The document discusses computer communication architecture and the OSI and TCP/IP models. It provides details on each layer of the OSI model, including the layer number, name, function, and PDU. It also discusses data encapsulation, analogies to explain how data moves through the OSI layers, and compares the OSI and TCP/IP models. The TCP/IP model has fewer layers and is focused on interoperability rather than standards.
The document discusses millimeter wave communication in 5G cellular networks. It outlines the introduction, characteristics of millimeter wave networks, challenges and existing solutions, and conclusions. Millimeter wave networks offer advantages like large bandwidth and reduced hardware size but face limitations of higher attenuation and costs. Challenges include integration, interference management, and anti-blockage, which can be addressed by solutions such as phased array antennas and dynamic association algorithms. Millimeter wave communication is a promising technology for 5G networks to meet future mobile traffic demands.
DEVELOPMENT OF A SOFTWARE TOOL FOR PLANNING MICROWAVE SYSTEMS AT ABOVE 10 GHz, ESTIMATING CO-CHANNEL INTERFERENCE AND RAIN ATTENUAITON, USING ITU-MODEL ON MATLAB AND TO VALIDATE THE SOFTWARE AGAINST AN INDUSTRY STANDARD (CONNECT) TOOL”
The cellular concept divides a large service area into smaller cells served by low-power base stations to improve capacity and spectrum reuse. Each base station is allocated a group of radio channels for its cell. Areas are divided into hexagonal cells served by a central base station to allow frequencies to be reused efficiently while minimizing interference between adjacent cells. Handoff allows calls to be transferred between base stations as users move between cells to maintain call quality.
The document discusses the design of a microstrip patch antenna (MPA) resonating in the K-band frequency range (18-26GHz) using HFSS software. It provides an introduction to antennas and describes the basic structure of an MPA including the radiating patch, dielectric substrate, and ground plane. Design considerations for the MPA include selecting the rectangular patch shape and FR4 epoxy substrate material. The document outlines the design process in HFSS and lists some advantages and applications of MPAs for mobile/satellite communication systems. It concludes that the designed MPA exhibits good impedance matching at the center frequency and can be easily fabricated on an FR4 substrate.
The document discusses limitations of vacuum tubes at microwave frequencies. Key limitations include increased parasitic inductance and capacitance from electrode leads, which reduce efficiency. Transit time effects also limit bandwidth as electrons oscillate between electrodes. Gain-bandwidth product remains constant, requiring alternative designs like reentrant cavities. Overall, vacuum tubes face challenges amplifying signals above 1 GHz due to these inherent timescale limitations. Solid state devices like transistors addressed these issues and enabled widespread microwave applications.
This document discusses 5G technology and Non-Orthogonal Multiple Access (NOMA). It provides an overview of 5G, describing how 5G will enable higher data rates and bandwidth. NOMA is introduced as an emerging technology for 5G that uses power multiplexing to serve multiple users on the same time and frequency resources, providing higher spectral efficiency and lower latency compared to previous orthogonal multiple access techniques. The advantages of NOMA include higher throughput, massive connectivity, lower latency and improved quality of service. Potential applications discussed include supporting increased device connectivity for areas like the Internet of Things.
Phase modulation (PM) is a form of modulation where information is represented by variations in the instantaneous phase of a carrier wave. The phase angle of the complex envelope is changed in direct proportion to the message signal. PM can be considered a special case of FM where the carrier frequency modulation is given by the time derivative of the phase modulation. The bandwidth of PM for a single sinusoidal signal is approximately equal to the modulation index multiplied by the carrier frequency.
In this project, we are implementing a tool for calculating number of base stations required to meet LTE network coverage and capacity requirement. Coverage planning includes link budget analysis for calculating MAPL and then determining cell radius using RF propagation models. Capacity planning cares about service models and traffic models for calculating required throughput in the network, In addition, it is concerned with calculating cell throughput.
The document discusses millimeter wave communication in 5G cellular networks. It outlines the introduction, characteristics of millimeter wave networks, challenges and existing solutions, and conclusions. Millimeter wave networks offer advantages like large bandwidth and reduced hardware size but face limitations of higher attenuation and costs. Challenges include integration, interference management, and anti-blockage, which can be addressed by solutions such as phased array antennas and dynamic association algorithms. Millimeter wave communication is a promising technology for 5G networks to meet future mobile traffic demands.
DEVELOPMENT OF A SOFTWARE TOOL FOR PLANNING MICROWAVE SYSTEMS AT ABOVE 10 GHz, ESTIMATING CO-CHANNEL INTERFERENCE AND RAIN ATTENUAITON, USING ITU-MODEL ON MATLAB AND TO VALIDATE THE SOFTWARE AGAINST AN INDUSTRY STANDARD (CONNECT) TOOL”
The cellular concept divides a large service area into smaller cells served by low-power base stations to improve capacity and spectrum reuse. Each base station is allocated a group of radio channels for its cell. Areas are divided into hexagonal cells served by a central base station to allow frequencies to be reused efficiently while minimizing interference between adjacent cells. Handoff allows calls to be transferred between base stations as users move between cells to maintain call quality.
The document discusses the design of a microstrip patch antenna (MPA) resonating in the K-band frequency range (18-26GHz) using HFSS software. It provides an introduction to antennas and describes the basic structure of an MPA including the radiating patch, dielectric substrate, and ground plane. Design considerations for the MPA include selecting the rectangular patch shape and FR4 epoxy substrate material. The document outlines the design process in HFSS and lists some advantages and applications of MPAs for mobile/satellite communication systems. It concludes that the designed MPA exhibits good impedance matching at the center frequency and can be easily fabricated on an FR4 substrate.
