Submarine earthquakes occur underwater at the bottom of bodies of water and are caused by the movement of tectonic plates under the sea floor. When pressure builds up at plate boundaries due to friction, it is suddenly released, causing the earthquake. This can generate destructive tsunamis that travel across the ocean and heavily damage coastal areas. Understanding plate tectonics helps explain why different types of plate boundaries like convergent or transform faults result in submarine quakes. Historic examples include the 1960 Chile earthquake, the largest ever at magnitude 9.5.
This paper describes the system components that make up the second-generation Deep-Ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis system, known as DART II1.
Tsunami data from the DART system can be combined with seismic data ingested into a forecast model to generate accurate tsunami forecasts for coastal areas2.
The motivation for developing a transportable, real-time, deep ocean tsunami measurement system was to forecast the impact of tsunamis on coastal areas in time to save lives and protect property. Over the past 20 years, PMEL has identified the requirements of the tsunami measurement system through evolution in both technology and knowledge of deep ocean tsunami dynamics. The requirement for transportability was a conservative approach to a phenomenon that had little data to guide strategies for choosing deployment sites. The requirement for real time was to provide data in time to create a forecast. The first-generation DART design featured an automatic detection and reporting algorithm triggered by a threshold wave-height value. The DART II design incorporates two-way communications that enables tsunami data transmission on demand, independent of the automatic algorithm; this capability ensures the measurement and reporting of tsunamis with amplitude below the auto-reporting threshold. For more accurate forecast modeling and subsequent, more reliable decision-making, this capability is very important because (a) a very large, destructive tsunami may, in fact, have a very small amplitude at any particular DART station position, and (b) small, deep-ocean tsunami amplitudes can reach destructive values, due to large, localized, shallow-water amplification factors. This latter concern was dramatically affirmed and demonstrated after measurement of a 2cm wave of a tsunami generated in Alaska was amplified to become a 40cm tsunami on the north shore of Oahu, Hawaii.
The document discusses key concepts related to disaster management including:
1) It defines terms like hazard, disaster, emergency, vulnerability, and risk.
2) It outlines different phases of disaster management like relief, rehabilitation, and reconstruction.
3) It describes different types of disasters like sudden onset, slow onset, natural disasters, and human-made disasters.
Fluvial processes create distinct landforms over time as a river ages. In the youth stage, the river valley is narrow with steep sides. Meanders begin to form in the maturity stage as the river widens and deepens. In the old stage, the river flows across a flat floodplain as it approaches being a featureless plain. Distinct landforms are produced at each stage as the river's erosional and depositional activities change.
A fluvial system consists of channels that transport sediment from drainage basins to depositional basins. It can be divided into channel belts, floodplains, and splay deposits. Discharge is the volume of water passing through a stream over time and controls the sediment transport capacity and competence. Meandering streams migrate laterally through erosion on the outside bend and deposition on the inside bend, eventually forming oxbow lakes when neck cut-offs occur. Flooding occurs when discharge exceeds channel capacity.
This document summarizes key information about springs, wells, caverns, and geysers. It describes how springs form from groundwater and how their characteristics like temperature depend on flow rates. It explains that wells access groundwater through excavation or drilling to varying depths. Caverns form naturally through weathering or dissolution and include sea caves and glacier caves. Geysers require specific hydrogeological conditions near volcanic areas to cause intermittent ejections of heated water and steam through underground plumbing systems.
Stratigraphy is the study of temporal relationships in sedimentary rock layers and reflects changes in the balance between the rates of space production and filling. Stratigraphy records past geological events and adds a temporal dimension to sedimentology. It preserves details of major geologic events like mountain building, sea level changes, and climate fluctuations through principles such as superposition, original horizontality, lateral continuity, and crosscutting relationships.
This paper describes the system components that make up the second-generation Deep-Ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis system, known as DART II1.
Tsunami data from the DART system can be combined with seismic data ingested into a forecast model to generate accurate tsunami forecasts for coastal areas2.
