Surface Traits
- Observable traits like kindness, honesty,
helpfulness etc.
- Manifestations of deeper source traits.
- More specific and narrow in scope.
Source Traits
- Underlying broad dispositions or
tendencies.
- Not directly observable but inferred from
surface traits.
- Fewer in number but better predictors of
behaviour.
2. Constitutional Traits vs. Environmental Mould Traits
Constitutional Traits
- Innate or biologically determined traits like
intelligence, temperament etc.
- Relatively fixed and not much influenced by
environment.
Environmental Mould Traits
- Traits acquired through learning and
experience.
IGNOU Super-Notes :: Psychology Super Notes, All About Psychology :: MPC3 Personality - Theories and Assessment_4 Assessment of Personality 2 Approaches to Personality Assessment
Raymond Cattell (1905-1998) broke personality traits into 16 categories using a statistical measure known as factor analysis to calculate the relationships among traits. Cattell hoped to determine how each trait influenced other traits in the same individual. For each of the 16 categories, Cattell measured a high end and a low end along a spectrum. For example, you might measure high on the cheerful - serious spectrum and low on the practical - imaginative spectrum.
Hans Eysenck was a German psychologist who developed a personality theory based on three traits: Psychoticism, Extraversion, and Neuroticism. These traits exist on continua and are influenced by genetics. Eysenck conducted studies using twins and brain imaging to support the biological basis of personality. He proposed a hierarchical model of personality with acts organizing into habits, traits, and factors. While popular, Eysenck's theory has been criticized for its lack of evidence and for questioning the predictive power of traits. Overall, the theory provided a descriptive and causal explanation of personality that has influenced many other theories.
This document summarizes Gordon Allport's trait theory of personality. Allport was the first psychologist to thoroughly study traits and personality. He developed his own trait theory which viewed traits as stable characteristics that influence behavior. Allport believed that individuals have unique personalities made up of different combinations of traits. He used both idiographic and nomothetic approaches to understand individuals and groups. Allport's trait theory emphasized the individual nature and evolution of personality traits over time.
1. Social psychology emerged as a new discipline in the 19th century and studies how individuals' thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by others in social situations.
2. Key figures in the early development of social psychology include Wilhelm Wundt, who published some of the first works on social psychology, and Edward Ross and William McDougall, who published early social psychology textbooks.
3. Social psychology expanded in topics studied from the 1940s-1980s, with important research conducted on attitudes and persuasion, prejudice, obedience, bystander intervention, gender disparities, and social cognition.
The document discusses schemas and prototypes in social psychology. It defines schemas as mental frameworks that help organize and interpret information. Schemas can be useful but can also lead to stereotypes. Prototypes are cognitive representations that exemplify the essential features of a category. The document provides examples of schemas and prototypes, and discusses how schemas can influence attention, memory, judgments and behavior through assimilation, accommodation and self-fulfilling prophecies. It also notes some problems with overreliance on schemas.
Gordon Allport's theory of personality emphasized the uniqueness of each individual. He believed traits formed the basic building blocks of personality and developed from habits gained through experience. Allport defined personality as the dynamic organization within a person of psychophysical systems that determine their characteristic behaviors and thoughts. He saw both conscious and unconscious factors as influencing personality. The theory focused on traits, intentions, and the proprium (personal values and identity) to describe individual personalities. While influential, critics found the theory too philosophical and not empirically validated.
Raymond Bernard Cattell was a British and American psychologist known for describing behavior and developing theories of intelligence and personality. He proposed two types of general intelligence: fluid intelligence, which involves abstract reasoning and decreases with age, and crystallized intelligence, which involves learned skills and knowledge and increases with age. Cattell also developed theories of personality, including the Big Five personality traits of openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism. Additionally, he proposed 16 primary personality factors and 5 global factors to comprehensively classify human personality. Cattell made major contributions through his extensive research and publication of over 500 articles and 50 books.
IGNOU Super-Notes :: Psychology Super Notes, All About Psychology :: MPC3 Personality - Theories and Assessment_4 Assessment of Personality 2 Approaches to Personality Assessment
Raymond Cattell (1905-1998) broke personality traits into 16 categories using a statistical measure known as factor analysis to calculate the relationships among traits. Cattell hoped to determine how each trait influenced other traits in the same individual. For each of the 16 categories, Cattell measured a high end and a low end along a spectrum. For example, you might measure high on the cheerful - serious spectrum and low on the practical - imaginative spectrum.
Hans Eysenck was a German psychologist who developed a personality theory based on three traits: Psychoticism, Extraversion, and Neuroticism. These traits exist on continua and are influenced by genetics. Eysenck conducted studies using twins and brain imaging to support the biological basis of personality. He proposed a hierarchical model of personality with acts organizing into habits, traits, and factors. While popular, Eysenck's theory has been criticized for its lack of evidence and for questioning the predictive power of traits. Overall, the theory provided a descriptive and causal explanation of personality that has influenced many other theories.
This document summarizes Gordon Allport's trait theory of personality. Allport was the first psychologist to thoroughly study traits and personality. He developed his own trait theory which viewed traits as stable characteristics that influence behavior. Allport believed that individuals have unique personalities made up of different combinations of traits. He used both idiographic and nomothetic approaches to understand individuals and groups. Allport's trait theory emphasized the individual nature and evolution of personality traits over time.
1. Social psychology emerged as a new discipline in the 19th century and studies how individuals' thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by others in social situations.
2. Key figures in the early development of social psychology include Wilhelm Wundt, who published some of the first works on social psychology, and Edward Ross and William McDougall, who published early social psychology textbooks.
3. Social psychology expanded in topics studied from the 1940s-1980s, with important research conducted on attitudes and persuasion, prejudice, obedience, bystander intervention, gender disparities, and social cognition.
The document discusses schemas and prototypes in social psychology. It defines schemas as mental frameworks that help organize and interpret information. Schemas can be useful but can also lead to stereotypes. Prototypes are cognitive representations that exemplify the essential features of a category. The document provides examples of schemas and prototypes, and discusses how schemas can influence attention, memory, judgments and behavior through assimilation, accommodation and self-fulfilling prophecies. It also notes some problems with overreliance on schemas.
Gordon Allport's theory of personality emphasized the uniqueness of each individual. He believed traits formed the basic building blocks of personality and developed from habits gained through experience. Allport defined personality as the dynamic organization within a person of psychophysical systems that determine their characteristic behaviors and thoughts. He saw both conscious and unconscious factors as influencing personality. The theory focused on traits, intentions, and the proprium (personal values and identity) to describe individual personalities. While influential, critics found the theory too philosophical and not empirically validated.
Raymond Bernard Cattell was a British and American psychologist known for describing behavior and developing theories of intelligence and personality. He proposed two types of general intelligence: fluid intelligence, which involves abstract reasoning and decreases with age, and crystallized intelligence, which involves learned skills and knowledge and increases with age. Cattell also developed theories of personality, including the Big Five personality traits of openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism. Additionally, he proposed 16 primary personality factors and 5 global factors to comprehensively classify human personality. Cattell made major contributions through his extensive research and publication of over 500 articles and 50 books.
The document discusses a new product launch for a company. It outlines key details about the product such as its features, benefits, and target customers. It also provides a high-level timeline for rolling out marketing and sales of the new product.
This document provides an overview of the psychology of aggression and violence. It begins with definitions of key terms like aggression, violence, and excitement. It then discusses various classifications and types of aggression, including hostile vs instrumental aggression. The document outlines several models of aggression, including biological, psychological, and social learning theories. It discusses various determinants of aggression including social, environmental, and situational factors. Finally, it proposes several methods for reducing aggression, such as punishment, catharsis, modeling non-aggressive behavior, teaching communication skills, building empathy, and aggression replacement training.
classical methods of psychophysics (Three methods)Dr Rajesh Verma
This document discusses classical methods of psychophysics developed by Fechner to measure the relationship between stimulus intensity and perception. It describes three main classical methods - the method of constant stimuli, method of limits, and method of adjustment. The method of constant stimuli involves presenting a range of stimulus intensities randomly and calculating the percentage of correct responses. The method of limits determines the detection limit by gradually increasing or decreasing the stimulus intensity. The method of adjustment involves subjects adjusting the stimulus intensity until a perception or disappearance is reached. These methods are used to measure absolute and differential thresholds.
Social cognition refers to how people process and respond to social information. It involves interpreting social cues, analyzing social situations, and remembering social information using mental structures called schemas. Schemas help organize our knowledge about social roles, people, and events. When making judgments with limited time and information, people rely on mental shortcuts called heuristics. However, social cognition is not always rational and can involve errors like unrealistic optimism and counterfactual thinking.