The document discusses limitations of vacuum tubes at microwave frequencies. Key limitations include increased parasitic inductance and capacitance from electrode leads, which reduce efficiency. Transit time effects also limit bandwidth as electrons oscillate between electrodes. Gain-bandwidth product remains constant, requiring alternative designs like reentrant cavities. Overall, vacuum tubes face challenges amplifying signals above 1 GHz due to these inherent timescale limitations. Solid state devices like transistors addressed these issues and enabled widespread microwave applications.
This document discusses 5G technology and Non-Orthogonal Multiple Access (NOMA). It provides an overview of 5G, describing how 5G will enable higher data rates and bandwidth. NOMA is introduced as an emerging technology for 5G that uses power multiplexing to serve multiple users on the same time and frequency resources, providing higher spectral efficiency and lower latency compared to previous orthogonal multiple access techniques. The advantages of NOMA include higher throughput, massive connectivity, lower latency and improved quality of service. Potential applications discussed include supporting increased device connectivity for areas like the Internet of Things.
Phase modulation (PM) is a form of modulation where information is represented by variations in the instantaneous phase of a carrier wave. The phase angle of the complex envelope is changed in direct proportion to the message signal. PM can be considered a special case of FM where the carrier frequency modulation is given by the time derivative of the phase modulation. The bandwidth of PM for a single sinusoidal signal is approximately equal to the modulation index multiplied by the carrier frequency.
In this project, we are implementing a tool for calculating number of base stations required to meet LTE network coverage and capacity requirement. Coverage planning includes link budget analysis for calculating MAPL and then determining cell radius using RF propagation models. Capacity planning cares about service models and traffic models for calculating required throughput in the network, In addition, it is concerned with calculating cell throughput.
Here are the steps to solve this:
1) VZ = VBE3 (zener voltage is equal to BJT base-emitter voltage)
2) Using KVL: -VZ + VBE3 + IE3RE = 0
3) Simplify: IE3RE = 0
4) IE3 is constant
Therefore, with a zener diode replacing R2, the current IE3 (and thus IT) remains constant regardless of load or temperature variations. The zener diode acts to stabilize the BJT base-emitter voltage, keeping the current constant.
This document discusses different types of analog-to-digital converters (ADCs) and their specifications. It covers counter and successive approximation ADCs, with successive approximation requiring fewer clock cycles to convert an analog signal to a digital output. It also details ADC resolution, offset and full-scale error, differential and integral nonlinearity, which characterize how precisely the ADC converts analog values to digital codes.
Discussion of cutoff wavelength in optical fibres its defination measurements specifications optical fibre refractive index profiles, Total Internal Reflection, specifications for ITU G 657, 655A ,G655A,D
Line coding is used in optical fiber communication to encode digital signals for transmission by arranging signal symbols in a particular pattern. It involves converting binary data into an optical signal. The goals of line coding are to transmit binary data like voice, video or financial information over long distances using optical fiber with sufficient bandwidth. There are three main types of line coding: non-return-to-zero (NRZ), return-to-zero (RZ), and phase encoding (PE). NRZ represents 1s and 0s with different voltage levels but no neutral state, while RZ includes a neutral rest state between bits. PE converts blocks of input bits into code bits with added redundancy for error detection and correction.
This document summarizes the design of microwave filters using composite, m-derived, T-network, and π-network sections. It describes:
1) How constant-k sections have very slow attenuation rates and non-constant image impedances. M-derived sections are introduced to address this by replacing component values to obtain the same image impedance as the constant-k section.
2) The propagation constant and image impedance equations for low-pass and high-pass T-network and π-network constant-k and m-derived sections.
3) Composite filters formed by combining m-derived and constant-k sections act as proper filters with rapid initial attenuation that does not reduce at higher
This presentation provides an overview of Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing (DWDM) technology. It discusses the basic components and operation of a DWDM system, including terminal multiplexers and demultiplexers, optical amplifiers, transponders, reconfigurable optical add-drop multiplexers, and optical cross connects. It also covers topics like wavelength converting transponders, channel spacing, categories of wavelength switches, integrating DWDM with SONET, using DWDM for IP networks, and the value of DWDM in metropolitan areas. The presentation was given by Nitesh Srivastava from the ECE department.
The document describes the components and configuration of Ericsson's MINI-LINK TN radio access network system. It includes magazines that house plug-in modules, power filter units, fans, node processors, line termination units, Ethernet termination units, and modem units. The magazines come in various sizes to support different node types and capacities, and allow redundant power and modular plug-in modules.
Cellular communication systems have evolved through multiple generations from analog 1G to digital 4G systems. A cellular network is divided into geographical areas called cells served by base transceiver stations. Cells are grouped into clusters where frequencies are reused to allow for more subscribers. When making a call, the cellular phone registers with the local base station which routes the call through switching centers to establish communication with the intended recipient. Modern cellular networks support additional services beyond voice like texting, internet access, and location tracking through technologies like GSM that employ protocols like TDMA for efficient frequency usage.
The document discusses key concepts in cellular network design including:
1) The cellular concept divides a large service area into smaller cells served by low-power base stations to improve capacity compared to single transmitter systems.
2) Frequency reuse planning involves assigning different channel groups to neighboring cells to minimize interference while maximizing frequency reuse.
3) Handoff strategies are used to transfer calls between cells as users move, and guard channels and queuing can help reduce dropped calls.
4) Techniques like cell splitting, sectoring, and smaller cell zones can help improve coverage and capacity in congested areas without requiring additional spectrum.
