(x) longitudinal position of the cable
n(x) deflection of the cable and the stiffening girder due to live load
Hw, Hp cable horizontal tension due to dead load and live load
23. 11
The deflection accounted for the second order effects of cable stiffness and
correctly reduced the moment carried by the stiffening girder. The difference between
the two theories is whether cable deflections resulting from live load is considered.
Figure 2.2 shows forces and deflections due to load in a suspension bridge (Ref.2).
Fig 2.2 Deformations and forces of suspension bridge
2.2.3 Suspension Bridge and Static Behaviour
This study is done to develop a set of consistent design guidelines for self-
anchored suspension bridges and on current knowledge is done to be filled in order to
enable the formation of a consistent set of design recommendations. This research
indicated discusses static behaviour as well as feasibility study of long span self-
anchored bridges. In order to accomplish this goal, a thorough investigation of
important parameters to determine behaviour of self-anchored suspension bridge and
identify any gaps that a well-chosen ratio between the bending stiffness of deck and
axial stiffness of cable influences the maximum bending moments and the deflections
in the girder. The ratio of sag to span is also investigated to reduce the normal force in
the deck and the maximum bending moment in the deck. A study to the static strength,
stiffness, frequency behaviour and the buckling stability of the box girder, revealed
that a deck slenderness of the box girder of λ =0.01 and even more slender is very well
feasible. The paper also discusses possibilities of increasing main span length and tries
to find a certain span limit for the self-anchored suspension bridges. Increasing the
span length of the bridge will cause several effects on static strength and stiffness.
Several effects are monitored like stresses in cable, girder and pylon, deformations and
24. 12
reaction forces. Based on results of this study, a span length of 500 metres is very well
possible (Ref.3).
2.3 SUMMARY OF LITERATURE REVIEW
The Literature Review for this project work has been comprehensive in
nature. So following is the summary of the literature review. Referring to the journals
following summary can be proposed.
Summarizing the beginnings, analysis, and future of self-anchored
suspension bridges, examines the development of this unique bridge form, its uses
over the past century, and its advantages and disadvantages. The Konohana Bridge in
Osaka, Japan, illustrates this type and provides a case study to compare conventional
suspension bridge theory with the results of a finite-element model (Ref.1).
One more important theory is the deflection theory which is an extension
of elastic theory. The deflection theory (exact theory) accounted for the second order
effects of cable stiffness and correctly reduced the moment carried by the stiffening
girder (Ref.2).
Finally the last journal discusses static behaviour as well as feasibility
study of long span self-anchored bridges. In order to accomplish this goal, a thorough
investigation of important parameters to determine behaviour of self-anchored
suspension bridge and identify any gaps that a well-chosen ratio between the bending
stiffness of deck and axial stiffness of cable influences the maximum bending
moments and the deflections in the girder. The ratio of sag to span is also investigated
to reduce the normal force in the deck and the maximum bending moment in the deck
(Ref.3). These basic concepts derived from the Literature Review have been
instrumental in completing this work.
25. 13
CHAPTER 3
OBJECTIVE AND SCOPE
3.1 OBJECTIVES
The objective of this study is to Model, Analyse and Design an
optimised Self Anchored Suspension Bridge with sustainable features.
With regard to this the whole process of study would be to design the basic
elements conforming to the most sustainable and optimised design
procedure and that it would be analysed and modelled to fulfil this criteria.
Since this is the first of its kind in India so the work has been rigorously
referred from journals globally and where ever needed suitable assumptions
do form a part of this project work.
3.2 SCOPE
This project has an extra ordinary scope due to its nature of self-
anchoring.This project includes
Modelling (Prototype and Virtual – reduced scale)
Analysis and
Design
of girder, deck, main cables, suspenders for a Self-Anchored Suspension
Bridge structure.
With respect to common suspension bridges, the self-anchored
suspension bridge takes the lead when it comes to the problem of providing
heavy and massive anchorages which are not possible in every situation
Therefore, the Self Anchored Suspension Bridge eliminates this short
coming and plays a very significant role of being able to establish itself in
any sort of the terrain and surface topography over the amazing long spans.
26. 14
However the design has to be suitably optimized due to the fact
that if there is a slight mistake in the procedure of designing or execution
then it can lead to catastrophes.
3.3 MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY
As far as the material used in this project are concerned, in the execution
work materials used would be the concrete, steel, cables, bitumen, railings etc. But
all such things are not a subject of study in this work
With regard to model fabrication; the materials used are the plywood sheets,
aluminium C sections and Aluminium L sections, plastic wires, nuts, bolts etc. The
methodology of this report is a very comprehensive.
All these concepts have been studied in the course CE 0201 Mechanics of Solids.
The initial phase was the planning of the work. It was the most daunting
task of the project. Finally the site for the project was finalised. Following this the
model fabrication formed an integral part of the methodology because the model was
a scale reduced model and all calculations are similar to the real design of Self
Anchored Suspension Bridge.
Later on the IS codes of design, reference books and literature survey
followed on to gather a data base of useful information and know-how of the design,
analysis and modelling work. Software packages like AutoCAD and ABAQUS were
used to enhance the analytical abilities.
After modelling the structure the analysis of various loads and the
behaviour of the bridge formed a part of the methodology.
27. 15
CHAPTER 4
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
4.1 MODELLING
Auto CAD 3D was used to model the deck of the Self-Anchored
Suspension Bridge, and then the model was loaded with various possible patterns of
loading. The models were loaded with such patterns in ABAQUS software.
Adjacently a scaled down model of the proposed model was made using cardboard,
aluminium channels and nylon wires. The picture of the prototype model has been
attached below which is reduced to a ratio of 1:1000 Figure 4.1.