This document provides an overview of the nature and scope of social psychology. It discusses how social psychology examines social situational influences on individual psychology and behavior, as well as the mutual influence between individuals and situations. The scope of social psychology can be expansive, as it considers the influence of real or imagined others, as well as broader ecological and cultural factors. While related to sociology, social psychology focuses primarily on measuring psychological responses at the individual level through experimental methods. It also differentiates itself from personality psychology by emphasizing how situations and subjective perceptions shape outcomes more than stable personality traits.
Humanistic psychology focuses on studying the whole person and their uniqueness. It emphasizes personal agency or free will. A key figure was Abraham Maslow who developed the hierarchy of needs theory which explains that people are motivated to fulfill basic needs before advancing to other needs. Humanistic psychology believes people can solve problems collaboratively by combining ideas.
The humanistic perspective in psychology focuses on the uniqueness of each individual and their potential for growth. It emphasizes empathy, creativity, and free will. Key ideas include self-actualization as an innate drive towards achieving one's full potential. Major contributors were Abraham Maslow who developed the hierarchy of needs, and Carl Rogers who created client-centered therapy based on genuineness, positive regard, and empathy to facilitate self-actualization. The humanistic perspective emerged in the 1950s as a reaction to psychoanalysis and behaviorism.
personality traits are "enduring patterns of perceiving, relating to, and thinking about the environment and oneself that are exhibited in a wide range of social and personal contexts." A trait is what we call a characteristic way in which an individual perceives, feels, believes, or acts.
Trait theories are the following
Three trait theory
16 personality factor theory
Universal trait theory
Big five model
HEXACO model
The document discusses various types of test validity including reliability, validity, content validity, criterion validity, construct validity, and face validity. It explains that reliability refers to a test's consistency, validity refers to what a test claims to measure, and the two are related but distinct concepts. Validity is required for a test to be meaningful while reliability is also needed. Multiple factors must be considered when evaluating different aspects of test validity.
Psychological testing has evolved over centuries from early written exams in ancient China to modern standardized tests. Key developments include Binet's intelligence test in 1905, which introduced the concept of mental age, and the Stanford-Binet test in 1916, which established the intelligence quotient (IQ) formula. World War I saw the development of intelligence tests to screen army recruits. Spearman's two-factor theory from 1902 proposed that intelligence comprises a general factor (g) and specific factors, influencing the development of modern standardized testing.
Carl Jung founded analytical psychology, which views people as both conscious and unconscious, rational and irrational. He believed occult phenomena and inherited ancestral experiences influence individuals. The psyche contains personal experiences and collective archetypes. Dreams are a source of understanding the unconscious, which aims for wholeness. Jung characterized types by attitudes and functions, and developed stages of life. His theories organized observations but lacked falsifiability.
Social cognition involves how people think about themselves and the social world to make judgments and decisions. There are two types of thinking - automatic thinking which is quick and nonconscious, and controlled thinking which is deliberate and effortful. Schemas are mental structures that organize our knowledge about people and events. Schemas are useful but can also lead to biases as they influence what information we attend to and remember. Other cognitive shortcuts like heuristics and priming can also lead to errors in social cognition. Affect and cognition have a reciprocal relationship, as our feelings shape our thoughts and vice versa.
Cognitive psychology is the study of how people think. This chapter outlines the history of cognitive psychology from its philosophical roots in Plato and Aristotle through approaches like structuralism, functionalism, behaviorism, and Gestalt psychology. It describes the emergence of cognitive psychology due to challenges to behaviorism from researchers like Chomsky and Turing. The chapter then discusses common research methods in cognitive psychology like experiments, neuroimaging, self-reports, and computer modeling before concluding with key themes such as the interaction of cognitive processes and the need for diverse research methods.
The document discusses humanistic theories of personality, including:
1. Humanistic psychology focuses on free will and people's active role in determining behavior rather than definitive factors.
2. Theories emphasize subjective experiences and optimism about human nature.
3. Key figures Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers believed people strive for self-actualization and develop in a self-concept through interactions with others.
Norms provide a framework for interpreting test scores by comparing an individual's performance to that of a standardized sample. Raw scores on their own have little meaning. Norms are derived from standardization samples and can be expressed in various ways, including percentiles, standard scores, grade equivalents, and mental ages. Norms allow evaluation of an individual's relative standing but are specific to the normative population used.
This document discusses several key concepts in social perception:
1. Nonverbal communication plays an important role in social perception. Facial expressions, eye contact, body language, posture, and touching can all reveal emotional and mental states. Basic emotions are often expressed through specific facial movements.
2. Attribution refers to how people seek to understand the behaviors of others by inferring underlying traits or motives. Correspondent inference theory holds that behaviors perceived as freely chosen and distinctive are more likely to be attributed to internal traits. Kelley's theory examines how attribution is influenced by consensus, consistency, and distinctiveness.
3. Impression formation is the process by which people combine diverse information to form unified impressions of others. Initial
Western and eastern perspective of positive psychologyJosline Dsilva
The document discusses differences between Western and Eastern perspectives on concepts like the "good life" and happiness. Western views tend to emphasize individualism, autonomy, achievement, and future-oriented thinking, while Eastern views focus more on collectivism, cooperation, balance, harmony with nature, and respect for tradition and elders. The good life from a Western lens involves success, wealth and pursuing goals, whereas Eastern philosophies see an optimal life as a spiritual journey of transcendence involving compassion for others.
Gordon Allport developed one of the earliest theories of personality traits. He focused on the uniqueness of each individual and how their traits are shaped by present contexts rather than past history. Allport identified three levels of traits: cardinal traits that dominate a person's behavior, central traits that describe basic characteristics found in most people, and secondary traits that only appear in certain situations. Allport developed a list of over 4,500 trait words and believed traits could be observed and used to distinguish individuals' personalities.
The cognitive perspective focuses on internal mental processes like thinking and memory. Key aspects of this perspective include:
- Studying cognition, or how knowledge is acquired and organized mentally.
- Rejecting introspection and embracing the scientific method.
- Acknowledging the existence of internal mental states like beliefs and desires.
- Tracing its foundations to Gestalt psychology and Jean Piaget's work on child development.
- Being influenced by advancements in technology and computer science from the 1950s onward.
Major figures who contributed to the development of this perspective include Noam Chomsky, who argued psychology should study more than just behavior, and Aaron Beck, who pioneered cognitive therapy by
Definition and Concept of Personality and Personality DevelopmentPsychoTech Services
All About Psychology >>
Psychology Super-Notes >> Personality >> Personality Theories and Assessment >> Definition and Concept of Personality and Personality Development
Understanding of Self - Applied Social Psychology - Psychology SuperNotesPsychoTech Services
A proprietary approach developed by bringing together the best of learning theories from Psychology, design principles from the world of visualization, and pedagogical methods from over a decade of training experience, that enables you to: Learn better, faster!
The document discusses a new product launch for a company. It outlines key details about the product such as its features, benefits, and target customers. It also provides a high-level timeline for rolling out marketing and sales of the new product.
This document provides an overview of the psychology of aggression and violence. It begins with definitions of key terms like aggression, violence, and excitement. It then discusses various classifications and types of aggression, including hostile vs instrumental aggression. The document outlines several models of aggression, including biological, psychological, and social learning theories. It discusses various determinants of aggression including social, environmental, and situational factors. Finally, it proposes several methods for reducing aggression, such as punishment, catharsis, modeling non-aggressive behavior, teaching communication skills, building empathy, and aggression replacement training.
classical methods of psychophysics (Three methods)Dr Rajesh Verma
This document discusses classical methods of psychophysics developed by Fechner to measure the relationship between stimulus intensity and perception. It describes three main classical methods - the method of constant stimuli, method of limits, and method of adjustment. The method of constant stimuli involves presenting a range of stimulus intensities randomly and calculating the percentage of correct responses. The method of limits determines the detection limit by gradually increasing or decreasing the stimulus intensity. The method of adjustment involves subjects adjusting the stimulus intensity until a perception or disappearance is reached. These methods are used to measure absolute and differential thresholds.
Social cognition refers to how people process and respond to social information. It involves interpreting social cues, analyzing social situations, and remembering social information using mental structures called schemas. Schemas help organize our knowledge about social roles, people, and events. When making judgments with limited time and information, people rely on mental shortcuts called heuristics. However, social cognition is not always rational and can involve errors like unrealistic optimism and counterfactual thinking.