The document discusses satellite link budgets. It explains that a link budget establishes the resources needed to achieve performance objectives like bit error rate and link availability. The key components of a satellite link that impact the link budget are described, including transmitting and receiving earth stations, the satellite, transmission losses, and noise sources. Equations are provided that calculate factors like equivalent isotropically radiated power, free space loss, antenna gain, transmission losses from rain, atmospheric absorption and noise temperature.
The document discusses various digital modulation formats including BPSK, QPSK, OQPSK, and π/4 QPSK. BPSK carries only 1 bit per symbol and has low bandwidth efficiency. QPSK carries 2 bits per symbol but has issues with zero crossing during transitions of 2 bits. OQPSK addresses this with a delay between in-phase and quadrature components to avoid 180 degree phase shifts. π/4 QPSK provides further improvements with phase shifts of up to 135 degrees, allowing for non-coherent detection and better performance in noisy environments. DQPSK first performs differential encoding before QPSK modulation to minimize transitions.
The document discusses the LEACH protocol and DECSA improvement for wireless sensor networks. It describes the two phases of LEACH - the set-up phase where cluster heads are chosen and the steady-state phase where data is transmitted. DECSA considers both distance and residual energy to select cluster heads, forming a three-level hierarchy. DECSA prolongs network lifetime by 31% and reduces energy consumption by 40% compared to the original LEACH protocol.
This document describes an experiment involving the study of microwave test benches and components. It discusses two microwave test benches that use either a klystron or Gunn diode as a signal source. It then lists and numbers 16 common active and passive microwave components that are part of the experiment, including isolators, magic tees, frequency meters, and slotted lines.
Millimeter wave 5G antennas for smartphonesPei-Che Chang
This document describes research on millimeter-wave antennas for 5G smartphones. It discusses several antenna designs for both 60 GHz and 28 GHz applications. For 60 GHz, a 2012 design integrated a 16-element phased array directly into a printed circuit board. Later designs in 2013 and 2017 explored integrating antenna arrays with reconfigurable polarization into mobile device chassis. A 2014 design proposed a 28 GHz mesh-grid patch antenna array for 5G cellular devices, demonstrating an 11 dBi gain array integrated into a Samsung phone. The document outlines various antenna designs, simulation and measurement results to enable millimeter-wave smartphone connectivity.
Unit 2 Attenuation bending loss- core cladding lossesjosephin Shermila
The document discusses two types of bending loss that can occur in optical fibers: macroscopic bending, which occurs when a fiber is bent with a radius larger than the core radius, and microbending, which is minimized by using a protective jacket around the fiber. It also mentions several factors that contribute to bending loss, such as the attenuation constant, radius of curvature, number of guided modes, and core and cladding properties between step index and graded index fibers that determine the loss experienced by each mode.
This narrated power point presentation attempts to explain the various dispersion mechanisms that are observed in optical fibers. Some fundamental terms and concepts are also discussed. The material will be useful for KTU final year B Tech students who prepare for the subject EC 405, Optical Communications.
This document discusses amplitude modulation and demodulation. It defines amplitude modulation as varying the amplitude of a carrier wave linearly with a message signal while keeping frequency and phase constant. Modulation is used to transmit signals over long distances and allow multiple signals over the same channel. Demodulation recovers the signal intelligence by reversing the modulation process through rectification and filtering. The document describes amplitude modulation and different types of AM demodulation techniques.
Datacom module 2: Data Communication Architecture, Protocols, and StandardsJeffrey Des Binwag
The document discusses network architectures, protocols, and standards. It covers topics like network architecture, data communication protocols, protocol stacks, network protocol classifications, layered network architectures like OSI and TCP/IP, and standards organizations. It provides definitions and explanations of key concepts in data communications and computer networking.
This document provides an overview of digital communication and covers several topics:
- It describes different types of transmission media including guided media like twisted pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber optic cable. It also covers unguided or wireless media.
- It discusses characteristics of different transmission media and how signals are transmitted through them. This includes concepts like attenuation, distortion, and noise.
- It defines key terms used to measure signal quality like decibels and signal-to-noise ratio.
Here are the steps to solve this:
1) VZ = VBE3 (zener voltage is equal to BJT base-emitter voltage)
2) Using KVL: -VZ + VBE3 + IE3RE = 0
3) Simplify: IE3RE = 0
4) IE3 is constant
Therefore, with a zener diode replacing R2, the current IE3 (and thus IT) remains constant regardless of load or temperature variations. The zener diode acts to stabilize the BJT base-emitter voltage, keeping the current constant.
This document discusses different types of analog-to-digital converters (ADCs) and their specifications. It covers counter and successive approximation ADCs, with successive approximation requiring fewer clock cycles to convert an analog signal to a digital output. It also details ADC resolution, offset and full-scale error, differential and integral nonlinearity, which characterize how precisely the ADC converts analog values to digital codes.
Discussion of cutoff wavelength in optical fibres its defination measurements specifications optical fibre refractive index profiles, Total Internal Reflection, specifications for ITU G 657, 655A ,G655A,D
Line coding is used in optical fiber communication to encode digital signals for transmission by arranging signal symbols in a particular pattern. It involves converting binary data into an optical signal. The goals of line coding are to transmit binary data like voice, video or financial information over long distances using optical fiber with sufficient bandwidth. There are three main types of line coding: non-return-to-zero (NRZ), return-to-zero (RZ), and phase encoding (PE). NRZ represents 1s and 0s with different voltage levels but no neutral state, while RZ includes a neutral rest state between bits. PE converts blocks of input bits into code bits with added redundancy for error detection and correction.
This document summarizes the design of microwave filters using composite, m-derived, T-network, and π-network sections. It describes:
1) How constant-k sections have very slow attenuation rates and non-constant image impedances. M-derived sections are introduced to address this by replacing component values to obtain the same image impedance as the constant-k section.