Fig 4.1 Photograph of scale reduced model in self-anchored suspension bridge
The deck modelling, elevation and section drawings have been done
using AutoCAD which has been studied in the course CE 0104 Computer aided
building drawing. The Figure 4.1 gives a practical exposure of various realistic
constraints even though it was in perspectives of small scale.
28. 16
4.1.1 Deck
The 3D model of the deck is modelled using the AutoCAD 2010 and it is
shown in Figure 4.2.
Fig 4.2 3D Model of the deck
4.1.2 Pylon
The model of the pylon of the prototype which is modelled has been
given in Figure 4.3.
Fig 4.3 Model of pylon frame
29. 17
4.1.3 Suspenders
The length of Suspenders for prototype has been modelled using Auto
CAD 2010 and is shown in Figure 4.4.
Fig 4.4 Modelling of suspenders for the prototype
4.1.4 Angle between Main Cable and Pylon
The angle between main cable and pylon was calculated to be equal to
56.550
and angle between side cable and pylon was calculated as 75.220
and is shown
in Figure 4.5.
Fig 4.5 Angle specification
30. 18
4.1.5 Longitudinal Elevation:
The AutoCAD 2010 drawing of the longitudinal elevation is given below
with specifications given in the Figure 4.6.
Fig 4.6 Longitudinal section of self-anchored suspension bridge
4.1.6 SPECIFICATIONS OF THE MODEL
1. Total span = 1000 mm
2. Length of main span = 545 mm
3. Length of side span = 227.5 mm
4. Sag in main cable = 86 mm
5. Sag in side cable = 15 mm
6. Clearance of deck = 200 mm
7. Height of pylon from deck = 90 mm
8. Angle between pylon and side span cable (α) = 75.22°
9. Angle between pylon and side span cable (ß) = 56.55°
10. Total number of suspenders with spacing of 30.2775 mm = 33
11. Length of the main cable = 581.18
12. Length of the side span cable = 23
31. 19
4.2 ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURE
The Analysis of the Structure is the main feature of study of the project
before designing the bridge components.
4.2.1 Analysis of Loads
The bridge is designed by analysing the forces and loads on the bridge
elements manually. Various types are listed below.
Dead Load
Live load
Impact load
Longitudinal force
Thermal force
Wind load
Forces due to curvature
4.2.1.1 Dead Load
The dead load is the weight of the structure and any permanent load fixed
thereon. The dead load is initially assumed and checked after design is completed.
4.2.1.2 Live Load
Bridge design standards specify the design loads, which are meant to
reflect the worst loading that can be caused on the bridge by traffic, permitted and
expected to pass over it. In this study, tank loading of IRC Class A (Ref.5) has been
used for analysis.
In India, highway bridges are designed in accordance with IRC bridge
code.
IRC: 6: 2010 - Section II gives the specifications for the types of standard
loadings for which the bridges are designed (Ref.6). The various cases of
loading of live loads as per the codes mentioned above have been given
The following work of analysing various types of loadings has been
studied in the course CE 0302 Structural Analysis-II.
32. 20
The following conditions discuss the various possibilities of bridge
loadings and they have been described as below.
Case 1: Full length traffic loading of the bridge deck has been is shown
in Figure 4.7.
Fig 4.7 Traffic load over full length
Case 2: Mid span traffic loading of the bridge deck has been is shown in
Figure 4.8.
Fig 4.8 Traffic load on the main span
Case 3: Side span traffic loading of the bridge deck on both ends is
shown in Figure 4.9.
Fig 4.9 Traffic load on the side span
33. 21
Case 4: Only one side full length traffic loading of the complete bridge
deck has been shown in Figure 4.10. This is the most critical type of loading over
suspension bridge deck.
Fig 4.10 One side full length loading of deck
Case 5: The traffic loading is kept on two side spans and the main span in
an alternate way and it has been shown in Figure 4.11.
Fig 4.11 Alternate side loading of the deck
All these cases of the various loadings are discussed to derive the case
which is the most critical condition of loading so that if such a condition is ensured
to be safe then all the other cases are in the safe mode.
34. 22
Case 6: Only one side traffic loading of the main span has been done and
it has been shown in Figure 4.12.
Fig 4.12 One side mid span loaded
4.2.1.3 Dynamic Loading
The dynamic effect caused due to vertical oscillation and periodical
shifting of the live load from one wheel to another when the locomotive is moving is
known as impact load. The impact load is determined as a product of impact factor, I
and the live load. The impact curve is shown in Figure 4.13.
Fig 4.13 Impact percentage curve with span (in metres) on x-axis and impact
factor (in percentage) on y-axis
35. 23
4.2.1.4 Longitudinal forces
Longitudinal forces are set up between vehicles and bridge deck when the
former accelerate or brake. The magnitude of the force F is given by Equation (4.1),
F = (4.1)
Where,
G - acceleration due to gravity
δV - change in velocity in time
W - weight of the vehicle
This topic was a part of study in the course CE 0403-Transportation
Engineering.
4.2.1.5 Wind load
Wind load on a bridge may act
1. Horizontally, transverse to the direction of span
2. Horizontally, along the direction of span
3. Vertically upwards, causing uplift
4. Wind load on vehicles
5. For the purpose of the design, wind loadings are adopted from the maps
and tables given in IS: 875 -Part III.
6. A wind load of 2.40 is adopted for the unloaded span of the highway
and footbridges (Ref.4).
The wind load is a part of the dynamic load which is a part of study under
structure dynamics and it includes the earthquake design and the ductile detailing of
the structure. The study of dynamics is not in the scope of this project so the concept
of wind load has been given as for purpose of information.