This document provides an overview of the nature and scope of social psychology. It discusses how social psychology examines social situational influences on individual psychology and behavior, as well as the mutual influence between individuals and situations. The scope of social psychology can be expansive, as it considers the influence of real or imagined others, as well as broader ecological and cultural factors. While related to sociology, social psychology focuses primarily on measuring psychological responses at the individual level through experimental methods. It also differentiates itself from personality psychology by emphasizing how situations and subjective perceptions shape outcomes more than stable personality traits.
Humanistic psychology focuses on studying the whole person and their uniqueness. It emphasizes personal agency or free will. A key figure was Abraham Maslow who developed the hierarchy of needs theory which explains that people are motivated to fulfill basic needs before advancing to other needs. Humanistic psychology believes people can solve problems collaboratively by combining ideas.
The humanistic perspective in psychology focuses on the uniqueness of each individual and their potential for growth. It emphasizes empathy, creativity, and free will. Key ideas include self-actualization as an innate drive towards achieving one's full potential. Major contributors were Abraham Maslow who developed the hierarchy of needs, and Carl Rogers who created client-centered therapy based on genuineness, positive regard, and empathy to facilitate self-actualization. The humanistic perspective emerged in the 1950s as a reaction to psychoanalysis and behaviorism.
personality traits are "enduring patterns of perceiving, relating to, and thinking about the environment and oneself that are exhibited in a wide range of social and personal contexts." A trait is what we call a characteristic way in which an individual perceives, feels, believes, or acts.
Trait theories are the following
Three trait theory
16 personality factor theory
Universal trait theory
Big five model
HEXACO model
The document discusses various types of test validity including reliability, validity, content validity, criterion validity, construct validity, and face validity. It explains that reliability refers to a test's consistency, validity refers to what a test claims to measure, and the two are related but distinct concepts. Validity is required for a test to be meaningful while reliability is also needed. Multiple factors must be considered when evaluating different aspects of test validity.
Psychological testing has evolved over centuries from early written exams in ancient China to modern standardized tests. Key developments include Binet's intelligence test in 1905, which introduced the concept of mental age, and the Stanford-Binet test in 1916, which established the intelligence quotient (IQ) formula. World War I saw the development of intelligence tests to screen army recruits. Spearman's two-factor theory from 1902 proposed that intelligence comprises a general factor (g) and specific factors, influencing the development of modern standardized testing.
Carl Jung founded analytical psychology, which views people as both conscious and unconscious, rational and irrational. He believed occult phenomena and inherited ancestral experiences influence individuals. The psyche contains personal experiences and collective archetypes. Dreams are a source of understanding the unconscious, which aims for wholeness. Jung characterized types by attitudes and functions, and developed stages of life. His theories organized observations but lacked falsifiability.
Social cognition involves how people think about themselves and the social world to make judgments and decisions. There are two types of thinking - automatic thinking which is quick and nonconscious, and controlled thinking which is deliberate and effortful. Schemas are mental structures that organize our knowledge about people and events. Schemas are useful but can also lead to biases as they influence what information we attend to and remember. Other cognitive shortcuts like heuristics and priming can also lead to errors in social cognition. Affect and cognition have a reciprocal relationship, as our feelings shape our thoughts and vice versa.
Cognitive psychology is the study of how people think. This chapter outlines the history of cognitive psychology from its philosophical roots in Plato and Aristotle through approaches like structuralism, functionalism, behaviorism, and Gestalt psychology. It describes the emergence of cognitive psychology due to challenges to behaviorism from researchers like Chomsky and Turing. The chapter then discusses common research methods in cognitive psychology like experiments, neuroimaging, self-reports, and computer modeling before concluding with key themes such as the interaction of cognitive processes and the need for diverse research methods.
The document discusses humanistic theories of personality, including:
1. Humanistic psychology focuses on free will and people's active role in determining behavior rather than definitive factors.
2. Theories emphasize subjective experiences and optimism about human nature.
3. Key figures Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers believed people strive for self-actualization and develop in a self-concept through interactions with others.
Norms provide a framework for interpreting test scores by comparing an individual's performance to that of a standardized sample. Raw scores on their own have little meaning. Norms are derived from standardization samples and can be expressed in various ways, including percentiles, standard scores, grade equivalents, and mental ages. Norms allow evaluation of an individual's relative standing but are specific to the normative population used.
This document discusses several key concepts in social perception:
1. Nonverbal communication plays an important role in social perception. Facial expressions, eye contact, body language, posture, and touching can all reveal emotional and mental states. Basic emotions are often expressed through specific facial movements.
2. Attribution refers to how people seek to understand the behaviors of others by inferring underlying traits or motives. Correspondent inference theory holds that behaviors perceived as freely chosen and distinctive are more likely to be attributed to internal traits. Kelley's theory examines how attribution is influenced by consensus, consistency, and distinctiveness.
3. Impression formation is the process by which people combine diverse information to form unified impressions of others. Initial
Western and eastern perspective of positive psychologyJosline Dsilva
The document discusses differences between Western and Eastern perspectives on concepts like the "good life" and happiness. Western views tend to emphasize individualism, autonomy, achievement, and future-oriented thinking, while Eastern views focus more on collectivism, cooperation, balance, harmony with nature, and respect for tradition and elders. The good life from a Western lens involves success, wealth and pursuing goals, whereas Eastern philosophies see an optimal life as a spiritual journey of transcendence involving compassion for others.
Gordon Allport developed one of the earliest theories of personality traits. He focused on the uniqueness of each individual and how their traits are shaped by present contexts rather than past history. Allport identified three levels of traits: cardinal traits that dominate a person's behavior, central traits that describe basic characteristics found in most people, and secondary traits that only appear in certain situations. Allport developed a list of over 4,500 trait words and believed traits could be observed and used to distinguish individuals' personalities.
The cognitive perspective focuses on internal mental processes like thinking and memory. Key aspects of this perspective include:
- Studying cognition, or how knowledge is acquired and organized mentally.
- Rejecting introspection and embracing the scientific method.
- Acknowledging the existence of internal mental states like beliefs and desires.
- Tracing its foundations to Gestalt psychology and Jean Piaget's work on child development.
- Being influenced by advancements in technology and computer science from the 1950s onward.
Major figures who contributed to the development of this perspective include Noam Chomsky, who argued psychology should study more than just behavior, and Aaron Beck, who pioneered cognitive therapy by
Definition and Concept of Personality and Personality DevelopmentPsychoTech Services
All About Psychology >>
Psychology Super-Notes >> Personality >> Personality Theories and Assessment >> Definition and Concept of Personality and Personality Development
Understanding of Self - Applied Social Psychology - Psychology SuperNotesPsychoTech Services
A proprietary approach developed by bringing together the best of learning theories from Psychology, design principles from the world of visualization, and pedagogical methods from over a decade of training experience, that enables you to: Learn better, faster!
applications of personality theories.pptxSandhiyaK11
Personality theories can be applied in several contexts. They provide frameworks for understanding individual behaviors and developing tailored counseling, education, and career guidance. Personality assessments also help with hiring, creating effective work teams, and motivating employees. Understanding personality traits allows for self-awareness and identifying areas of personal development. While not definitive, personality theories offer useful lenses for examining human psychology and behavior.
The document discusses personality and theories of personality. It defines personality and describes key characteristics. It then outlines several theories of personality, including:
- Psychoanalytic theory proposed by Sigmund Freud which views personality as formed by the interaction of the id, ego, and superego. The id seeks instinctual gratification, the superego acts as a moral constraint, and the ego balances the demands of the two.
- Type approaches which classify personalities into defined types based on traits like temperament. Approaches discussed include those of Hippocrates, Kretschmer, and Sheldon.
- Jung's approach which categorizes personalities as introverts or extraverts based on sociability and other
The document provides an overview of the field of psychology, including definitions of key terms like psychology, the brain, mind, and mental states. It discusses various areas of psychology like abnormal psychology, clinical psychology, counseling psychology, industrial/organizational psychology, and disorders usually diagnosed in childhood. Research methods and the multi-axial diagnostic system are also summarized.
This document discusses personality, including definitions, factors that shape personality, and how psychologists understand and assess personality. It provides definitions of personality as enduring characteristics that produce consistency and individuality, as well as the sum of characteristics that differentiate people. It discusses trait, psychodynamic, behavioral, and humanistic theories of personality. It also outlines methods that psychologists use to assess personality, including interviews, observation, and psychological tests such as self-report measures and projective tests.
1) Freud's psychoanalytic theory views personality as formed by the interaction between the id, ego, and superego. The id seeks pleasure, the ego balances demands, and the superego acts as a moral conscience.