2) The propagation constant and image impedance equations for low-pass and high-pass T-network and π-network constant-k and m-derived sections.
3) Composite filters formed by combining m-derived and constant-k sections act as proper filters with rapid initial attenuation that does not reduce at higher
This presentation provides an overview of Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing (DWDM) technology. It discusses the basic components and operation of a DWDM system, including terminal multiplexers and demultiplexers, optical amplifiers, transponders, reconfigurable optical add-drop multiplexers, and optical cross connects. It also covers topics like wavelength converting transponders, channel spacing, categories of wavelength switches, integrating DWDM with SONET, using DWDM for IP networks, and the value of DWDM in metropolitan areas. The presentation was given by Nitesh Srivastava from the ECE department.
The document describes the components and configuration of Ericsson's MINI-LINK TN radio access network system. It includes magazines that house plug-in modules, power filter units, fans, node processors, line termination units, Ethernet termination units, and modem units. The magazines come in various sizes to support different node types and capacities, and allow redundant power and modular plug-in modules.
Cellular communication systems have evolved through multiple generations from analog 1G to digital 4G systems. A cellular network is divided into geographical areas called cells served by base transceiver stations. Cells are grouped into clusters where frequencies are reused to allow for more subscribers. When making a call, the cellular phone registers with the local base station which routes the call through switching centers to establish communication with the intended recipient. Modern cellular networks support additional services beyond voice like texting, internet access, and location tracking through technologies like GSM that employ protocols like TDMA for efficient frequency usage.
The document discusses key concepts in cellular network design including:
1) The cellular concept divides a large service area into smaller cells served by low-power base stations to improve capacity compared to single transmitter systems.
2) Frequency reuse planning involves assigning different channel groups to neighboring cells to minimize interference while maximizing frequency reuse.
3) Handoff strategies are used to transfer calls between cells as users move, and guard channels and queuing can help reduce dropped calls.
4) Techniques like cell splitting, sectoring, and smaller cell zones can help improve coverage and capacity in congested areas without requiring additional spectrum.
The document discusses satellite link budgets. It explains that a link budget establishes the resources needed to achieve performance objectives like bit error rate and link availability. The key components of a satellite link that impact the link budget are described, including transmitting and receiving earth stations, the satellite, transmission losses, and noise sources. Equations are provided that calculate factors like equivalent isotropically radiated power, free space loss, antenna gain, transmission losses from rain, atmospheric absorption and noise temperature.
The document discusses various digital modulation formats including BPSK, QPSK, OQPSK, and π/4 QPSK. BPSK carries only 1 bit per symbol and has low bandwidth efficiency. QPSK carries 2 bits per symbol but has issues with zero crossing during transitions of 2 bits. OQPSK addresses this with a delay between in-phase and quadrature components to avoid 180 degree phase shifts. π/4 QPSK provides further improvements with phase shifts of up to 135 degrees, allowing for non-coherent detection and better performance in noisy environments. DQPSK first performs differential encoding before QPSK modulation to minimize transitions.
The document discusses the LEACH protocol and DECSA improvement for wireless sensor networks. It describes the two phases of LEACH - the set-up phase where cluster heads are chosen and the steady-state phase where data is transmitted. DECSA considers both distance and residual energy to select cluster heads, forming a three-level hierarchy. DECSA prolongs network lifetime by 31% and reduces energy consumption by 40% compared to the original LEACH protocol.
This document describes an experiment involving the study of microwave test benches and components. It discusses two microwave test benches that use either a klystron or Gunn diode as a signal source. It then lists and numbers 16 common active and passive microwave components that are part of the experiment, including isolators, magic tees, frequency meters, and slotted lines.
Millimeter wave 5G antennas for smartphonesPei-Che Chang
This document describes research on millimeter-wave antennas for 5G smartphones. It discusses several antenna designs for both 60 GHz and 28 GHz applications. For 60 GHz, a 2012 design integrated a 16-element phased array directly into a printed circuit board. Later designs in 2013 and 2017 explored integrating antenna arrays with reconfigurable polarization into mobile device chassis. A 2014 design proposed a 28 GHz mesh-grid patch antenna array for 5G cellular devices, demonstrating an 11 dBi gain array integrated into a Samsung phone. The document outlines various antenna designs, simulation and measurement results to enable millimeter-wave smartphone connectivity.
Unit 2 Attenuation bending loss- core cladding lossesjosephin Shermila
The document discusses two types of bending loss that can occur in optical fibers: macroscopic bending, which occurs when a fiber is bent with a radius larger than the core radius, and microbending, which is minimized by using a protective jacket around the fiber. It also mentions several factors that contribute to bending loss, such as the attenuation constant, radius of curvature, number of guided modes, and core and cladding properties between step index and graded index fibers that determine the loss experienced by each mode.
This narrated power point presentation attempts to explain the various dispersion mechanisms that are observed in optical fibers. Some fundamental terms and concepts are also discussed. The material will be useful for KTU final year B Tech students who prepare for the subject EC 405, Optical Communications.
This document discusses amplitude modulation and demodulation. It defines amplitude modulation as varying the amplitude of a carrier wave linearly with a message signal while keeping frequency and phase constant. Modulation is used to transmit signals over long distances and allow multiple signals over the same channel. Demodulation recovers the signal intelligence by reversing the modulation process through rectification and filtering. The document describes amplitude modulation and different types of AM demodulation techniques.
Datacom module 2: Data Communication Architecture, Protocols, and StandardsJeffrey Des Binwag
The document discusses network architectures, protocols, and standards. It covers topics like network architecture, data communication protocols, protocol stacks, network protocol classifications, layered network architectures like OSI and TCP/IP, and standards organizations. It provides definitions and explanations of key concepts in data communications and computer networking.