36. 24
4.2.1.6 Forces due to curvature
When a track or traffic lane on a bridge is curved allowance for
centrifugal action of the moving load should be made in designing the members of
the bridge. All the tracks and lanes on the structure being considered are assumed as
occupied by the moving load.
This force due to curvature is given by the following Equation (4.2),
C = (4.2)
Where,
C- - centrifugal force
W - equivalent distributed live load
V - maximum speed in km per hour
R - radius of curvature in metres
This topic was a part of study in the course CE 0403-Transportation
Engineering.
4.2.2 Estimation of Loads
Load estimation for the deck slab is calculated by referring the code as
per IRC: 6: 2010 (Ref.6).
4.2.2.1 Calculation of live load
Class AA loading scheme is adopted in estimation of live load.
For 2 lane road Carriage width is 5.3 m to 9.6 m.
Two lanes for class A or One lane of class 70 R.
The width is 7.5 m for 2 lane carriage way as per IRC: 5 (Ref.5), and the
impact load factor is 112 % the actual acting load and for class 70 R Steel, 10%
impact factor is added. The estimation of loads is so significant that without this step
the design of the bridge is not possible.
This topic was a part of course in CE 0403-Transportation Engineering.
37. 25
The Maximum tyre pressure = 24.6
The Class AA loading scheme is represented in Figure 4.14.
Fig 4.14 IRC class AA loading
C= Clearance = 1.3m as per IRC 6:2010
• The tank load is 70 ton acts on lane as shown above. So, the axle load
acting on lane is 700 kN.
• The Impact Factor of live load is 30% for steel bridge and for span length
less than 10m (Ref.5-6).
• Width of each lane is 2.9 m. Clearance of 1.2 m shall be provided
between any 2 lanes in multi-lane highway as per IRC: 6: 2010 (Ref.6).
The following concepts have been covered in CE 0302 Structural
Analysis-II-Indeterminate Analysis.
The rolling loads which are distributed over the deck slab for analysis of
the deck are converted into the equivalent uniformly distributed loads (EUDL) The
EUDL gives an approximate and nearly an exact estimate of the load conversion
from rolling load into a uniformly distributed load.
38. 26
The EUDL (Equivalent uniformly distributed load) for a UDL (Uniformly
distributed load shorter than span) is calculated by using Equation (4.3),
( ) (4.3)
Where,
- EUDL
A - length of UDL.
L - length of span.
W - total live load.
We obtain the value of EUDL by substituting values in Equation (4.3),
W’ =
EUDL = 2395.42
4.2.3 Analysis of cable properties
The following analysis of elements of a Suspension Bridge has been
covered in CE 0302 Structural Analysis-II Indeterminate Analysis (Ref.7).
1. Sag in the main cable
2. Tension in the cable
3. Length of the cable
4.2.3.1 Sag in the main cable
=
So, sag in the main cable is 85 m.
The Sag in the main cable is a very important feature for designing the
cable. The sag to span ratio is a very important aspect of calculation in suspension
bridges.
39. 27
4.2.3.2 Cable tension:
Cable Tension is a very important factor in analysis of this structure
because this structure takes the load through the tension in the main cable which it
transfers to the main pylon. The tension in the main cable is obtained by calculating
using Equation (4.4),
T= √VA
2
+H2
(4.4)
Where,
VA - Vertical force component
H - Horizontal force component
The Horizontal force component, is calculated using Equation (4.5),
H = (4.5)
Where,
p - equivalent load
d - sag in the main cable
L - length of mid span
H= = 1034.15 × 103
kN
The Vertical force component is calculated using Equation (4.6),
VA = VB = (4.6)
Where,
VA - vertical force at end A
VB - vertical force at end B
P - equivalent load
L - length of mid span
40. 28
By substituting the obtained values in Equation (4.6) we get,
VA = VB = = 652.75 × 103
kN
Vertical component VA= VB= 652.75 × 103
kN
By substituting required values, we obtain cable tension from Equation (4.4),
T= √ (652.75 × 103
)2
+ (1034.15 × 103
)2
T= 1222 × 106
kN
4.2.3.3 Length of the cable
The total length of cable required is determined by Equation (4.7),
S = L + ( ) (4.7)
Where,
S - length of the cable
L - length of main span
d - sag in the main cable
By substituting the calculated values in Equation (4.7) we get,
S = 545 + = 581 m
So, Length of the main cable is 581 m.
Hence these parameters are the analytical output of this section of study
of the project work (Ref.7). All the parameters have been considered and the
standard SI units have been maintained uniformly.
Thus the optimised values of the parameters such as the sag to span ratio,
cable tension and the length of the cable to be used for the self-anchored suspension
bridge construction. All these parameters are used to design the safest possible
design of the bridge structure elements.
41. 29
4.3 DESIGN
The design of suspension bridge includes the design of following major
components which have been studied in the course CE 0303 Structural Design II and
CE 0304 Structural Design III.
1. Deck
2. Main cable
3. Suspenders
4. Girder
4.3.1 Design of Deck
1. The primary function of a bridge deck is to support the vehicular vertical
loads and distribute these loads to the steel superstructure.
2. The deck is typically continuous along the span of the bridge and
continuous across the width of the span. The deck will also act as a
horizontal diaphragm that is capable of transferring lateral loads, such as
wind or seismic loads, to the supports.
3. The deck system in self-anchored suspension bridges acts as a continuous
girder over the interior piers, but with additional intermediate elastic, but
relatively stiff, supports at the anchoring points of the stay cables (Ref.8).
For the design of post tensioned pre-stressed concrete bridge deck the
following design parameters were considered (Ref.9).