2) Trait theory sees personality as a combination of stable traits that are consistent over time and situations. The Big Five model identifies openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism.
3) Humanistic theory emphasizes people's inherent goodness and ability to improve. Rogers saw the self-concept as shaped by others and the ideal self, with unconditional positive regard enabling self-actualization.
PERSONALITY AND ITS TRAITS IN ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR.pptxSimran694824
Sure, here's a description for the concept of personality and its trait presentation:
**Personality:**
Personality refers to the unique pattern of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that distinguish one individual from another. It encompasses various psychological characteristics that shape how individuals perceive and interact with the world around them. Personality is often viewed as relatively stable over time but can also be influenced by experiences, environments, and developmental factors.
**Trait Presentation:**
Trait presentation refers to the observable manifestation of personality traits in an individual's behavior, demeanor, and interpersonal interactions. Traits are enduring characteristics that predispose individuals to behave in consistent ways across different situations. Trait presentation can vary widely among individuals and is influenced by factors such as genetics, upbringing, culture, and personal experiences.
Trait presentation can be assessed and described using various frameworks, such as the Five-Factor Model (FFM), which includes dimensions such as openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism. Each person's unique combination of traits contributes to their distinct personality profile and how they are perceived by others. Understanding trait presentation can provide valuable insights into individual differences and inform interactions, relationships, and personal development efforts.
This document provides an overview of personality for physiotherapy and nursing students. It defines personality as the total quality of an individual's behavior and discusses its components like maturation, growth, and learning. It describes several theories of personality including trait theory, psychoanalytic theory, psychosocial theory, and humanistic theory. It also outlines different methods of assessing personality such as interviews, questionnaires, and projective techniques. Finally, it discusses some alterations in personality including paranoid, schizotypal, borderline, narcissistic, avoidant, dependent, and obsessive-compulsive personality disorders.
Unit 04 personality in educational psychologyDARSGHAH
Unit 04 personality in educational psychology Course code 0840 Educational psychology from ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY ISLAMABAD.
prepared by Ms. SAMAN BIBI & Mariam Rafique
Personality disorders are enduring patterns of inner experiences and behaviors that deviate from a person's culture. The DSM groups personality disorders into three clusters based on behaviors: cluster A exhibits odd behavior, cluster B exhibits dramatic behavior, and cluster C exhibits anxious behavior. Common personality disorders include borderline, narcissistic, avoidant, and obsessive-compulsive personality disorders.
Positive feelings come from being honest about yourself and accepting your personality, and physical characteristics, warts and all; and, from belonging to a family that accepts you without question.
Willard Scott
This document provides an introduction to personality theory. It discusses how psychologists differ in their definitions of personality but generally see it originating from the Latin word "persona." While theorists lack agreement on a single definition, they have developed unique theories. The document defines personality as a set of psychological traits and mechanisms that are relatively enduring and influence how a person interacts with their intrapsychic, physical, and social environments. It discusses key aspects of various personality theories and perspectives, including psychodynamic, humanistic-existential, dispositional, biological-evolutionary, and social-cognitive approaches. Finally, it covers dimensions that theories of humanity consider, such as determinism vs. free will and the role of heredity vs.
HUMANISTIC APPROACH TO LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENTSimran Mondal
The humanistic approach emerged in reaction to more pessimistic theories and focuses on free will, personal growth, and fulfilling one's potential. Key figures Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow believed people are inherently good and strive for self-actualization. Rogers described the ideal self and congruence between real and ideal selves as important for growth. Maslow's hierarchy of needs proposes basic needs must be met before pursuing higher-level growth needs and self-actualization. However, the humanistic approach lacks empirical evidence and standardization, and its focus on subjectivity makes research difficult.
This document provides an introduction to transactional analysis, which is a technique used to better understand interpersonal relationships and behavior. It discusses key concepts in transactional analysis, including analysis of self-awareness using the Johari window model, analysis of ego states (parent, adult, child), analysis of transactions between ego states, script analysis, analysis of life positions, stroking as a way people seek recognition, and analysis of common psychological games people play. The overall purpose of transactional analysis is to improve understanding of oneself and others in interpersonal interactions.
Transactional analysis is a technique for understanding interpersonal behavior and relationships. It was introduced by Eric Berne and focuses on analyzing self-awareness, ego states, transactions, scripts, life positions, stroking, and games. The key concepts are that people interact through three ego states - parent, adult, and child - and that transactions occur between two people based on their ego states. Transactional analysis aims to improve self-awareness and interpersonal communication.
Transactional analysis is a technique for understanding interpersonal behavior and relationships. It was introduced by Eric Berne and focuses on analyzing self-awareness, ego states, transactions, scripts, life positions, stroking, and games. The key concepts are that people interact through three ego states - parent, adult, and child - and that transactions occur between two people based on their ego states. Transactional analysis aims to improve self-awareness and interpersonal communication.
This document discusses self-concept and its development. It defines self-concept as an individual's thoughts and beliefs about themselves, and notes it has cognitive, behavioral, and affective aspects. The development of self-concept occurs across the lifespan as individuals internalize feedback and social roles. Factors like health, experiences, and culture can influence self-perception. The nursing process can be used to assess and support patients with altered self-concepts through strengthening coping skills and maintaining dignity.
All About Psychology >>
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Phosphorus, is intensely sensitive to ‘other worlds’ and lacks the personal boundaries at every level. A Phosphorus personality is susceptible to all external impressions; light, sound, odour, touch, electrical changes, etc. Just like a match, he is easily excitable, anxious, fears being alone at twilight, ghosts, about future. Desires sympathy and has the tendency to kiss everyone who comes near him. An insane person with the exaggerated idea of one’s own importance.
Congestive Heart failure is caused by low cardiac output and high sympathetic discharge. Diuretics reduce preload, ACE inhibitors lower afterload, beta blockers reduce sympathetic activity, and digitalis has inotropic effects. Newer medications target vasodilation and myosin activation to improve heart efficiency while lowering energy requirements. Combination therapy, following an assessment of cardiac function and volume status, is the most effective strategy to heart failure care.
The Children are very vulnerable to get affected with respiratory disease.
In our country, the respiratory Disease conditions are consider as major cause for mortality and Morbidity in Child.
Selective alpha1 blockers are Prazosin, Terazosin, Doxazosin, Tamsulosin and Silodosin majorly used to treat BPH, also hypertension, PTSD, Raynaud's phenomenon, CHF
CLASSIFICATION OF H1 ANTIHISTAMINICS-
FIRST GENERATION ANTIHISTAMINICS-
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TRIPROLIDINE,CLEMASTINE
SECOND GENERATION ANTIHISTAMINICS-FEXOFENADINE,
LORATADINE,DESLORATADINE,CETIRIZINE,LEVOCETIRIZINE,
AZELASTINE,MIZOLASTINE,EBASTINE,RUPATADINE. Mechanism of action of 2nd generation antihistaminics-
These drugs competitively antagonize actions of
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Antagonism of histamine-The H1 antagonists effectively block histamine induced bronchoconstriction, contraction of intestinal and other smooth muscle and triple response especially wheal, flare and itch. Constriction of larger blood vessel by histamine is also antagonized.
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Breast cancer :Receptor (ER/PR/HER2 NEU) Discordance.pptxDr. Sumit KUMAR
Receptor Discordance in Breast Carcinoma During the Course of Life
Definition:
Receptor discordance refers to changes in the status of hormone receptors (estrogen receptor ERα, progesterone receptor PgR, and HER2) in breast cancer tumors over time or between primary and metastatic sites.
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Biopsies:
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Understanding and managing receptor discordance is essential for optimizing treatment outcomes and improving the prognosis for breast cancer patients.
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This presentation explores the pivotal role of Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) spectroscopy in predicting protein structures. It delves into the methodologies, advancements, and applications of NMR in determining the three-dimensional configurations of proteins, which is crucial for understanding their function and interactions.
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5. Psychology Super-NotesPsychoTech Services Psychology Learners 5
State and Trait Approaches To Personality >> Traits and Types
Theories of
Personality
Type (State) and
Trait Approaches
Dynamic
Approaches
Learning &
Behavioural
Approaches
Humanistic
Approaches
Focus of this document
6. Psychology Super-NotesPsychoTech Services Psychology Learners 6
Traits and Types
State and Trait Approaches To Personality >> Traits and Types
Trait Approach
• Traits are descriptive terms that represent
characteristics that lead people to behave
in more or less distinctive and consistent
ways across situations.
• Example: wilful, determined, flamboyant,
strong, impulsive etc.
• Assumes that there are continuous
dimensions such as warmth, extraversion,
etc. that vary in quality as well as degree.