This document provides an overview of digital communication and covers several topics:
- It describes different types of transmission media including guided media like twisted pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber optic cable. It also covers unguided or wireless media.
- It discusses characteristics of different transmission media and how signals are transmitted through them. This includes concepts like attenuation, distortion, and noise.
- It defines key terms used to measure signal quality like decibels and signal-to-noise ratio.
The document provides an overview of wireless networks and wireless communication technologies. It discusses the key elements of a wireless network including wireless hosts, base stations, wireless links, infrastructure and ad hoc modes. It also covers wireless link characteristics such as signal attenuation, interference and multipath propagation. Finally, it introduces common wireless network standards and protocols including IEEE 802.11 wireless LANs, wireless network characteristics such as the hidden terminal problem, and wireless multiple access protocols.
The data link layer provides services to the network layer such as framing data and applying error detection methods like parity checks, checksums and cyclic redundancy checks to frames. Common data link protocols are used at this layer.
The document discusses several networking concepts:
- Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) allows ISPs to allocate blocks of IP addresses to organizations in a more efficient manner than previous methods.
- Network Address Translation (NAT) allows a local network to use private IP address ranges behind a NAT-enabled router that maps the private addresses to a single public IP address for communication with external networks.
- Subnetting and Variable Length Subnet Masking (VLSM) allow networks to be divided into subnets to better utilize limited IP address blocks and assign addresses based on subnet needs.
- Supernetting combines multiple classful network blocks into larger supernets to more efficiently use address space.
The document describes routing algorithms used in computer networks. It discusses two main types of routing algorithms: link-state algorithms and distance-vector algorithms. Link-state algorithms use a complete map of the entire network topology to calculate the shortest paths between all nodes, while distance-vector algorithms use an iterative process where each router shares routing information with neighbors to determine the shortest paths. The document then provides examples of how Dijkstra's algorithm, a link-state algorithm, and the Bellman-Ford distance-vector algorithm work to calculate the optimal paths through a sample network.
Communication Architecture: The Experience is the MessageJavier Velasco, PhD
This is a presentation I gave at the 2005 Information Archtiecture Summit in Montreal. And later tweaked it a bit to present again in the Santa Cruz retreat in 2006.
Interrupts allow external events to suspend and later resume processes running on a computer. They improve processor utilization by allowing the operating system to interrupt running processes to respond to external events like user input or I/O device completion. There are different types of interrupts including program-generated, timer, I/O, and hardware failure interrupts. When an interrupt occurs, the CPU saves its context and executes an interrupt handling routine that calls the appropriate interrupt service routine to handle the interrupt before resuming the original process.
The document discusses LinkedIn's communication architecture and network updates service. It describes how LinkedIn built scalable communication platforms to support its large professional network. The system evolved from handling 0 to 22 million members. It uses Java, databases like Oracle and MySQL, application servers like Tomcat and Jetty, and technologies like ActiveMQ, Lucene and Spring. The communication service handles messages and email delivery while the network updates service distributes short-lived notifications across LinkedIn's various clients and services.
The document discusses the OSI reference model and TCP/IP reference model. The OSI model divides network architecture into seven layers - physical, data link, network, transport, session, presentation and application layer. The TCP/IP model has four layers - process/application layer, host-to-host layer, internet layer, and network access layer. The TCP/IP model was created by the US Department of Defense to allow networks to survive disruptions like nuclear war.
The document discusses the CCNA certification exam including details about the exam such as number of questions, duration, passing score, and benefits of obtaining the certification. It also provides an overview of networking concepts including the purpose of networking, networking devices, network interface cards, hubs, switches, routers, network topologies, LANs/WANs, virtual private networks, bandwidth, the OSI model, and IEEE 802 standards.
The document discusses the CCNA certification exam and provides details about its format, benefits, and requirements. It then covers networking concepts like network devices, topologies, protocols, and the OSI model. Key points include that the CCNA exam tests knowledge of networking fundamentals, has multiple choice and simulation questions, and benefits career advancement. It also defines common network components, topologies, and each layer of the OSI model.
The document discusses the CCNA certification exam including details about the exam such as number of questions, duration, passing score, and benefits of obtaining the certification. It also provides information about networking devices, topologies, standards, and the OSI model layers. Key topics covered include switches, routers, network topologies like star and bus, IEEE 802 standards, and an explanation of each of the seven layers of the OSI model.
The document discusses the CCNA certification exam including details about the exam such as number of questions, duration, passing score, and benefits of obtaining the certification. It also provides information about networking devices, topologies, protocols, and the OSI model layers. Key topics covered include switches, routers, network topologies like star and bus, the 7 layers of the OSI model and what each layer is responsible for, and how data is encapsulated as it moves through the layers from physical to application.
The document discusses networking concepts such as network topologies, devices, and the OSI model. It begins by explaining how businesses realized networking could increase productivity and save costs. It then describes common networking devices like NICs, hubs, switches, and routers. The document also covers standard network topologies and the layers of the OSI model, providing examples of how data is encapsulated as it travels through each layer.
A
PROJECT REPORT
On
CISCO CERTIFIED NETWORK ASSOCIATE
A computer network, or simply a network, is a collection of computer and other hardware components interconnected by communication channels that allow sharing of resources and information. Where at least one process in one device is able to send/receive data to/from at least one process residing in a remote device, then the two devices are said to be in a network. Simply, more than one computer interconnected through a communication medium for information interchange is called a computer network.