Effective span of slab = 40 m (assume)
Clear width of road = 10 m
Thickness of wearing = 40 mm asphalt layer
Spacing of cross girders = spacing between hangers = 6 mm c/c
Live load = IRC class AA loading
Material M40 concrete for deck slab
42. 30
fci = 40 = Compressing strength of concrete at transfer
fck = 50
Permissible Stresses and Design Constraints as per IRC: 18: 2000 (Ref.12).
1. fck < 0.5 fci .
fck < 0.5 (40) = 20 .
fck = Permissible compressive stress in concrete at transfer and working
loads.
2. Loss ratio =
3. Permissible compressive stress is concrete under service load (fck) = 0.13
(fck) = 0.33 x 50 = 16.5
4. Allowable tensile stress in concrete at initial pressure transfer (ftt) = 0
5. Allowable tensile shear is concrete load = 0
For M40 concrete, Fe415 steel as per IRC: 21:2000 (Ref.13), following
coefficients were assumed.
n = 0.4
j = 1 - = 1 - = 0.866
Q = =
4.3.1.1 Design of interior slab panel
Step 1: Dead load bending moment and shear force
Since slab is pre stressed the thickness may be reduced and could be
termed as 50mm per meter span of slab.
Hence the dead load bending moment and shear force is used to design
the panels of slab such that the design is safe enough to respond to the worst
condition.
43. 31
Dead weight of slab = 1 × 1 × 50 mm × 5 × 24 = 6
Wearing coat = 0.04 × 0.22 = 0.88
Total design load = 7
Each panel slab = 5 × 2.5 × 7 = 87.5 kN
The dimensions of the slab panel have been shown in Figure 4.15.
Fig 4.15 Dimensions of each slab panel
The Pigeaud’s Curve given in Figure 4.16 is used to find out the moment
coefficients of a completely loaded slab with uniform distributed load.
Fig 4.16 Pigeaud’s Curve-moment coefficients for slab completely loaded
with uniformly distributed load
44. 32
Ratios
= 1,
= 1
K = = = 0.5 and = 2
By Pigeaud’s Curve, given in the Figure 4.17 and Figure 4.18 we get,
For, k = 0.5, M1= 0.047 and
= 3.0, M2 = 0.01
M1, M2 = Moment coefficients in dead load bending moment in short, long span
directions respectively are found using Figure 4.17 and Figure 4.18.
Fig 4.17 Pigeaud’s Curve for Moment coefficients M1 for K=0.5
45. 33
Fig 4.18 Pigeaud’s Curve for Moment coefficients M2 for K=0.5
The dead load bending moments along long, short span directions are
obtained by referring the Equation (4.8) and Equation (4.9).
MBD = W [M1 + μ M2] (4.8)
MCD = W [M2 + μ M1] (4.9)
Where,
MBD - dead load bending moment along long span
MCD - dead load bending moment along short span
W - dead load of slab
M1, M2 - moment coefficients in dead load bending moment
along long span, short span respectively
μ - Poisson’s Ratio
46. 34
By substituting the obtained values in Equations (4.8), (4.9) we get,
MBD = 87.5 (0.047 + 0.15 (0.01)) = 4.24 kN-m
MCD = 87.5 (0.01 + 0.15 (0.047)) = 1.5 kN-m
Dead load shear force = k × dead load × Q = 8.05 kN
Step 2: Live load bending moment and shear force:
In order to generate the maximum live load and the bending moment the
IRC class AA attached wheel (single) is placed on panel of slab. This has been
studied in the course CE0403-Transportation Engineering and (Ref.9).
Dispersion length of wheel = U = (0.85 + 2 × 0.04) = 0.93 m
Dispersion width of wheel = V = (3.6 + 2 × 0.04) = 3.68 m
Ratios,
K =
Referring to Pigeaud’s Curve K = 0.5,
Moment coefficient for short and long coefficient of slab
M1 = 0.1; M2 = 0.02
The short span and long span live load and bending moment are obtained by using
equation (4.8), (4.9).
MBL = 350 [0.1 + 0.15 × 0.02] = 35.35 kN-m
MLL = 350 [0.02 + 0.15 × 0.1] = 12.2 kN-m
As slab is continuous, design live load, bending moment an 80% of the actual and
considering impact factor of 25%
47. 35
MBL = 1.25 × 0.8 × 35.45 = 35.35 kN-m
MLL = 1.25 × 0.8 12.2 = 12.2 kN-m
Step 3: Live Load Shear Force:
It can be calculated by approximation. Maximum shear can be obtained
by placing the wheel such that dispersion is present within the interior panel of slab.
Span wise dispersion length of wheel load = 0.85 + 2 × (0.04 + 0.25) = 1.45 m
Fig 4.19 Representation of dispersion of load on deck slab
This has been studied in course CE 0403 Transportation Engineering.
Clear length of panel = 5 – 0.2 = 4.8 m
=
From IRC: 21:2000 (Ref.13) for = 2.08; K = 2.6 for continuous slab.
Effective width of slab = 2.6 × 0.774 × (1 - ) + (3.6 + 2 × 0.04) = 5.1 m
Live load per meter width of slab = =
Shear force per meter width of slab =
Shear force considering impact = 1.2 × 45 = 56.5 kN
48. 36
4.3.1.2 Design of slab:
This has been studied in the course CE 0303 Structural Design-II RCC
Structures (Ref.11).
Total moment acting along length, breadth of slab is,
MB = 35.5 (live load) + 4.24 (dead load) = 39.6 kN-m
ML = 12.2 (live load) + 1.5 (dead load) = 137 kN-m
Effective depth of slab is calculated using Equation (4.10),
d = √ (4.10)
Where,
d - Effective depth of slab.