The motivation for developing a transportable, real-time, deep ocean tsunami measurement system was to forecast the impact of tsunamis on coastal areas in time to save lives and protect property. Over the past 20 years, PMEL has identified the requirements of the tsunami measurement system through evolution in both technology and knowledge of deep ocean tsunami dynamics. The requirement for transportability was a conservative approach to a phenomenon that had little data to guide strategies for choosing deployment sites. The requirement for real time was to provide data in time to create a forecast. The first-generation DART design featured an automatic detection and reporting algorithm triggered by a threshold wave-height value. The DART II design incorporates two-way communications that enables tsunami data transmission on demand, independent of the automatic algorithm; this capability ensures the measurement and reporting of tsunamis with amplitude below the auto-reporting threshold. For more accurate forecast modeling and subsequent, more reliable decision-making, this capability is very important because (a) a very large, destructive tsunami may, in fact, have a very small amplitude at any particular DART station position, and (b) small, deep-ocean tsunami amplitudes can reach destructive values, due to large, localized, shallow-water amplification factors. This latter concern was dramatically affirmed and demonstrated after measurement of a 2cm wave of a tsunami generated in Alaska was amplified to become a 40cm tsunami on the north shore of Oahu, Hawaii.
The document discusses key concepts related to disaster management including:
1) It defines terms like hazard, disaster, emergency, vulnerability, and risk.
2) It outlines different phases of disaster management like relief, rehabilitation, and reconstruction.
3) It describes different types of disasters like sudden onset, slow onset, natural disasters, and human-made disasters.
Fluvial processes create distinct landforms over time as a river ages. In the youth stage, the river valley is narrow with steep sides. Meanders begin to form in the maturity stage as the river widens and deepens. In the old stage, the river flows across a flat floodplain as it approaches being a featureless plain. Distinct landforms are produced at each stage as the river's erosional and depositional activities change.
A fluvial system consists of channels that transport sediment from drainage basins to depositional basins. It can be divided into channel belts, floodplains, and splay deposits. Discharge is the volume of water passing through a stream over time and controls the sediment transport capacity and competence. Meandering streams migrate laterally through erosion on the outside bend and deposition on the inside bend, eventually forming oxbow lakes when neck cut-offs occur. Flooding occurs when discharge exceeds channel capacity.
This document summarizes key information about springs, wells, caverns, and geysers. It describes how springs form from groundwater and how their characteristics like temperature depend on flow rates. It explains that wells access groundwater through excavation or drilling to varying depths. Caverns form naturally through weathering or dissolution and include sea caves and glacier caves. Geysers require specific hydrogeological conditions near volcanic areas to cause intermittent ejections of heated water and steam through underground plumbing systems.
Stratigraphy is the study of temporal relationships in sedimentary rock layers and reflects changes in the balance between the rates of space production and filling. Stratigraphy records past geological events and adds a temporal dimension to sedimentology. It preserves details of major geologic events like mountain building, sea level changes, and climate fluctuations through principles such as superposition, original horizontality, lateral continuity, and crosscutting relationships.
A tsunami warning system (TWS) is used to detect tsunamis in advance and issue warnings to prevent loss of life and damage. It is made up of two equally important components: a network of sensors to detect tsunamis and a communications infrastructure to issue timely alarms to permit evacuation of the coastal areas
Interaction of EMR with atmosphere and earth surfaceSumant Diwakar
The document discusses how electromagnetic radiation interacts with the atmosphere and earth's surface. It notes that radiation is scattered or absorbed by particles in the atmosphere through mechanisms like Rayleigh scattering, Mie scattering, and absorption by gases. When radiation reaches the surface, it can be absorbed, transmitted, or reflected depending on the material. The type of reflection - specular or diffuse - depends on the smoothness of the surface. Different materials like vegetation, water, and soil have distinct spectral responses when measured over various wavelengths.
Models of landscape evolution and slope development by kingCharu Jaiswal
King proposed a model of landscape evolution and slope development consisting of three components: slope elements, hill slope development, and an epigene cycle of erosion. The slope elements include a waxing slope, free face, debris slope, and waning slope. Hill slopes develop through the parallel retreat of these slope elements, resulting in the expansion and merging of pediments. The epigene cycle involves periodic stream incision and escarpment retreat driven by erosion processes, forming new landscapes and cyclic surfaces over geological timescales. King's model emphasizes the role of erosion and semi-arid climates and rejects climatic influences on landscape development.