• Attempts to explain personality and
differences between people in terms of
their personality traits
• Uses these measures for understanding and
predicting a person’s behaviour.
Type Approach
• Type is a class of individuals said to share
a common collection of characteristics.
• Example: Introverts, Extraverts.
• Typologies are groupings/sets of types.
• The earliest effort to explain human
behaviour involved the use of personality
typologies, which classified behaviour into
discrete, all-or-nothing categories.
• An attempt was made to make sense of a
person’s behaviour, and on that basis
predict future behaviour.
• Assumes that there are separate, and
discontinuous categories into which
individuals fit
• Attempts to explain personality and
differences between people in terms of
their personality types
• Uses these measures for understanding and
predicting a person’s behaviour.
7. Psychology Super-NotesPsychoTech Services Psychology Learners
Definition and Concept of Personality and Personality Development >> Contents
Contents
7
Approaches to Personality
1. Type
Approaches
1.1. Four Humor Theory
1.2. Sheldon’s Somatotypes
1.3. MBTI
2. Trait
Approaches
2.1. Allport’s Trait Approach
2.2. Cattell’s Trait Approach
2.3. Eysenck’s Type/ Trait
Hierarchy
2.4. Guilford’s Trait Theory
2.5. Five Factor Model
8. Psychology Super-NotesPsychoTech Services Psychology Learners 8
State and Trait Approaches To Personality >> Type Approaches to Personality
1. Type Approaches To Personality
Critique
• Type approach to personality fails to provide a satisfactory classification system
because all people cannot be fitted into prescribed types.
• Types are not descriptive of the persons – they ignore the uniqueness of individuals
by placing them into a preconceived category.
Type Approaches
to Personality
1.1. Four Humor
Theory
1.2. Sheldon’s
Somatotypes
1.3. MBTI
9. Psychology Super-NotesPsychoTech Services Psychology Learners 9
State and Trait Approaches To Personality >> Type Approaches to Personality
1.1. Four Humor Theory
• Hippocrates a Greek Physician circa 400 B.C. (and later on Galen) classified individuals into four
exclusive types according to four basic internal fluids or humors each associated with a
particular temperament (see diagram below )
• The dominance of any one fluid led to a particular personality temperament
Later, on the basis of observation of patients, Hippocrates pointed out that people with short and thick bodies were
prone to stroke and those with tall, thin bodies to tuberculosis.
Blood –
Sanguine
temperament
(cheerful and active)
Phlegm –
Phlegmatic
temperament
(apathetic and
sluggish)
Black Bile -
Melancholic
temperament
(sad and brooding)
Yellow Bile –
Choleric temperament
(irritable and excitable)
Four Humors
Critique
The theory was popular
for centuries, though
now it has been
established by scientific
research that
personality and moods
are not driven by bodily
fluids.
10. Psychology Super-NotesPsychoTech Services Psychology Learners 10
State and Trait Approaches To Personality >> Type Approaches to Personality
1.2. Sheldon’s Somatotypes
• William Sheldon, an American Physician tried to relate physique to temperament.
• On the basis of somatotype (body build), he assigned each individual to one of the
three categories ectomorphs are, endomorphs are whereas mesomorphs are.
• Sheldon’s theory has not been substantiated and has proved of little value in predicting
individual behaviour (Tylor, 1965). In addition, people belonged to many different shape
and size and not all can be fitted to the Sheldon’s three types.
Somatotype Endomorphs
• Persons who are fat,
round and soft.
Ectomorphs
• Persons who are tall,
thin and fragile.
Mesomorphs
• Persons who are
strong, muscular and
rectangular.
Temperament • Relaxed, fond of
eating, sleeping and
sociable
• Artistic, brainy and
introverted
• Affective, dominant,
filled with energy and
courage
11. Psychology Super-NotesPsychoTech Services Psychology Learners 11
State and Trait Approaches To Personality >> Type Approaches to Personality
1.3. Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
• MBTI is a modern typology based upon Carl Jung’s theory of personality types.
• Using MBTI, individual’s self-reported preferences are used to assess four dimensions of
personality:
• MBTI identifies 16 personality types using Jung’s dichotomies
of E-I, S-N and T-F, and Isobel Myer’s dichotomy of J-P.
• A person taking MBTI, is assigned one pole of each dichotomy
and the combination of dichotomies would determine which
of the sixteen types best describes him.
• For example, a person described as ESFP (Extraverted-
Sensing-Feeling-Perception) would be characterised as
outgoing, easy-going, accepting, and friendly. And would be
considered best for situations that need sound common sense
and practical ability with people as well as with things.
Advantages
• Its categories are distinct or discontinuous
• People of any one type are very much like each other, and can
be distinguished from other types.
Critique
• While the four dimensions are informative, persons should be
described according to their actual scores on each
dimension rather then being mixed into types.
E-I
Extraversion-
Introversion
S-N
Sensing-
iNtuition
T-F
Thinking-
Feeling
J-P
Judging-
Perceiving
12. Psychology Super-NotesPsychoTech Services Psychology Learners
Definition and Concept of Personality and Personality Development >> Contents
Contents
12
Approaches to Personality
1. Type
Approaches
1.1. Four Humor Theory
1.2. Sheldon’s Somatotypes
1.3. MBTI
2. Trait
Approaches
2.1. Allport’s Trait Approach
2.2. Cattell’s Trait Approach
2.3. Eysenck’s Type/ Trait
Hierarchy
2.4. Guilford’s Trait Theory
2.5. Five Factor Model
13. Psychology Super-NotesPsychoTech Services Psychology Learners 13
2. Trait Approaches/Theories
State and Trait Approaches To Personality >> Trait Approaches to Personality
Trait Approaches
to Personality
2.1. Allport’s
Trait Approach
2.2. Cattell’s
Trait Approach
2.3. Eysenck’s
Type/ Trait
Hierarchy
2.4. Guilford’s
Trait Theory
2.5. Five Factor
Model
14. Psychology Super-NotesPsychoTech Services Psychology Learners
Definition and Concept of Personality and Personality Development >> Contents
Contents
14
Approaches to Personality
1. Type
Approaches
1.1. Four Humor Theory
1.2. Sheldon’s Somatotypes
1.3. MBTI
2. Trait
Approaches
2.1. Allport’s Trait Approach
2.2. Cattell’s Trait Approach
2.3. Eysenck’s Type/ Trait
Hierarchy
2.4. Guilford’s Trait Theory
2.5. Five Factor Model
15. Psychology Super-NotesPsychoTech Services Psychology Learners 15
2.1. Allport’s Trait Approach (1/3)
• Allport is regarded as one of the most important and influential personality theorists. He is known
as idiographic trait theorist with a strong belief that each person has some unique as well as
some common characteristics that together form a unique combination of traits.
• According to him,
− Traits are the building blocks of personality as well as the source of individuality.
− Trait is something that exists but remains invisible. It is located somewhere in the nervous
system (Ryckman, 1993).
− All the individual traits (pg. 15) together form the structure of personality which, in turn,
determines the behaviour of an individual.
− Only by focussing upon the uniqueness of the individual, a scientific and substantial
understanding of personality is possible.
State and Trait Approaches To Personality >> Trait Approaches to Personality
Definition of Traits – The Lexical Approach
• Allport created a list of about 18,000 words
from the English Dictionary that described
personal traits (Alport & Odbert, 1936).
• On the basis of these words, attempt was
made to create an extensive list of traits
like dominance, friendliness, self-esteem,
etc.
• This is called lexical approach to define
personality traits
Proprium
• Allport held that personality is not a mere
bundle of unrelated traits, rather it embodies
a unity, consistency and integration of
traits.
• This integration work is accomplished by
self or ‘Proprium’ as he called it.
• The Proprium or self develops continuously
from infancy to death, and during this period
it moves through a series of stages.
16. Psychology Super-NotesPsychoTech Services Psychology Learners 16
2.1. Allport’s Trait Approach (2/3)
State and Trait Approaches To Personality >> Trait Approaches to Personality
Identification of Traits
• The existence of a trait is inferred
by observing consistencies in the
behaviour of the person.
• Dissimilar stimuli tend to arouse a
trait readiness within the person
and then trait manifests itself
through the varieties of different
responses.
• All these responses are equivalent
as they serve the function of
expression of trait.
• Example: An employee working in
your office. His shyness is inferred
from his inability to establish
friendship with others, avoidance
of employees’ social gatherings,
enjoyment of solitary
entertainment activities and
unwillingness to participate in
discussions etc.
Motivational and Stylistic Traits
• Motivational Traits:
• All types of individual traits
(see next page) are dynamic
as they possess motivational
power.