M - Moment along width of slab.
Q - Coefficient as per IRC-21:2000
B - Width of slab.
d = √ = 131.16 mm
Adopt effective depth is 200 mm
The slab bridge deck comprising longitudinal and cross girders with the
deck slab may be considered as rigid grid structure for the purpose of analysis under
the concentrated live loads. Concentrated wheel load on the deck is shared between
the longitudinal girders depending upon the position of load, the number of girders
and their spacing (Ref. 6).
The bending moment calculated due to dead load and live load is used to
find out the moment co-efficient used in Pigeaud’s curve for the design.
49. 37
Reinforcement:
1. Area of the steel in longer direction (Ast) is calculated by using the
Equation (4.11),
Ast = (4.11)
Where,
Ast - area of steel in longer direction
M - effective moment along longer direction
- principal stress
j - co-efficient as per IRC: 21: 2000
d - depth of slab
By substituting obtained values in Equation (4.11) we obtain area of steel
required,
Ast = = 1150 mm2
Use 14 mm bars at 130 mm c/c, Area of steel provided = Ast = 1184 mm2
Effective depth available along long span using 10 mm diameter bars = 100 mm
2. Area of steel in transverse direction (Asd),
Asd = = 423.6 mm2
Use 10 mm bars are placed at 140 mm c/c
The area of the reinforcement in longer direction gives the area of the
steel bars to be used and then the spacing of the bars so that the design can be safe.
Now following this calculation the check for shear stress check has to be done to
ensure complete safety.
50. 38
Check for Shear Stress:
Design shear force = dead load shear + Live load shear = 64.3 kN (Ref.10).
Nominal shear stress is calculated by using Equation (4.12),
Nominal shear stress = (4.12)
V - Shear force
b - Width of slab panel
d - Depth of slab panel
Nominal shear stress = 0.306
Percentage of steel = = 0.56
For M40 permissible shear stress = 0.32
And multiplication factor of 1.1 we get actual permissible shear stress
= 1.1 × 0.32 = 0.352
Since 0.306 < 0.352
Therefore, Shear stress in the slab is within permissible limits (Ref.15).
4.3.2 Design of Main Cable:
1. The main cable is modelled with cable elements. These are beam
elements with a very low bending stiffness. Also no shear forces exist for
the cable. The cable element is subjected to its own weight and accounts
for the slackening effects in cables under self-weight load.
2. Due to the relative small center to center distance of the hangers, the
effect of elastic stretch and lengthening due to change of geometry can be
neglected.
51. 39
3. The cable spans a very short distance between each hanger. Various types
of cable systems are shown below and the modulus of elasticity values
before and after pre-stressing as per IS: 9282: 2002 (Ref. 16) are
discussed in table 4.1.
Table 4.1 Modulus of Elasticity of Ropes and Strands as per IS: 9282:2002
S. No High strength
tension components
Manufactured Steel
wires Modulus of
Elasticity(EQ)[ ]
After pre stressed
Modulus of
Elasticity[ ]
1 Spiral ropes 11.1×103
13.1×103
2 Full locked coil
ropes
10.3×103
13.1×103
3 Strand ropes 6.9×103
8.6×103
The design of main cable shall conform to IS: 9282: 2002 Wire Ropes
and Strands for Suspension Bridges Specification (Ref.16).
The following steps are considered to determine the cable dimensions
1. Analyzing ratio between variable load and self-weight acting on the
structure is found using Equation (4.13),
η = (4.13)
Where,
η - Ratio between variable load and self-weight.
q - Variable load
g - Self-weight of the structure + permanent loading.
52. 40
2. Assuming the maximum level of Δσ (principal stress).
3. Finding the maximum stress caused by the self-weight + permanent
loading and analyze the cable diameter (Ref.10).
Step by Step Procedure
Step 1: Variable Load q = 0.3 × traffic load
Traffic load = Equivalent Uniformly Distributed Load (EUDL)
= 147.9
Variable load = 0.3×147.9 = 44.37
Self-weight g = 115 girder (assume)
Cable weight = 5 diameter (d = 300mm)
Deck slab =30 asphalt layer of 40mm
Ratio between variable load and self-weight (η) = = 0.3
Step 2: Assume maximum level of Δσ = 200
Step 3: Total permanent load Gd = Factor of Safety (1.35) × Self weight (g)
= 1.35× (150 ) = 202.5
The Main Cable has both horizontal and vertical components of force.
The horizontal and vertical components of force are the most important factors which
will determine the nature of response of the structure towards any stimulus from any
disturbance due to dead loads or even live loads. However, the dynamic loads such
as wind loads and earth quake loads have not been taken into account in this analysis.
The design of main cables is followed by the design of the other important elements
which are described in the sections below. Hence the horizontal components and
53. 41
vertical components have been used to design the deck and the value of the
horizontal component of tension in the cable is given by Equation (4.14),
H = (4.14)
Where,
qG - uniformly distributed dead load
G - permanent load
Q - variable load
l length of the main span
f1 sag of the cable in main span
H = 91,688 kN.
So, the Horizontal component of Tension acting per cable is 45,844 kN.
The value of allowable cable stress is found by using graph given in Figure 4.20.