An undersea earthquake off the coast of Indonesia in 2004 triggered a devastating tsunami across the Indian Ocean. The earthquake, caused by tectonic plate subduction, generated a massive displacement of water that produced 30-foot high waves. Over 250,000 people across 14 countries were killed, with over 130,000 deaths in Indonesia alone. The tsunami destroyed coastal infrastructure and displaced millions of people, while secondary impacts included disease outbreaks and loss of livelihoods. Major humanitarian aid and long-term reconstruction efforts were required.
This document defines facies as a body of rock characterized by a particular combination of lithology, physical structures, and biological features that distinguish it from surrounding rock. Facies are determined at small scales based on characteristics like grain size, sedimentary structures, color, composition, and fossil content. Facies associations represent depositional environments through combinations of facies. Facies successions show progressive changes in properties that indicate lateral or vertical environmental changes. Facies analysis is used to interpret depositional environments and systems from rock characteristics.
This document discusses fractures and joints in rocks. It defines fractures, faults, and joints, and describes how they form from brittle deformation in response to stress. Joints form in sets with similar orientations and make up joint systems. The document discusses causes of fractures from tension and compression, and the different modes of cracking. It also describes the geometry of joints, including their orientation, scale, shapes, trajectories, spacing, intersections and terminations. Joint spacing depends on factors like bed thickness, lithology, structural position and strain.
This document provides information about fluvial and alluvial fan systems. It begins with an introduction to why fluvial systems are studied and describes their organization into drainage basins. It then discusses the morphology of rivers and floodplains. The rest of the document describes various fluvial environments like bars, channels, overbank areas and different channel patterns for braided, meandering and anastomosing rivers. It also discusses alluvial fans and their facies. In summary, the document outlines fluvial system components, morphologies and depositional environments to understand sediment transport and deposition.
The document discusses various coastal landforms created by erosion and deposition processes along shorelines. It describes landforms such as headlands and bays, cliffs and wave-cut platforms, caves, arches, stacks, and stumps which are formed by coastal erosion. Beaches and spits are landforms created by coastal deposition, with beaches forming in sheltered areas between high and low tide lines, and spits forming as narrow ridges projecting from the coast due to longshore drift depositing materials.
Aerial photography involves mounting cameras on aircraft to take overlapping photos from a fixed altitude. This allows for stereoscopic 3D imagery. Aerial photography provides higher resolution details but is limited by weather and environmental conditions. Satellite imagery provides faster, global coverage but lower resolution. Both methods can be affected by weather. Aerial photography allows more sensor flexibility while satellites provide a wider range of data types.
Oceans also contain a huge amount of mineral resources. Deep ocean basins are the zones of continuous sedimentation. The oceans are the final destination for many of all the sediments to be deposited. About 200 million years of earth history are available in the fossiliferous sediments deposited within the ocean basins. This module explains the characteristics of marine sediments.
This is my second presentation. Me and my friend created this presentation. This presentation tropic is Indian shoreline classification. So all people watch this tropic and comment my fault for this tropic. And comments for new tropic name so i am help for help for any geography subject related tropic. THANK YOU
The document discusses the fluvial cycle and geological processes of rivers. It begins by introducing geomorphology and defining the fluvial cycle. It then describes the three stages of river development: youth, mature, and old age. Next, it explains the fluvial cycle and the geological actions of rivers, including erosion, transportation, and deposition. It provides details on various erosion features and processes, methods of transportation, and types of depositional features like deltas and alluvial fans. In concluding, the fluvial cycle represents the complete journey of a river from its initial to old stage through the geological processes of erosion, transportation, and deposition.
Sea level changes over geological timescales are reconstructed using a wide range of techniques. Relative sea level rises are indicated by submerged coastal features, while falls are shown by raised beaches and shorelines. Oxygen isotope records from ocean sediments also reveal changes in global sea level during the Quaternary period, with average sea levels 50-60m lower during glacial periods. More recently, sea levels rose rapidly following the last glacial maximum but have been relatively stable over the past 5,000-6,000 years. Future sea level rise is projected to have significant environmental and economic impacts through coastal flooding and erosion.