• Those individual traits or
dispositions which are
intensely experienced are
said to be more
motivational.
• Stylistic Traits: Those individual
traits which are less intensively
experienced though possessing
more motivational power are
said to be stylistic.
• Whether motivational or stylistics,
some individual traits are close
to the core of the person’s
personality whereas some are at
the periphery.
17. Psychology Super-NotesPsychoTech Services Psychology Learners 17
2.1. Allport’s Trait Approach (3/3)
Allport divided traits into the following major categories:
State and Trait Approaches To Personality >> Trait Approaches to Personality
TypesofTraits
Common Traits
Individual Traits
Cardinal Traits
Central Traits
Secondary Traits
Common Traits
• Those traits which we share in common
with many others in our culture.
• For example being quiet, showing due
respect to seniors and polite behaviour are
traits we share with others in Indian culture.
Individual Traits or Personal
Dispositions
• Those traits which are unique to
the person concerned.
• Allport regarded individual traits
to be more important than
common traits.
Cardinal Traits
• A trait which is so pervasive, dominant and outstanding
in life that every behaviour seems traceable to it.
• Most people do not have cardinal traits, but those who
have them, their entire behaviour is dominated by it.
• Example: Mahatma Gandhi’s cardinal traits – he was
peace-loving and had strong faith in non-violence
Central Traits
• Those traits which are generally listed in a
letters of recommendation.
• Any trait like friendliness, dominance, self-
centeredness would be the example of central
trait.
• Every person has several central traits and
there are five to ten most outstanding traits in
each person around which a person’s life
focuses.
Secondary Traits
• Traits which are less conspicuous, less consistent, less generalised
and less relevant to the definition of personality.
• Example, food habits, hair style, and specific attitudes are examples of
secondary traits.
18. Psychology Super-NotesPsychoTech Services Psychology Learners
Definition and Concept of Personality and Personality Development >> Contents
Contents
18
Approaches to Personality
1. Type
Approaches
1.1. Four Humor Theory
1.2. Sheldon’s Somatotypes
1.3. MBTI
2. Trait
Approaches
2.1. Allport’s Trait Approach
2.2. Cattell’s Trait Approach
2.3. Eysenck’s Type/ Trait
Hierarchy
2.4. Guilford’s Trait Theory
2.5. Five Factor Model
19. Psychology Super-NotesPsychoTech Services Psychology Learners 19
2.2. Cattell’s Trait Approach (1/6)
• According to Raymond Cattell
− personality is a pattern of traits
− Traits providing the key to understanding personality and predicting an individual’s behaviour.
− The traits are relatively permanent and broad reaction tendencies of personality.
− They serve as the building blocks of personality.
He classified traits in three broad ways:
State and Trait Approaches To Personality >> Trait Approaches to Personality
TypesofTraits
1. Surface Traits vs. Source Traits
2. Constitutional Traits vs. Environmental Mould Traits
3. Ability Traits vs. Temperamental Traits vs. Dynamic Traits Dynamic Traits
3.1 Attitudes
3.2 Urges
3.3 Sentiments
20. Psychology Super-NotesPsychoTech Services Psychology Learners 20
2.2. Cattell’s Trait Approach (2/6)
1. Surface Traits vs. Source Traits
• a
State and Trait Approaches To Personality >> Trait Approaches to Personality
Note:
• Source traits are smaller in number than
surface traits.
• They are better predictors of human
behaviour.
Illustrative example
Intelligence
(Source Trait)
Kindness
(Surface
Trait)
Honesty
(Surface)
Helpfulness
(Surface)
Generosity
(Surface)*Using questionnaires and observations, Cattell studied several
thousand people and he reported certain cluster of surface
traits that appeared together from time to time. He reported
that these were evidence of some deeper, more general
underlying personality factors, which he referred to these as
source traits.
Surface Traits/
Central Traits
• The observable qualities
of a personality like
kindness, honesty,
helpfulness, generosity,
etc.
Source Traits*
• Source traits make up
the most basic structure
of personality and are
responsible for the
inter-correlation among
surface traits.
• We all possess the same
source traits but not in
the same amount.
21. Psychology Super-NotesPsychoTech Services Psychology Learners 21
2.2. Cattell’s Trait Approach (3/6)
1. Surface Traits vs. Source Traits contd.
• Cattell found 23 source traits in normal persons. He studied 16 of these in detail, which were then
used to construct the Sixteen Personality Factors (16PF) Questionnaire
• The sixteen factors identified by Cattell are:
State and Trait Approaches To Personality >> Trait Approaches to Personality
Reserved
Outgoing
Less
Intelligent More
Intelligent
Emotional
Stable
Humble
Assertive
Sober Happy-Go-
Lucky
Expedient
Conscientious
Shy
Venturesome
Tough-
Minded Tender-
Minded
Trusting
Suspicious
Practical
Imaginative
Forthright
Shrewd
Placid
Apprehensive
Conservative
Experimenting
Group-
tied Self-
Sufficiency
Casual
Controlled
Relaxed
Tense
22. Psychology Super-NotesPsychoTech Services Psychology Learners 22
2.2. Cattell’s Trait Approach (4/6)
1. Surface Traits vs. Source Traits contd.
• In addition to the 16 factors measured by personality test, Cattell, on the basis of his subsequent
research proposed seven new factors:
1. Excitability
2. Zeppia (zestful) vs. Coasthemia (individualistic)
3. Boorishness vs. Mature Socialisation
4. Sanguine casualness
5. Group dedication with sensed inadequacy
6. Social Panache
7. Explicit self-expression.
Clinical Analysis Questionnaire (CAQ)
• Using factor analysis in the surface traits of normal and abnormal personality spheres, Cattell
derived 12 new factors that measure psychopathological traits - hypochondriasis, zestfulness,
brooding discontent, anxious depression, energy euphoria, guilt and resentment, bored depression,
paranoia, psychopathic deviation, schizophrenia, psychasthenia and general psychosis.
• These 12 factors (all bipolar) have been combined with 16 PF for the construction of a new test
called Clinical Analysis Questionnaire (CAQ).
• After constructing CAQ, Cattell believed he had identified major source traits of both normal and
abnormal personality.
State and Trait Approaches To Personality >> Trait Approaches to Personality
Note:
• Sixteen source traits in 16PF
can be used to distinguish
between normal and
neurotic individuals
• They fail to assess
psychotics and do not
assess all aspects of
deviant behaviour
23. Psychology Super-NotesPsychoTech Services Psychology Learners 23
2.2. Cattell’s Trait Approach (5/6)
State and Trait Approaches To Personality >> Trait Approaches to Personality
• Using a statistical technique called MAVA (Multiple Abstract Variance Analysis), Cattell could assess
the degree to which various traits are determined either by environmental or genetically determined
factors. MAVA is based upon the comparisons between people of the same family either reared
together, or reared apart, or between members of different families reared either together or apart.
His findings indicate:
• Most surface traits reflect a mixture of both heredity (nature) and environment (nurture).
• Some source traits derive solely from within the individual (biology of the individual - nature)
and some source traits derived solely from environmental factors (nurture).
Constitutional Traits
• Those traits which are determined by
nature or biology
Environmental Mould Traits
• Those which are determined by nurture
that is by experience gained in interaction
with environment.
2. Constitutional Traits vs. Environmental Mould Traits
24. Psychology Super-NotesPsychoTech Services Psychology Learners 24
2.2. Cattell’s Trait Approach (6/6)
State and Trait Approaches To Personality >> Trait Approaches to Personality
Ability Traits
• Refer to the person’s skill
in dealing with the
environment and the
goals set therein.
• Example: Intelligence.
Temperament Traits
• Refers to stylistic
tendencies that largely
show how a person
moves towards a goal.
• Example: being moody,
irritable, or easygoing.
Dynamic Traits
• These are the person’s
motivation and interest
which set the person in
action toward the goal.
• Example: power-seeking,
ambitious or sports-
oriented.
The important dynamic traits in Cattell’s system are of three types:
3. Ability Traits vs. Temperament Traits vs. Dynamic Traits
DynamicTraits
3.1 Attitudes
3.2 Urges
3.3 Sentiments
• Attitudes are surface traits which are manifestations of underlying
motives.
• Urges are constitutional source traits through which Cattell has
recognised innately determined modifiable elements of behaviour.
• Cattell has identified ten urges: hunger, sex, self-assertion, pugnacity,
gregariousness, parental protectiveness, curiosity, escape,
acquisitiveness and narcissistic sex.
• Sentiment is an environmental mould dynamic source trait focusing on social object
• It results from experimental or socio-cultural factors.