Fig 4.20 Graph between Δσ, η to find allowable cable stress
54. 42
Step 4: The largest normal force Ncable is determined by equation (4.15),
N cable = √V2
+H2
(4.15)
Where,
V - vertical component of tension force
H - horizontal component of tension force
α1 - - angle between main cable and deck
H = 45,844 kN
V = 45,844 × tan330
45’ = 30,632 kN
N cable = √V2
+H2
= 55,136 kN
The effective cross sectional area of cable required is determined by
Equation (4.16),
A req = (4.16)
Where,
N - Normal force acting in the cable
σ - Maximum allowable cable stress
The effective cross sectional area of cable required by Equation (4.16),
A req = =
= 1, 10,272 mm2
The effective cross area of the cable required which is calculated by using
Equation (4.16) is used to find out the diameter of the cable to be used for the bridge
elements and the value of the diameter is calculated as described below.
55. 43
The diameter of cable is calculated by using Equation (4.17),
d = √ ( ) (4.17)
Where,
d - diameter of cable
A - cross sectional area of cable
By substituting values in Equation (4.17) we get,
d = √ ( ) = √ ( ) = 374 mm
Hence a cable of 400 mm is taken for consideration for laying main cable.
4.3.3 Design of Hangers
As per IRC 5 Class AA loading, the axle load under tank load condition is
700 kN (Ref.5).
Under Fatigue load model condition is 0.7 times variable axle loading (Qik).
Variable loading
q = 0.3×150 traffic load (udl)
Q= 0.7×700 kN axle loads
The total Self weight (g) is sum of girder weight (assume), estimated
cable weight and asphalt layer, deck slab unit weight.
Self-Weight (g) = 115 + 5 30 = 150
1. Ratio between variable load and self-weight (η)
= = 0.3
56. 44
2. Maximum level of Δσ = 200 is assumed
3. Maximum allowable stress caused by self-weight and permanent loading
σ = 350 determined by using the design graph in Figure (4.20)
4. Total permanent load design value
Gd = γG × (115+ 5 +35) = 1.35 × 150 = 202.9
The value of the vertical force in hanger = 202.9 ×30 m = 6087 kN for
2 suspenders
So, 3043.5 kN per each hanger
The effective cross sectional area of cable required is calculated by Equation (4.18),
A required = (4.18)
Where,
- vertical force in hanger
- maximum allowable cable stress
A req - effective cross sectional area of cable
By substituting obtained values in Equation (4.18) we obtain value of area of cable
=
= 5,072.5 mm2
The effective cross sectional area of cable required A req = 5,072.5 mm2
The Diameter of suspenders is calculated by using Equation (4.17). By substituting
values in equation (4.17) we get the value of diameter of suspenders is 80 mm.
57. 45
4.3.4 Design of Longitudinal Girder
This has been studied in the course CE 0304 Structural Design III-Pre
stressing of the deck.
Firstly, it is required to find Carboun’s reaction factor, for IRC class AA
loads which are arranged for maximum eccentricity as shown in Figure 4.21 (Ref.5).
Fig 4.21 Arrangement of class AA loads for maximum eccentricity on deck
Reaction factor for exterior girder (A or D).
RA = ( ) = 0.764 W1
So, Reaction factor for exterior girder (A or D) = RA= 0.764 W1
Reaction factor for interior girder (B or C)
RB = = 0.588 W1
So, Reaction factor for interior girder (B or C) =RB = 0.588 W1
W = 700 kN; W1 =
RA = 0.764 × = 0.382 W = 267.4 kN
RB = 0.588 × = 0.294 W = 205.8 kN
58. 46
The following are the dead loads from deck:
1. Load from suspension = 0.8
2. Load from front path = 7.2 kN-m
3. Load from deck slab = 6
Dead load from deck = 14
Total dead load = 2 × 14 + 10 × 6 = 28 × 60= 88 kN
It is shared by 4 girder equals. So, load acting on each girder = 22 kN
4.3.4.1 Dead Load of Main Girder:
Assuming a depth of 40 mm per meter span of the girder as has been shown
in Figure 4.22.
Overall depth of main girder = 40 × 40 = 1600 mm
Self-weight per meter run of girder = 0.5 × 0.45 × 24 + 1.1 × 0.2 × 24 = 10.7
Weight of cross girder (assume depth = 1 m) = 1 × 0.2 × 2 = 4.8
Fig 4.22 Dimensions of main girder
59. 47
4.3.4.2 Dead Load Bending Moment and Shear of Main Girder
Reaction of cross girder as main girder = 4.8 × 2.5 = 12 kN
Reaction from deck slab = 22 kN
Total dead load girder including self-weight = 2.2 + 10.7 =
Maximum shear force = Reaction at support = 0.5 (12 ×7 + 32.7×40) = 696 kN
Maximum bending moment =
So, Maximum bending moment = 4600 kN-m
4.3.4.3 Live load Bending Moment
Fig 4.23 ILD for live load bending moment over deck
This has been studied in the course CE 0302 Structural Analysis-II
Indeterminate Analysis and (Ref.7 - 10) and the ILD is given in Figure 4.23.
Bending moment at centre of girder = = 5390 kN-m
Bending moment for the outer girder = 1.1 × 0.382 ×5390 = 2268.878 kN-m
Considering impact and reaction factor
Bending moment for inner girder = 1.1×0.294 × 5390 = 1743.126 kN-m
Reaction of W1 on girder B = 63 kN
Reaction of W2 on girder A = 350 kN
So, Total load girder B = (350 + 63) = 413 kN
Maximum Reaction of Shear Force in Girder is calculated as under (Ref. 10).