Microzonation of seismic hazards and their applicationArghya Chowdhury
What is Microzonation? How is Microzonation helpful in mitigating Seismic hazards and in civil engineering? Find out all about it in this Presentation.
This document provides information about the pattern and preparation for the UPSC Combined Geo-Scientist and Geologist examination. It discusses why geologists are needed and their important roles. It outlines the exam notification date, exam dates, and test structure which includes a written test, personality test, and medical test. The written exam consists of 5 papers testing general English and various geology topics. Suggested books for each subject are listed. Previous year question papers and cut-off marks are also discussed. Tips for preparation, focusing on the technical aspects, and managing time during the exam are provided. Important questions that may be asked during the personality test are outlined. The document concludes with information about the medical test.
The document provides an overview of foraminifera including:
- Their morphology, wall structure, and chamber development which can be unilocular or multilocular in various arrangements.
- Their importance for biostratigraphy, paleoecology, and paleoceanography making them useful tools for dating rocks and reconstructing past environments.
- Their global geological distribution through time from Cambrian to Recent, reaching their maximum diversity in the Tertiary and present.
The document summarizes the geology of the Bundelkhand craton located in central India. The craton covers an area of 26,000 square kilometers and contains three main components: enclaves of supracrustal rocks within older gneisses, the Bundelkhand granite and associated quartz reefs and volcanic rocks, and mafic dyke swarms. The craton has undergone tectonic evolution characterized by three primary shear zone orientations: east-west, northeast-southwest, and northwest-southeast.
Geological structures form in the Earth's crust due to geological causes. There are many types of structures including folds, faults, and joints. Folds form when rock layers bend under stress rather than breaking. Common fold types include anticlines, synclines, domes, and basins. Faults form when rock layers fracture and move relative to each other, and include normal, reverse, and strike-slip faults. Joints are fractures where the rock splits but there is no relative movement, and can form due to processes like cooling, tectonics, and unloading.
The document summarizes plate tectonics and its relationship to various geological phenomena. There are three main types of plate boundaries - divergent where plates move apart, convergent where they collide in subduction or collision zones, and transform where they slide past each other. Plate movement is responsible for volcanoes, earthquakes, and mountain building. Earthquakes occur when stress builds up at faults until the plates suddenly slip, releasing energy. Tsunamis are large sea waves generated by earthquakes or landslides that flood coastal areas.
Earthquakes are caused by the sudden movement of tectonic plates. Over time, strain builds up along plate boundaries until the accumulated energy is released, causing the plates to shift in an earthquake. While earthquakes can cause damage near fault lines, most of the energy released travels as seismic waves. In ancient times, earthquakes were attributed to gods like Neptune, who was thought to control both the sea and earth tremors. Underwater earthquakes, or seaquakes, can generate destructive tsunamis by displacing large volumes of water. Tsunamis are a series of enormous waves that travel very quickly but are relatively small in the open ocean.
A tsunami warning system (TWS) is used to detect tsunamis in advance and issue warnings to prevent loss of life and damage. It is made up of two equally important components: a network of sensors to detect tsunamis and a communications infrastructure to issue timely alarms to permit evacuation of the coastal areas
Interaction of EMR with atmosphere and earth surfaceSumant Diwakar
The document discusses how electromagnetic radiation interacts with the atmosphere and earth's surface. It notes that radiation is scattered or absorbed by particles in the atmosphere through mechanisms like Rayleigh scattering, Mie scattering, and absorption by gases. When radiation reaches the surface, it can be absorbed, transmitted, or reflected depending on the material. The type of reflection - specular or diffuse - depends on the smoothness of the surface. Different materials like vegetation, water, and soil have distinct spectral responses when measured over various wavelengths.
Models of landscape evolution and slope development by kingCharu Jaiswal
King proposed a model of landscape evolution and slope development consisting of three components: slope elements, hill slope development, and an epigene cycle of erosion. The slope elements include a waxing slope, free face, debris slope, and waning slope. Hill slopes develop through the parallel retreat of these slope elements, resulting in the expansion and merging of pediments. The epigene cycle involves periodic stream incision and escarpment retreat driven by erosion processes, forming new landscapes and cyclic surfaces over geological timescales. King's model emphasizes the role of erosion and semi-arid climates and rejects climatic influences on landscape development.