This document discusses layered network models, specifically the OSI model and TCP/IP model. It provides an overview of each layer in both models and their functions. The key points are:
- The OSI model defines 7 layers that break communication into smaller parts to simplify the process and allow different hardware/software to work together.
- The TCP/IP model has 4 layers - application, transport, internet, and network access. It is used widely on the internet.
- Each layer adds header information to data as it moves down the stack. This encapsulation allows communication between layers and across networks.
The document provides information about the CCNA certification exam, including the exam number, total marks, duration, passing score, question types, and benefits of obtaining the certification. It also discusses common networking devices like hubs, switches, routers, and network interface cards. Finally, it covers networking topics such as network topologies, the OSI model, TCP/IP protocols, WANs, LANs, and the IEEE 802 standards.
The document provides information about the CCNA certification exam, including the exam number, total marks, duration, passing score, question types, and benefits of obtaining the certification. It also discusses common networking devices, network interface cards, hubs, switches, routers, common network topologies, and the functions of LANs, MANs and WANs. Finally, it introduces the OSI model and its seven layers.
The document provides information about the CCNA certification exam, including the exam number, total marks, duration, passing score, question types, and benefits of obtaining the certification. It also discusses common networking devices, network interface cards, hubs, switches, routers, common network topologies, and the functions of local, metropolitan, and wide area networks. Finally, it introduces the OSI model and its seven layers, describing the function of each layer.
The document provides information about the CCNA certification exam, including the exam number, total marks, duration, passing score, question types, and benefits of obtaining the certification. It also discusses common networking devices, network interface cards, hubs, switches, routers, common network topologies, and the functions of local, metropolitan, and wide area networks. Finally, it introduces the OSI model and its seven layers, describing the function of each layer.
The document provides information about the CCNA certification exam, including the exam number, total marks, duration, passing score, question types, and benefits of obtaining the certification. It also discusses common networking devices, network interface cards, hubs, switches, routers, common network topologies, and the functions of LANs, MANs and WANs. Finally, it introduces the OSI model and its seven layers.
The document discusses layered network models including OSI and TCP/IP. It provides details on the layers of each model, the functions of each layer, and examples of protocols used. Key points covered include how data is encapsulated as it moves through the layers, with each layer adding header information, and how the layers allow for standardization and modularity in network communication.
This document provides an introduction to the OSI and TCP/IP network models. It describes the seven layers of the OSI model and the four layers of the TCP/IP model. It explains the functions of each layer, such as the transport layer providing reliable data delivery and the network layer providing network-wide addressing and routing. The document also discusses protocols like TCP, UDP, and IP that operate at different layers and how data is encapsulated as it passes through the layers.
The document provides information about networking certifications and the CCNA exam. It discusses the CCNA exam number, total marks, duration, passing score, number of questions, question types, and benefits of obtaining the certification. It also covers networking topics like data networks, networking devices, network interface cards, hubs, switches, routers, network topologies, LANs, WANs, virtual private networks, bandwidth, internetworking devices, network structure and hierarchy, IEEE 802 standards, and the OSI model.
This document provides an overview of the OSI and TCP/IP network models. It describes the seven layers of the OSI model and defines the functions of each layer. It also discusses the layers of the TCP/IP model and compares it to the OSI model. While TCP/IP does not strictly adhere to the seven-layer model, it incorporates similar functions. The document outlines the layers of both models and their similarities and differences, such as how TCP/IP combines some of the upper layers of OSI.
The document discusses network models and compares the OSI model and TCP/IP model. It provides details on the layers of the OSI model including the 7 layers from physical to application layer. It describes the functions of each layer such as physical dealing with raw bit transmission, data link framing bits into frames, network routing packets, transport ensuring reliable data delivery, session controlling connections, presentation translating between systems, and application providing user interfaces. It also summarizes the similarities and differences between the OSI and TCP/IP models.
Similar to Computer Communication Architecture (20)
This document discusses various computer arithmetic operations including addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division for signed magnitude and two's complement data representations. It describes the Booth multiplication algorithm, array multipliers for performing multiplication using combinational circuits, and the division algorithm. It also covers detecting divide overflow conditions.
The document provides an introduction to computer security including:
- The basic components of security such as confidentiality, integrity, and availability.
- Common security threats like snooping, modification, and denial of service attacks.
- Issues with security including operational challenges and human factors.
- An overview of security policies, access control models, and security models like Bell-LaPadula and Biba.
Cookies and sessions allow servers to remember information about users across multiple web pages. Cookies are small files stored on a user's computer that identify users and can store data to be accessed on subsequent page requests. Sessions use cookies to identify users and store temporary data on the server side to be accessed across multiple pages in one application, such as usernames or preferences. Both cookies and sessions must be started before any page output to ensure headers are sent before the page body.
This document discusses different aspects of functions in programming including declaring and calling functions, passing arguments to functions, and returning values from functions. It also covers variable scope. Some key points covered are declaring functions with and without arguments, specifying default values, returning single values or arrays from functions, and understanding variable scope and how it relates to the global and $GLOBALS keywords and array.
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1) Useful server variables for forms like QUERY_STRING and SERVER_NAME.
2) Accessing form parameters submitted to the server.
3) Processing forms with functions, including validating form data with techniques like checking for required fields and valid email addresses.
4) Displaying default values or error messages for form fields.
5) Stripping HTML tags from form inputs and encoding special characters for safe display.
The document provides examples of implementing each of these techniques.
The document discusses various programming concepts related to decision making and repetition in code including understanding true and false values, using if/elseif/else statements, equality and relational operators, logical operators, and using while and for loops to repeat code. Specific topics covered include evaluating booleans, making single and multi-line if statements, comparing different data types, negation, and printing select menus with loops.