60. 48
Maximum reaction in girder B = 394.4 kN
Maximum reaction in girder A = = 274 kN
Design Live Load Shear Force Considering Impact Factor:
Inner girder (B) = 394.4 × 1.1 = 433.84 kN
Outer girder (A) = 274 ×1.1 = 301.4 kN
4.3.4.4 Sectional Properties of Girder
Area of cross section = A
= 69.75 × 104
mm2
Distance of the centroid axis from top = Yt
=
= 615.15 mm
Distance of centroid axis from bottom = Yb
= 1500 – 615.15 = 884.85 mm
Moment of inertia of the section about centroid axis is
I = [ ] (MI of top flange)
+ [ ] (MI of web)
+ [ ]
= 9.66 × 1010
+ 8.76 ×109
+ 7.32 × 109
I =14.37 × 1010
mm4
Section modulus of bottom section
Zb = = 2
61. 49
Section modulus of top section
Zt = = 2.33×108
mm2
4.3.4.5 Check for Adequacy
By using the section property, sectional adequacy is verified (Ref.13).
The various design parameters considered are
fk = 50 ; ;
fci = 40
fct = 20
ftw = 16.5
fbr = (η fct – ftw) = (0.85 × 20 - 0) = 17
ftr = (fcw – ηftr) = 16.5
Mq = 2268 kN-m
Mg = 4600 kN-m
Total Md = 6868 kN-m
Required section modulus for the bottom section of beam
Zmin = = [ ] × 106
= 1.74 × 108
mm3
Zmin > 1.23 × 108
mm3
4.3.4.6 Sections
Pre stressing force with maximum cover = 150 mm
Eccentricity is provided for pre stressing force is (884.5 - 150) = 734.5 mm
Pre stressing force P = = = 4725 kN.
62. 50
Using 7 strands of 15.2mm diameter of cables
Therefore, force in each cables = 7 × 181.45 × 1500 = 1905 kN
Number of cable required =
Therefore, 3 cables are provided.
Area provided by 3 cables = 3 × 7 × 181.45 = 3810 mm2
The arrangement of cables at central section of girder is shown in Figure 4.24.
Fig 4.24 Placement of cables at centre span section
4.3.4.7 Permissible Tender Zone at Support Section
Check for eccentricity to avoid stress concentration at supports, the cables
are placed is such a way to satisfy eccentricity requirement (Ref.13 – 14).
E = 687.4 mm
E 0 - = -230 mm
63. 51
The cables are arranged is parabolic profile providing are eccentricity of
150 mm towards top flange of beam at support section as shown in the Figure 4.25.
Fig 4.25 Arrangement of cables at support section
All the pre stressing design has been covered in the course CE 0304
Structural Design III - Pre stressing of the deck.
4.3.4.8 Check for Stress
The stress levels are section of beam located at centre of span (Ref.13).
1.
2.
3. = 21.3
4.
5.
6.
64. 52
7.
Stresses at transfer of pressure:
In top fibres, σt = = 6.7 – 14.88 + 19.74 = 11.56
In bottom fibres, σb = = 6.7 + 21.3 – 28.75 = - 0.75
Stresses at working stage
In top fibre, σt =
= 0.85 (6.7) – 0.85 (14.88) + 19.74 + 9.33 = 47.87
In bottom fibre, σb =
= 0.85 (6.7) + 0.85 (21.3) - 13.97 - 28.7 = -18.97
It is observed that stresses in top, bottom under both conditions is within permissible
limits.
4.3.4.9 Check for Ultimate Flexural Strength of Beam
The ultimate moment to be considered as per IRC: 18:2000 (Ref.12) is
MU = 1.5 Mg + 2.5 Mq = 15 × 4600 + 2.5 × 2268 = 12510 kN-m
Failure condition can occur by yielding of steel that is under reinforcement or by
direct crushing of concrete over reinforcement. The smaller of both values is
considered as ultimate moment of resistance of section for design
Type 1: Failure by yielding of steel is calculated using Equation (4.19),
MU = 0.9× db × AS × fP (4.19)
Where,
AS - area of tensile steel
db - depth of beam from maximum compression edge
fP - ultimate tensile strength for steel
65. 53
By substituting values obtained in Equation (4.19),
MU = 0.9 × 1350 × 3810 × 1860 = 8.61 × 108
N-mm
Since, MU < Mq limit
So, redesign by assuming Ast = 6000 mm2
Mq = 13.5 × 109
N-mm > 1.57 × 109
Hence OK.
Type 2: Failure by crushing of concrete:
For T- beam section, the ultimate moment is calculated by Equation (4.20),
MU = 0.176 bdb
2
fck + ( ) (4.20)
Where,
B - width of web
Bf - width of flange
T - thickness of flange
MU = 0.176 (200) (1350)2
× 60 + ) × 250 × 60
= 13,800 kN-m
4.3.4.10 Check for Ultimate Shear Strength of the Beam
Ultimate shear force to be considered is calculated using Equation (4.21),
Vu = 1.5 Sg + 2.5 Sq (4.21)
Where,
Sg - dead load shear force
Sq - live load shear force
Vu = 2140 kN
66. 54
According to IRC: 18: 2000 (Ref. 7) the ultimate shear strength of the
section uncracked in flexure, Vw corresponds to the occurrence of a maximum
principal tensile stress, at the centroid axis of section of ft = 0.24 and
fck = 0.24 x 60 = 14.4
In the calculation axis of Vw, the value of pre stress at the centroid axis
has to be taken as 0.8fy.