An undersea earthquake off the coast of Indonesia in 2004 triggered a devastating tsunami across the Indian Ocean. The earthquake, caused by tectonic plate subduction, generated a massive displacement of water that produced 30-foot high waves. Over 250,000 people across 14 countries were killed, with over 130,000 deaths in Indonesia alone. The tsunami destroyed coastal infrastructure and displaced millions of people, while secondary impacts included disease outbreaks and loss of livelihoods. Major humanitarian aid and long-term reconstruction efforts were required.
This document defines facies as a body of rock characterized by a particular combination of lithology, physical structures, and biological features that distinguish it from surrounding rock. Facies are determined at small scales based on characteristics like grain size, sedimentary structures, color, composition, and fossil content. Facies associations represent depositional environments through combinations of facies. Facies successions show progressive changes in properties that indicate lateral or vertical environmental changes. Facies analysis is used to interpret depositional environments and systems from rock characteristics.
This document discusses fractures and joints in rocks. It defines fractures, faults, and joints, and describes how they form from brittle deformation in response to stress. Joints form in sets with similar orientations and make up joint systems. The document discusses causes of fractures from tension and compression, and the different modes of cracking. It also describes the geometry of joints, including their orientation, scale, shapes, trajectories, spacing, intersections and terminations. Joint spacing depends on factors like bed thickness, lithology, structural position and strain.
This document provides information about fluvial and alluvial fan systems. It begins with an introduction to why fluvial systems are studied and describes their organization into drainage basins. It then discusses the morphology of rivers and floodplains. The rest of the document describes various fluvial environments like bars, channels, overbank areas and different channel patterns for braided, meandering and anastomosing rivers. It also discusses alluvial fans and their facies. In summary, the document outlines fluvial system components, morphologies and depositional environments to understand sediment transport and deposition.
The document discusses various coastal landforms created by erosion and deposition processes along shorelines. It describes landforms such as headlands and bays, cliffs and wave-cut platforms, caves, arches, stacks, and stumps which are formed by coastal erosion. Beaches and spits are landforms created by coastal deposition, with beaches forming in sheltered areas between high and low tide lines, and spits forming as narrow ridges projecting from the coast due to longshore drift depositing materials.
Aerial photography involves mounting cameras on aircraft to take overlapping photos from a fixed altitude. This allows for stereoscopic 3D imagery. Aerial photography provides higher resolution details but is limited by weather and environmental conditions. Satellite imagery provides faster, global coverage but lower resolution. Both methods can be affected by weather. Aerial photography allows more sensor flexibility while satellites provide a wider range of data types.
Oceans also contain a huge amount of mineral resources. Deep ocean basins are the zones of continuous sedimentation. The oceans are the final destination for many of all the sediments to be deposited. About 200 million years of earth history are available in the fossiliferous sediments deposited within the ocean basins. This module explains the characteristics of marine sediments.
This is my second presentation. Me and my friend created this presentation. This presentation tropic is Indian shoreline classification. So all people watch this tropic and comment my fault for this tropic. And comments for new tropic name so i am help for help for any geography subject related tropic. THANK YOU
The document discusses the fluvial cycle and geological processes of rivers. It begins by introducing geomorphology and defining the fluvial cycle. It then describes the three stages of river development: youth, mature, and old age. Next, it explains the fluvial cycle and the geological actions of rivers, including erosion, transportation, and deposition. It provides details on various erosion features and processes, methods of transportation, and types of depositional features like deltas and alluvial fans. In concluding, the fluvial cycle represents the complete journey of a river from its initial to old stage through the geological processes of erosion, transportation, and deposition.