This document discusses working with arrays in PHP. It covers array basics like creating and accessing arrays, looping through arrays with foreach and for loops, modifying arrays by adding/removing elements and sorting arrays. It also discusses multidimensional arrays, how to create them and access elements within them.
This document discusses text and numbers in programming. It covers defining and manipulating text strings using single or double quotes. Escape characters can be used inside strings. Text can be validated and formatted using various string functions like trim(), strlen(), strtoupper(), substr(), and str_replace(). Numbers can be integers or floats. Variables hold data and can be operated on with arithmetic and assignment operators like +, -, *, /, %, and .=. Variables can also be incremented, decremented, and placed inside strings.
This document provides an introduction and overview of PHP for beginners. It discusses PHP's use for building websites, how PHP code is run on web servers and accessed through browsers. It then highlights some key advantages of PHP like being free, cross-platform, and widely used. It demonstrates a basic "Hello World" PHP program and shows how to output HTML forms and formatted numbers. Finally, it outlines some basic rules of PHP programs regarding tags, syntax, whitespace, comments, and case sensitivity.
The document discusses capacity planning for a data warehouse environment. It notes that capacity planning is important given the large volumes of data and processing in a data warehouse. It describes factors that make capacity planning unique for a data warehouse, such as variable workloads and larger data volumes than operational systems. The document provides guidance on estimating disk storage needs, classifying and estimating processing workloads, creating workload profiles, identifying peak capacity needs, and selecting hardware capacity to meet needs.
Data warehousing involves assembling and managing data from various sources to provide an integrated view of enterprise information. A data warehouse contains consolidated, historical data used to support management decision making. It differs from operational databases by containing aggregated, non-volatile data optimized for queries rather than updates. The extract, transform, load (ETL) process migrates data from source systems to the warehouse, transforming it as needed. Process managers oversee loading, maintaining, and querying the warehouse data.
Search engines allow users to search the vast collection of documents on the web. They consist of crawlers that fetch web pages, indexers that analyze page content and links, and interfaces that allow users to enter queries. Crawlers add pages to an index by following links, and indexers create inverted indexes to map words to pages. When a query is searched, results are retrieved from the index and ranked based on relevance. PageRank is a key algorithm that ranks pages higher that receive more links from other highly ranked pages. While it effectively searches the large, diverse and dynamic web, search poses challenges in understanding ambiguous queries over an evolving collection.
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Information privacy and data mining
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The document discusses cluster analysis, which groups data objects into clusters so that objects within a cluster are similar but dissimilar to objects in other clusters. It describes key characteristics of clustering, including that it is unsupervised learning and the clusters are determined algorithmically rather than by humans. Various clustering algorithms are covered, including partitioning, hierarchical, density-based, and grid-based methods. Applications of clustering discussed include business intelligence, image recognition, web search, outlier detection, and biology. Requirements for effective clustering in data mining are also outlined.
Association analysis is a technique used to uncover relationships between items in transactional data. It involves finding frequent itemsets whose occurrence exceeds a minimum support threshold, and then generating association rules from these itemsets that satisfy minimum confidence. The Apriori algorithm is commonly used for this task, as it leverages the Apriori property to prune the search space - if an itemset is infrequent, its supersets cannot be frequent. It performs multiple database scans to iteratively grow frequent itemsets and extract high confidence rules.
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This document outlines a chapter on data preprocessing that discusses data types, attributes, and preprocessing tasks. It begins by defining data and attributes, then describes different types of attributes like nominal, binary, ordinal, and numeric attributes. It also discusses different types of datasets like records, documents, transactions, and graphs. The major section on data preprocessing outlines why it is important and describes tasks like data cleaning, integration, transformation, reduction, and discretization to prepare dirty or unstructured data for analysis.
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This document provides details about a course on data mining and data warehousing. The course objectives are to understand the foundational principles and techniques of data mining and data warehousing. The course description covers topics like data preprocessing, classification, association analysis, cluster analysis, and data warehouses. The course is divided into 10 units that cover concepts and algorithms for data mining techniques. Practical exercises are included to apply techniques to real-world data problems.
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Artificial Intelligence (AI) has revolutionized the creation of images and videos, enabling the generation of highly realistic and imaginative visual content. Utilizing advanced techniques like Generative Adversarial Networks (GANs) and neural style transfer, AI can transform simple sketches into detailed artwork or blend various styles into unique visual masterpieces. GANs, in particular, function by pitting two neural networks against each other, resulting in the production of remarkably lifelike images. AI's ability to analyze and learn from vast datasets allows it to create visuals that not only mimic human creativity but also push the boundaries of artistic expression, making it a powerful tool in digital media and entertainment industries.
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3. Why do we need the OSI Model?
3
To address the problem of networks increasing in size and in number, the
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) researched many
network schemes and recognized that there was a need to create a network
model
This would help network builders implement networks that could
communicate and work together
ISO therefore, released the OSI reference model in 1984.
4. Don’t Get Confused.
4
ISO - International Organization for Standardization
OSI - Open System Interconnection
IOS - Internetwork Operating System
To avoid confusion, some people say “International
Standard Organization.”
5. The OSI Reference Model
5
7 Application
6 Presentation
5 Session
4 Transport
3 Network
2 Data Link
1 Physical
The OSI Model will be used
throughout your entire
networking career!
Memorize it!
7. Layer 7 - The Application Layer
7
7 Application
6 Presentation
5 Session
4 Transport
3 Network
2 Data Link
1 Physical
This layer deal with
networking applications.