25. Psychology Super-NotesPsychoTech Services Psychology Learners
Definition and Concept of Personality and Personality Development >> Contents
Contents
25
Approaches to Personality
1. Type
Approaches
1.1. Four Humor Theory
1.2. Sheldon’s Somatotypes
1.3. MBTI
2. Trait
Approaches
2.1. Allport’s Trait Approach
2.2. Cattell’s Trait Approach
2.3. Eysenck’s Type/ Trait
Hierarchy
2.4. Guilford’s Trait Theory
2.5. Five Factor Model
26. Psychology Super-NotesPsychoTech Services Psychology Learners 26
2.3. Eysenck’s Type-Trait Hierarchy
Hans Eysenck:
• Believed that personality is largely determined by genes and environmental factors have a
limited role to play.
• Opined that personality is more or less stable and enduring organisation of a person’s
character, temperament, intellect and physique. He emphasised upon traits (stable and
enduring characteristics) which when clustered together constitute a type.
State and Trait Approaches To Personality >> Trait Approaches to Personality
For example
• ‘Extraversion’ is based upon observed
inter-correlations amongst traits like
liveliness, sociability, activity, and
excitability.
• These traits are inferred from inter-
correlations amongst habitual responses
such as going to club, like talking to
people, taking part in social activities at
the spur of the moment and so forth.
• These habits are themselves inferred
from some observable specific responses
like real occasion where the person
actually went to club, talked with people,
participated in group discussion, etc.
Eysenck theorised that personality is hierarchically organised:
Types
Traits
Habits
Single
Responses
Like actions and thoughts
Regularly occurring specific
observable responses
Inferred from inter correlations
amongst habitual responses
Also called super-factors. Based
on observed inter-correlations
amongst various traits.
More
Abstract
Less
Abstract
27. Psychology Super-NotesPsychoTech Services Psychology Learners 27
2.3.1. Eysenck’s Dimensions of Personality (1/2)
• Based upon numerous factor analyses on personality data gathered from different populations,
Eysenck derived two major factors or dimensions of personality, Extraversion/Introversion and
Neuroticism/Stability.
• Later, on the basis of further statistical analysis, he postulated a third dimension,
Psychoticism/Impulse control.
• These three dimensions, according to Eysenck, are the major individual difference types most
useful for describing personality functioning.
• To measure these three dimensions of personality, Eysenck developed a paper and pencil test,
which is now called Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ).
State and Trait Approaches To Personality >> Trait Approaches to Personality
28. Psychology Super-NotesPsychoTech Services Psychology Learners
Individuals who are hostile, insensitive
to others, at times cruel and inhuman.
Eysenck believed that psychotics tend
to be creative (based on the responses
of schizophrenics after seeing the
Rorschach Test cards)
Introspective
individuals who
are more oriented
towards inner
reality and prefer
a well-ordered life.
Individuals who are sociable,
impulsive, like excitement and are
oriented towards external reality.
28
2.3.1. Eysenck’s Dimensions of Personality (2/2)
Eysenck’s three dimensions of personality are explained below:
State and Trait Approaches To Personality >> Trait Approaches to Personality
Extraversion
Introversion
Neuroticism
Stability
Psychoticism
Impulse Control
Tip: Use acronym PEN to memorise
Individuals who are emotionally
unstable, and exhibit much more
anxiety than the situation demands.
May also be obsessive, impulsive,
unreasonably scared of objects,
persons, places, etc. Psychopaths are
an exception, the don’t feel anxiety.
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2.3.2. Eysenck’s Inhibition Theory
• It explains why people who differed along the various dimensions should behave differently from
one another.
• According to Eysenck, individual differences along the extraversion/introversion dimension are
strongly determined by heredity and have their basic origins in the Cerebral Cortex of the central
nervous system.
• Drawing upon the work of Tephlov (1964) and Pavlov (1927), Eysenck pointed out that:
State and Trait Approaches To Personality >> Trait Approaches to Personality
Extroverts
• Extroverts have relatively stronger
inhibitory processes and very weak
excitatory processes.
• Besides, their nervous systems are strong
which forces them to tolerate a high level
of stimulation.
• Their brains react more slowly and weakly
towards stimuli thereby creating a strong
desire for sensory stimulation which
causes them to seek excitement by going to
parties, making new friends, and attending
various types of meetings, etc.
Introverts
• Have very strong excitatory processes and
weak inhibitory processes.
• Their nervous system is weak which means
that they are able to tolerate a low level of
stimulation.
• Introverts are more cortically aroused and
their brains react quickly and strongly to
stimuli. Therefore, strong stimulation from
the environment proves to be aversive for
them and they tend to spend more time in
solitary activities like reading, writing,
playing chess, etc.
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2.3.3. Eysenck’s Arousal Theory
• Inhibition theory has been replaced by arousal theory by Eysenck because inhibition and excitation
although were very useful concepts, were found to be extremely difficult to assess.
• Arousal theory has the advantage of identifying the physiological systems underlying individual
differences in extraversion / introversion and neuroticism / stability.
State and Trait Approaches To Personality >> Trait Approaches to Personality
Ascending Reticular Activating
System (ARAS)
• It is a network of fibres going
upward from the lower brain stem
to the thalamus and cortex.
• Some other fibres descend from
the lower brain stem which
influences the activities of bodily
muscles and autonomic nervous
system. Such descending fibres
can also modulate the activity of
the brain stem.
• The relation between ARAS and
cortex is reciprocal, that is, ARAS
activates the cortex, which, in
turn, influences ARAS either by
increasing or inhibiting the
excitability.
Arousal Theory – Differences between Extroverts and Introverts
• Behavioural differences are due to the various parts of ARAS.
• Introverts have innately higher levels of arousal than
extraverts, therefore, they are more sensitive to stimulation.
Arousal Theory - Neuroticism
• The seat of neuroticism lies in visceral brain or limbic system.
• Parts of visceral brain - hippocampus, amygdala, cingulum,
septum and hypothalamus generate emotionality.
• Since visceral brain and ARAS are only partially independent,
cortical and autonomic arousal can also be produced by
activities of the visceral brain. Such activities produce arousal
in sympathetic nervous system, causing increase in heart rate,
breathing rates and loss of digestion, etc.
• Neurotic individuals have lower thresholds for activity in
visceral brain and greater responsivity of sympathetic
nervous system. Therefore, neurotics are innately more
reactive to stimulation.
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Definition and Concept of Personality and Personality Development >> Contents
Contents
31
Approaches to Personality
1. Type
Approaches
1.1. Four Humor Theory
1.2. Sheldon’s Somatotypes
1.3. MBTI
2. Trait
Approaches
2.1. Allport’s Trait Approach
2.2. Cattell’s Trait Approach
2.3. Eysenck’s Type/ Trait
Hierarchy
2.4. Guilford’s Trait Theory
2.5. Five Factor Model
32. Psychology Super-NotesPsychoTech Services Psychology LearnersSociology Super-NotesPsychoTech Services Sociology Learners 32
2.4. Guilford’s Trait Theory
An individual personality
is nothing but the individual’s
unique pattern of
traits.
J. P. Guilford
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Aspects of Personality and the Seven Modalities of Traits (bright
red)
33
2.4. Guilford’s Trait Theory
• As evident from Guilford’s
definition of personality on the
previous page, for him, trait is
any distinguishable, relatively
enduring way in which one
person differs from another.
• Using factor analysis, Guilford
came to the conclusion that there
are seven modalities of traits
− These modalities are not seven
separate constituent parts of
personality
− Personality is an integrated
whole and these seven
modalities are seven different
directions from which the
whole can be viewed
− Therefore, personality is not the
sum total of seven traits but
rather a whole or single entity
which can be looked at from at
least seven different angles.
State and Trait Approaches To Personality >> Trait Approaches to Personality
Personality
Somatic
Traits
1
Morphological
2
Physiological
Behavioural
Aspects of
Personality
Hormetic
Responses
3
Needs
4
Interest
5
Attitudes
6
Aptitudes
Perceptual
Psychomotor
Intelligence
7
Temperament
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2.4.1. Somatic Traits
Guilford (1959) reported very little relationship between morphological and physiological traits
although Sheldon (1942) earlier had reported a high correlation between physique and temperament.
State and Trait Approaches To Personality >> Trait Approaches to Personality
Somatic Traits represent strictly physical and physiological characteristics, including head size,
general bodily length, and muscular thickness.
Refer to physical functions such as heart rate, breathing
rate, hormone level, blood sugar and so forth
Refer to physical attributes such as physique, head size,
length of hand and leg, size of ear, curvature of spine, etc.