Sea level changes over geological timescales are reconstructed using a wide range of techniques. Relative sea level rises are indicated by submerged coastal features, while falls are shown by raised beaches and shorelines. Oxygen isotope records from ocean sediments also reveal changes in global sea level during the Quaternary period, with average sea levels 50-60m lower during glacial periods. More recently, sea levels rose rapidly following the last glacial maximum but have been relatively stable over the past 5,000-6,000 years. Future sea level rise is projected to have significant environmental and economic impacts through coastal flooding and erosion.
Microzonation of seismic hazards and their applicationArghya Chowdhury
What is Microzonation? How is Microzonation helpful in mitigating Seismic hazards and in civil engineering? Find out all about it in this Presentation.
This document provides information about the pattern and preparation for the UPSC Combined Geo-Scientist and Geologist examination. It discusses why geologists are needed and their important roles. It outlines the exam notification date, exam dates, and test structure which includes a written test, personality test, and medical test. The written exam consists of 5 papers testing general English and various geology topics. Suggested books for each subject are listed. Previous year question papers and cut-off marks are also discussed. Tips for preparation, focusing on the technical aspects, and managing time during the exam are provided. Important questions that may be asked during the personality test are outlined. The document concludes with information about the medical test.
The document provides an overview of foraminifera including:
- Their morphology, wall structure, and chamber development which can be unilocular or multilocular in various arrangements.
- Their importance for biostratigraphy, paleoecology, and paleoceanography making them useful tools for dating rocks and reconstructing past environments.
- Their global geological distribution through time from Cambrian to Recent, reaching their maximum diversity in the Tertiary and present.
The document summarizes the geology of the Bundelkhand craton located in central India. The craton covers an area of 26,000 square kilometers and contains three main components: enclaves of supracrustal rocks within older gneisses, the Bundelkhand granite and associated quartz reefs and volcanic rocks, and mafic dyke swarms. The craton has undergone tectonic evolution characterized by three primary shear zone orientations: east-west, northeast-southwest, and northwest-southeast.
Geological structures form in the Earth's crust due to geological causes. There are many types of structures including folds, faults, and joints. Folds form when rock layers bend under stress rather than breaking. Common fold types include anticlines, synclines, domes, and basins. Faults form when rock layers fracture and move relative to each other, and include normal, reverse, and strike-slip faults. Joints are fractures where the rock splits but there is no relative movement, and can form due to processes like cooling, tectonics, and unloading.
The document summarizes plate tectonics and its relationship to various geological phenomena. There are three main types of plate boundaries - divergent where plates move apart, convergent where they collide in subduction or collision zones, and transform where they slide past each other. Plate movement is responsible for volcanoes, earthquakes, and mountain building. Earthquakes occur when stress builds up at faults until the plates suddenly slip, releasing energy. Tsunamis are large sea waves generated by earthquakes or landslides that flood coastal areas.
Earthquakes are caused by the sudden movement of tectonic plates. Over time, strain builds up along plate boundaries until the accumulated energy is released, causing the plates to shift in an earthquake. While earthquakes can cause damage near fault lines, most of the energy released travels as seismic waves. In ancient times, earthquakes were attributed to gods like Neptune, who was thought to control both the sea and earth tremors. Underwater earthquakes, or seaquakes, can generate destructive tsunamis by displacing large volumes of water. Tsunamis are a series of enormous waves that travel very quickly but are relatively small in the open ocean.
Notes on living with tectonic hazards n levelsivisdude82
1. Tectonic hazards such as earthquakes and volcanic eruptions are caused by movements of the Earth's crust along tectonic plates. The plates move due to convection currents in the upper mantle and subduction of denser oceanic plates under lighter continental plates.
2. Where plates diverge, mid-ocean ridges and rift valleys are formed. As plates converge, fold mountains like the Himalayas or Andes are formed. Transform boundaries like the San Andreas Fault cause earthquakes as the plates slide past each other.
3. Volcanoes form at plate boundaries due to upwelling of magma. Shield volcanoes have low, broad slopes while stratovolcanoes
A report about earthquakes. Inside this powerpoint are: the meaning of earthquakes, types of plate movement, and how does an earthquake occur. Have Fun!