Examples:
Email
Web browsers
PDU - User Data
Each of the layers have Protocol Data Unit (PDU)
8. Layer 6 - The Presentation Layer
8
7 Application
6 Presentation
5 Session
4 Transport
3 Network
2 Data Link
1 Physical
This layer is responsible for
presenting the data in the
required format which may
include:
Code Formatting
Encryption
Compression
PDU - Formatted Data
9. Layer 5 - The Session Layer
9
7 Application
6 Presentation
5 Session
4 Transport
3 Network
2 Data Link
1 Physical
This layer establishes, manages, and
terminates sessions between two
communicating hosts.
Creates Virtual Circuit
Coordinates communication between systems
Organize their communication by offering
three different modes
Simplex
Half Duplex
Full Duplex
Example:
Client Software
( Used for logging in)
PDU - Formatted Data
10. Half Duplex
• It uses only one wire pair with a digital signal running in
both directions on the wire.
• It also uses the CSMA/CD protocol to help prevent
collisions and to permit retransmitting if a collision does
occur.
10
11. Full Duplex
11
In a network that uses twisted-pair cabling, one pair is used to carry the transmitted
signal from one node to the other node. A separate pair is used for the return or
received signal. It is possible for signals to pass through both pairs simultaneously.
The capability of communication in both directions at once is known as full duplex.
12. Layer 4 - The Transport Layer
12
7 Application
6 Presentation
5 Session
4 Transport
3 Network
2 Data Link
1 Physical
This layer breaks up the data from the
sending host and then reassembles it in the
receiver.
It also is used to insure reliable data
transport across the network.
Can be reliable or unreliable
Sequencing
Acknowledgment
Retransmission
Flow Control
PDU - Segments
13. Layer 3 - The Network Layer
13
7 Application
6 Presentation
5 Session
4 Transport
3 Network
2 Data Link
1 Physical
Sometimes referred to as the “Cisco Layer”.
End to End Delivery
Provide logical addressing that routers use for
path determination
Segments are encapsulated
Internetwork Communication
Packet forwarding
Packet Filtering
Makes “Best Path Determination”
Fragmentation
PDU – Packets – IP/IPX
14. Layer 2 - The Data Link Layer
Preamble DMAC SMAC Data length DATA FCS
14
7 Application
6 Presentation
5 Session
4 Transport
3 Network
2 Data Link
1 Physical
Performs Physical Addressing
This layer provides reliable transit of data
across a physical link.
Combines bits into bytes and
bytes into frames
Access to media using MAC address
Error detection, not correction
LLC and MAC
Logical Link Control performs Link
establishment
MAC Performs Access method
PDU - Frames
15. Layer 1 - The Physical Layer
15
7 Application
6 Presentation
5 Session
4 Transport
3 Network
2 Data Link
1 Physical
This is the physical media
through which the data,
represented as electronic signals,
is sent from the source host to
the destination host.
Move bits between devices
Encoding
PDU - Bits
18. OSI Model Analogy
Application Layer - Source Host
18
After riding your new bicycle a few times in Bangalore,
you decide that you want to give it to a friend who lives in
DADAR, Mumbai.
19. OSI Model Analogy
Presentation Layer - Source Host
19
Make sure you have the proper directions to disassemble
and reassemble the bicycle.
20. OSI Model Analogy
Session Layer - Source Host
20
Call your friend and make sure you have his correct
address.
21. OSI Model Analogy
Transport Layer - Source Host
21
Disassemble the bicycle and put different pieces in
different boxes. The boxes are labeled
“1 of 3”, “2 of 3”, and “3 of 3”.
22. OSI Model Analogy
Network Layer - Source Host
22
Put your friend's complete mailing address (and yours) on
each box.Since the packages are too big for your mailbox
(and since you don’t have enough stamps) you determine
that you need to go to the post office.
23. OSI Model Analogy
Data Link Layer – Source Host
23
Bangalore post office takes possession of the boxes.
25. OSI Model Analogy
Data Link Layer - Destination
25
Dadar post office receives your boxes.
26. OSI Model Analogy
Network Layer - Destination
26
Upon examining the destination address, Dadar
post office determines that your boxes should be
delivered to your written home address.
27. OSI Model Analogy
Transport Layer - Destination
27
Your friend calls you and tells you he got all 3 boxes and
he is having another friend named BOB reassemble the
bicycle.
28. OSI Model Analogy
Session Layer - Destination
28
Your friend hangs up because he is done talking to you.
29. OSI Model Analogy
Presentation Layer - Destination
29
BOB is finished and “presents” the bicycle to your friend.
Another way to say it is that your friend is finally getting
him “present”.
33. Why Another Model?
33
Although the OSI reference model is universally recognized, the
historical and technical open standard of the Internet is
Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol (TCP/IP).
The TCP/IP reference model and the TCP/IP protocol stack
make data communication possible between any two
computers, anywhere in the world, at nearly the speed of light.
The U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) created the TCP/IP
reference model because it wanted a network that could survive
any conditions, even a nuclear war.
35. Application Layer Overview
35
*Used by the Router
Application
Transport
Internet
Data-Link
Physical
File Transfer
- TFTP*
- FTP*
E-Mail
- SMTP
Remote Login
- Telnet*
- rlogin*
Network Management
- SNMP*
Name Management
- DNS*
36. Transport Layer Overview
36
Transmission Control
Protocol (TCP)
User Datagram
Protocol (UDP)
Application
Transport
Internet
Data-Link
Physical
Connection-
Oriented
Connectionless
38. Internet Layer Overview
• In the OSI reference model, the network layer
corresponds to the TCP/IP Internet layer.
38
Internet Protocol (IP)
Internet Control Message
Protocol (ICMP)
Address Resolution
Protocol (ARP)
Reverse Address
Resolution Protocol (RARP)
Application
Transport
Internet
Data-Link
Physical
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