SomaticTraits
1. Physiological Traits
2. Morphological Traits
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2.4.2. Behavioral Aspects of Personality
State and Trait Approaches To Personality >> Trait Approaches to Personality
Personality
as expressed
and
understood
from the
behaviour of
an individual.
• The biological and social
motives underlying an
individual's aspirations
and interests.
• Hormetic traits instigate
action as they are
somewhat directly
related to motivation.
• According to Guilford (1959) temperament refers to the
manner in which the individual performs a behaviour.
• Example: whether a person is impulsive, tolerant,
deliberate or critical in his or her behaviour
BehavioralAspects
Hormetic (Adaptive)
Responses
3
Needs
4
Interests
5
Attitudes
6
Aptitudes
(see next page)
7
Temperament
• Relatively permanent dispositions that motivate the person
towards certain condition.
• Example, prestige or food instigate action towards getting social
prestige or ending hunger.
• A person’s generalised behaviour
tendency to be attracted by some
stimuli.
• General (not specific) traits and
valued positively (not negatively)
• Also refers to liking to perform some
activities. All such interests contribute
to causation of behaviour.
• A disposition to favour or not to favour a
social object or social action.
• Attitudes are cognitive, affective and
conative as they involve belief, feelings and
action
• Instigate behaviour - having an attitude
forces a person to think, feel and act
accordingly.
• Example: one’s views about premarital sex
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2.4.2.1 Aptitudes
• Refer to how well an individual can perform a given activity
• They represent a dimension of ability though they are more specific than abilities. Therefore, all
aptitudes are abilities but not all abilities are aptitude.
• For example, a tall person has the ability to reach the highest shelf but this is not his aptitude.
Using factor analysis, Guilford (1959) identified three primary aptitudes:
State and Trait Approaches To Personality >> Trait Approaches to Personality
Aptitudes
Perceptual Aptitudes
Psychomotor Aptitudes
Intelligence
Relate to the various sense modalities and include factors like
visual, auditory and kinaesthetic sensitivity.
Abilities shown by physical educators, dance instructors and
athletic coaches.
A general aptitude, covering aspects like memory recording,
memory recovery etc. covered in Structure of Intellect theory
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2.4.2.2 GZTS for temperament assessment
Guilford-Zimmerman Temperament Survey can be used to assess 10 bipolar traits of temperament:
State and Trait Approaches To Personality >> Trait Approaches to Personality
Sociability
Shyness
Emotional
Stability Depression
General
Activity Inactivity
Restraint
Impulsiveness
Ascendance
Submissiveness
Objectivity
Subjectivity
Friendliness
Hostility
Thoughtfulness
Unreflectiveness
Personal
Relations Criticalness
Masculinity
Feminity
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2.4.3. Guilford’s Levels of Trait Generality
State and Trait Approaches To Personality >> Trait Approaches to Personality
Types
Primary
Traits
Hextic
Traits
• Displayed by a person only in specific situations.
• For example, Donald who is generally shy and reserved, may show dominance and
aggression before his friends for wining the competition. Here dominance and
aggression are examples of hexic level trait and determine his specific actions.
• Manifested in broader range of behaviour than hexic traits.
• For example, when Donald shows dominance and aggression most of the time in his
behaviour, it means these two are his primary traits.
• Determined to some extent by types.
• When a person’s behaviours generally revolve around any single disposition
• Thus types are composed of primary traits with positive intercorrelations.
• For example, an extravert type may be recognised through observation of high
correlations among the primary traits of sociability, orientation towards external reality,
impulsiveness, love for contacting other people, tolerance for pain, etc.
• Guilford did not emphasise as much on types as Eysenck.
39. Psychology Super-NotesPsychoTech Services Psychology Learners
Definition and Concept of Personality and Personality Development >> Contents
Contents
39
Approaches to Personality
1. Type
Approaches
1.1. Four Humor Theory
1.2. Sheldon’s Somatotypes
1.3. MBTI
2. Trait
Approaches
2.1. Allport’s Trait Approach
2.2. Cattell’s Trait Approach
2.3. Eysenck’s Type/ Trait
Hierarchy
2.4. Guilford’s Trait Theory
2.5. Five Factor Model
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2.5. Five Factor Model/Big Five Model (1/4)
• Based on his own and others’ researches Goldberg (1981) stated that it is possible to prepare a model for
structuring individual differences among traits of personality.
• According to this model there are five broad personality factors, each of which is composed of
constellation of traits.
• Big Five was meant to refer to the finding that each factor subsumes a large number of specific traits.
They are almost as broad and abstract as Eysenck’s Superfactors.
• The Big Five dimensions of personality with names assigned by McCrae and Costa (1987) are:
State and Trait Approaches To Personality >> Trait Approaches to Personality
Tip: Use acronym OCEAN to memorise
Big 5 Factors
Openness Conscientiousness Extraversion Agreeableness Neuroticism
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2.5. Five Factor Model/Big Five Model (2/4)
Extraversion
• Assesses quality
and intensity of
interpersonal
interaction, i.e.,
contrasts
extraverted traits
with introverted
traits
• High scorers are
sociable, active,
talkative, person-
oriented,
optimistic, fun-
loving and
affectionate,
• Low scorers are
reserved, sober,
aloof, task
oriented, retiring
and quiet.
Neuroticism
• Assesses
adjustment
(emotional
stability) vs.
emotional
instability.
• High scorers are
moody, irritable,
nervous, insecure,
and
hypochondriacal.
• They are prone
to emotional
instability and
experience
negative
emotion
• Low scorers are
calm, relaxed,
unemotional,
hardy, self-
satisfied etc.
Conscientiousness
• Assesses degree
of organisation,
persistence and
motivation in
task and goal
directed and
socially required
impulse control
behaviour.
• High scorers are
dependable,
organised, hard
working,
responsible,
reliable and
thorough
• Low scorers are
undependable,
disorganised,
unreliable,
impulsive,
irresponsible,
lazy and
negligent
Agreeableness
• Assesses the
person’s quality
of interpersonal
orientation
ranging from
compassion to
antagonism in
thinking, feeling
and action.
• High scorers are
soft-hearted,
good-natured,
trusting, helpful,
straightforward
and forgiving
• Low scorers are
cynical,
suspicious,
uncooperative,
vengeful, irritable
and manipulative.
Openness
• Assesses
proactive
seeking and
appreciation of
experience for its
own sake as well
as tolerance for
and exploration
for the something
new and
unfamiliar.
• High scorers are
good-natured,
warm,
sympathetic and
cooperative
• Low scorers are
unfriendly,
aggressive,
unpleasant,
argumentative,
cold and even
hostile.
State and Trait Approaches To Personality >> Trait Approaches to Personality
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2.5. Five Factor Model/Big Five Model (3/4)
Big 5 Personality Assessment
• For assessing the Big Five dimensions:
− Goldberg (1992) developed a questionnaire named Transparent Bipolar Inventory
− Another questionnaire to assess Big Five has been developed by Costa and McCrae (1992) called the
NEO-Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R).
• It is much more popular than TBI.
• Originally, it assessed only N, E and O but later two factors A and C were also included.
• Each dimension or factor is defined by six facets and each facet is measured by 8 items.
• The latest version of NEO-PI-R consists of a 240 items (5 factors × 6 facets × 8 items).
• Based on several studies, McCrae and Costa (1990) believe these five factors as measured by NEO-
PI-R are sufficient for describing the basic dimensions of personality - “no other system is as
complete and yet so parsimonious”.
• Longitudinal studies support trait approach:
− McCrae and Costa (1990) studied personality traits of persons over time and found them to be stable
for 3 to 30 years.
− They opined that stable individual differences in basic dimensions are universal feature of adult
personality.
State and Trait Approaches To Personality >> Trait Approaches to Personality
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2.5. Five Factor Model/Big Five Model (4/4)
Criticism
• Trait approach (like type) doesn’t explain the causes or development of personality. It identifies and
describe characteristics, which are correlated with behaviour
• Consistency of our behaviour across situations is very low and therefore, not predictable on the basis
of personality traits.
• Walter Mischel (1968) claimed that the situation, and not our traits, determines the behaviour
initiating the person-situation debate, that is, question of relative importance of person and situation in
determining the behaviour of the persons.
− Mischel later modified his stance and proclaimed that behaviour is shaped by both the person
(traits) and the situation.
− Other psychologists have also provided support for the view that there are some internal traits which
strongly influence behaviour across different situations (Carson, 1989; McAdams, 1992).
State and Trait Approaches To Personality >> Trait Approaches to Personality
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