The document discusses the causes and types of earthquakes. It begins by noting that records of earthquakes date back thousands of years in some areas. It then explains that earthquakes are caused by the sudden movement of tectonic plates deep below the earth's surface. The major types of plate boundaries are divergent boundaries where new crust forms, convergent boundaries where plates collide and crust is destroyed, and transform boundaries where plates slide past each other. Specific examples like the Mariana Trench and San Andreas Fault are also described.
Notes on living with tectonic hazards 0 levelsivisdude82
Tectonic hazards such as earthquakes and volcanic eruptions are caused by movements of the Earth's crustal plates. The internal structure of the Earth consists of a crust, mantle, outer core, and inner core. The crust is broken into plates that move due to convection currents in the mantle and the sinking of denser plates. Plate boundaries include divergent boundaries where plates move apart, convergent boundaries where they move together, and transform boundaries where they slide past each other. Landforms associated with plate tectonics include mid-ocean ridges, rift valleys, fold mountains, trenches, and volcanoes. Earthquakes occur along plate boundaries when built-up stress is suddenly released during plate movement.
1) Alfred Wegener first proposed the continental drift theory in 1912, hypothesizing that continents move and were once joined in a supercontinent.
2) The plate tectonics theory explains that the outer part of the Earth is made up of plates that move over time, interacting at boundaries.
3) There are three main types of plate boundaries - divergent where plates move apart, convergent where they collide, and transform where they slide past each other. These boundaries give rise to geologic features through processes like seafloor spreading and subduction.
An earthquake (also known as a quake, tremor or temblor) is is the shaking of the surface of the Earth, resulting from the sudden release of energy in the Earth's lithosphere that creates seismic waves. Earthquakes can range in size from those that are so weak that they cannot be felt to those violent enough to the people around and destroy whole cities.
Continental drift is the hypothesis that the Earth's continents have moved over geologic time relative to each other. Plate tectonics studies the movement of continents on tectonic plates. There are three main types of tectonic plate boundaries: subduction zones where plates converge, divergent margins where plates spread apart, and transform margins where plates slide past each other. Seafloor spreading occurs at divergent boundaries as heat from the Earth's mantle causes the seafloor crust to crack and new crust is formed, pushing the plates apart over millions of years. The 2004 Sumatra-Andaman earthquake, measured at over 9.0 on the Richter scale, was caused by movement along the Sumatra fault line and
This document summarizes key concepts of plate tectonics and earthquake formation. Major plate boundaries include convergent boundaries, where plates collide and cause events like mountain building; divergent boundaries, where plates spread apart like at mid-ocean ridges; and transform boundaries like the San Andreas fault, where plates slide past each other. Earthquake waves include P waves and S waves, while surface waves include Love waves and Rayleigh waves. Various plate interactions give rise to different earthquake and volcanic events around the world.
This document discusses three main types of plate boundaries: divergent boundaries, convergent boundaries, and transform boundaries. It provides examples and describes the geological effects of each boundary type. It also discusses processes at divergent boundaries like mid-ocean ridges and continental rift valleys. Convergent boundaries include oceanic-oceanic convergence forming island arcs, and continental-oceanic convergence forming volcanic mountain ranges. Transform boundaries involve strike-slip faulting along plate edges. Additionally, the document touches on hot spot volcanism unrelated to plate boundaries.
This document discusses plate tectonics and how it relates to earthquakes and volcanoes. There are three types of plate boundaries - divergent where plates separate, convergent where they collide, and transform where they slide past each other. Convergent boundaries often create subduction zones and can result in earthquakes, volcanoes, or mountain ranges depending on the type of crust involved. Earthquakes release pressure from plate movement and different seismic wave types travel through the Earth's layers at different speeds. Volcanoes form at hotspots and plate boundaries as magma rises from the mantle to the surface.
The document summarizes key aspects of Earth's internal structure, surface features, tectonic plates, earthquakes, volcanoes, and landforms. The Earth has a solid crust on top of a thick mantle and liquid outer and solid inner cores. Over 70% of the surface is ocean, covering underwater volcanoes, mountains and trenches. The remaining 30% includes various landforms like forests and deserts. Tectonic plates float on the mantle and interact, causing earthquakes and forming volcanoes and mountains. Earthquakes generate seismic waves and tsunamis. Volcanoes form at plate boundaries and erupt molten magma from the crust. Important landforms include mountains, valleys, plains and coastal features.