The ultimate shear strength of the section is then calculated and found by
using Equation (4.22),
Vw = 0.67 bd √ (4.22)
Where,
b - width of the rib
Vw - ultimate shear strength of the section
d - overall depth of the member
ft - maximum principal tensile stress
fy - compression stress at centroid axis due to pre stress
(ft ) Maximum principal tensile stress = 0.24 × √ = 0.24 × √ = 1.859
(fy) Compression stress at Centroid axis due to pre stress = = 5.75
Eccentricity of cables at the centre span = 734.5 mm
Eccentricity of cables at support = 150 mm
Net eccentricity = 734.5 – 150 = 584.5 mm
Slope of the cable = θ = = = 0.093
67. 55
By substituting the values calculated we obtain the value of ultimate shear
strength by using Equation (4.22),
Vw =1069 kN
Ultimate shear resistance considered = 2140 kN
Ultimate shear capacity of the section = 1069 kN
Balance shear = 2140 – 1069 = 1071 kN
Shear reinforcement is to be designed to resist the balance shear
Use 10mm diameter stir ups and the spacing is given by Equation (4.23),
S = (4.23)
S = = 77.2 mm
Provide 10 mm diameter stirrups at 100 mm c/c near support and at a
spacing of 200 mm c/c near the centre of the span.
4.3.4.11 Design of Supplementary reinforcement
Longitudinal supplementary reinforcement at 0.15% of gross sectional
area is provided to limit the shrinkage cracks.
Area of steel = Ast = 0.0015 x 69.75 x 104
= 1046.25 mm2
14 mm diameter bars (8 numbers) are placed in the compression flange of the beam.
After this part of part of the design of the project work the last part of the design
work is the design of the end block which anchors the pre stressing cables so as to
increase the pre tensioning capacity.
68. 56
4.3.4.12 Design of End Blocks
End block is designed to distribute the concentrated pre-stressing force
the anchorage. It shall have sufficient area to accommodate anchorages at the jacking
end and shall preferably be as wide as the narrowest flange of the beam (Ref.13).
Length of end block is in no case be less than 600 mm nor less than this
width. Generally, end blocks are provided at supports for a length of 1.5 m.
The bursting force generated during the post tensioning should be
assessed on the basis of the ultimate strength. The bursting force, Fbst existing in an
individual square and block located by symmetrically placed square anchorage or
bearing plate may be derived as follows:
Pk = force in each cable = 1905 kN
2ypo = 225 mm
2yo = 900 mm
Ratio ( ) = 0.25
Bursting force = 0.23 x 1905 = 438.15 kN
Area of steel required to resist this tension = = 1214 mm2
Provide 12 mm bars at 100 mm c/c in the horizontal and transverse direction.
69. 57
CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION
5.1 CONCLUSION
The optimised design of the expected Self Anchored Bridge has been
finalized in this project report. The process has been supplemented by prototype
modelling to get a clear idea about realistic design parameters of a structure such as
Self Anchored Suspension Bridge.
The realistic design constraints have been taken into very serious
consideration as they form the basis of working on any project. As a result the
methodology followed has been formulated accordingly.
The results and discussion give the complete modelling, analysis and
design of the project. The work done using various software packages has been
provided in the respective topics of the Result and Discussion Chapter. It also
includes extensive design of the deck slab, girder, cables which form the most
fundamental elements of this study. The pylons and foundation have not been
designed in this project work as they would require more duration of work than
planned so they can be carried on for further study of this work. However certain
aspects such as dynamics of bridge have not been able to be covered in this study due
to the reason that such topics are beyond the scope of this project.
5.2 FUTURE SCOPE
This project has a highly extensive due to its diverse and interdisciplinary
nature. Therefore the future scope of such a project is very diverse .With respect to
finite element modelling and computational fluid dynamics this project would go to
an in depth study as these are the further fields of specialized study. It is
recommended that the same report work can be used to carry out in depth wind
analysis and design using the wind tunnel.
70. 58
REFERENCES
1. Ochsendorf, J. and Billington, D. (1999), Self-Anchored
Suspension Bridges, Journal of Bridge Engineering, Vol. 4, page.
151–156.
2. Idirimannal, DJ. et al (2003), Designing And Modelling Of A
Suspension Bridge to existing Kaluthara Bridge, Journal of
Structural Engineering, Vol. 2, page 61- 66.
3. Arie Romeijn et al (2008), Parametric Study on Static Behaviour
of Self-Anchored Suspension Bridges, Journal of Steel Structures,
Vol. 8, page 91-108.
4. IS: 875 (1987), Part III - Code of Practice for Design Wind Loads
for buildings.
5. IRC: 5 (1998), Standard specifications and Code of Practice for
Road Bridges, Section-I - General Features of Design.
6. IRC: 6 (2010), Standard specifications and Code of Practice for
Road Bridges, Section-II - Loads and Stresses.
7. Punmiah, BC. (2004), Theory of Structures, 12th Edition, Laxmi
publications limited, New Delhi.
8. Harazaki, I., Suzuki, S. and Okukawa, A. (2000) Suspension
Bridges - Bridge Engineering Handbook, CRC Press, Boca Raton.
9. Krishna Raju, N. (2007), Prestressed Concrete, 3rd Edition, Tata
McGraw-Hill publishing company limited, New Delhi.
10. Norris, C.H. and Wilbur, J. (1991) Elementary Structure Analysis,
10th Edition, McGraw-Hill company limited, New York.
11. Unnikrishna Pillai, S. and Devdas Menon. (2003), Reinforced
Concrete Design, Second edition, Tata McGraw-Hill publishing
company limited, New Delhi.
71. 59
12. IRC: 18 (2000), Code of Practice for Composition of Bridge
Specifications and Standards.
13. IRC: 21 (2000), Standard Specifications and Code of Practice for
Road Bridges, Section III – Cement Concrete.
14. IRC: 22 (1986), Standard specifications and Code of Practice for
Road Bridges, Section VI-Composite Construction.
15. IS: 456 (2000), Plain and Reinforced Concrete - Code of Practice.
16. IS: 9282 (2002), Specification for Wire Ropes and Strands for
Suspension Bridges.