The movement of tectonic plates causes various geological phenomena including volcanoes, mountains, and earthquakes. There are three types of plate boundaries - divergent where plates move apart, convergent where they collide in subduction or collision zones, and transform where they slide past each other. Earthquakes occur when stress builds up at faults until the plates suddenly slip, releasing energy. Large earthquakes can generate tsunamis through displacement of water. Volcanoes form at plate boundaries as magma rises from below the crust.
Tsunamis are not single waves, but rather "wave trains" consisting of multiple waves that pound the shoreline repeatedly. They are generated when earthquakes or landslides cause the seafloor to abruptly deform and vertically displace the overlying water. As the tsunami wave travels from deep to shallow water, its wavelength decreases rapidly, causing the water to pile up into tremendous crests in a process called "shoaling". Most tsunamis are caused by earthquakes in subduction zones, where an oceanic plate is being forced down into the mantle by plate tectonic forces, causing the plates to become stuck and stored seismic energy to build over long periods of time. Tsunamis most frequently occur
Tsunamis are not single waves, but rather "wave trains" consisting of multiple waves that pound the shoreline repeatedly. They are generated when earthquakes or landslides cause the seafloor to abruptly deform and vertically displace the overlying water. As the tsunami wave travels from deep to shallow water, its wavelength decreases rapidly, causing the water to pile up into tremendous crests in a process called "shoaling". Most tsunamis are caused by earthquakes in subduction zones, where an oceanic plate is being forced down into the mantle by plate tectonic forces, causing the plates to become stuck and energy to accumulate over long periods of time. Tsunamis most frequently occur in the
An earthquake is caused by a sudden release of energy in the earth's crust that creates seismic waves. Earthquakes are primarily caused by the movement of tectonic plates deep underground. The location where the earthquake starts is called the hypocenter, and the point directly above on the surface is the epicenter. Earthquakes can cause significant damage through ground shaking, surface ruptures, landslides, liquefaction, tsunamis and fires. While earthquakes also lead to some benefits like forming natural springs and mineral resources, they typically have many negative effects such as damage to buildings and infrastructure, loss of lives, and economic impacts.
Plate tectonics is the theory that the Earth's outermost shell is divided into plates that constantly move and interact with one another. Earthquakes, volcanoes, and mountain ranges occur primarily at plate boundaries. There are three main types of plate boundaries: divergent boundaries where plates move apart, convergent boundaries where plates move together, and transform boundaries where plates slide past one another. Each boundary type results in different geological effects depending on whether oceanic or continental crust is involved in the plate interaction.
A tsunami is a series of waves generated by large displacements of water, often caused by earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, landslides or other disturbances. Tsunami waves have extremely long wavelengths of up to hundreds of kilometers and grow dramatically in height and destructive power when reaching shallow coastal waters. Notable historic tsunamis include the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami that killed over 230,000 people across 14 countries making it one of the deadliest natural disasters in modern times. Current research focuses on better understanding why some quakes trigger tsunamis while others don't and improving tsunami forecasting across ocean basins.
The document discusses plate tectonics and the structure of the Earth. It describes how seismic waves can reveal layers inside the Earth like the crust, mantle, and core. It explains continental drift and how the theory of plate tectonics developed. Plates move at boundaries where they can spread apart, collide, or slide past each other, causing earthquakes and building landforms.
This document provides information on formwork used in concrete construction. It defines formwork and lists its common materials as steel and wood. It describes the major objectives in formwork as quality, safety, and economy. It discusses the various types of formwork including temporary and permanent structures. It also provides details on formwork for different structural elements like walls, columns, slabs, beams, stairs, and chimneys. Finally, it covers topics like requirements, loads, design, and maintenance of formwork.
This document provides information on safety practices for hand tools and grinding tools. It discusses hazards associated with both types of tools and outlines safety precautions and regulations. For hand tools, common hazards include tool misuse, improper maintenance, and loose or damaged parts. Grinding tools can cause injuries from contact with abrasive surfaces or failure of grinding wheels. The document recommends personal protective equipment, proper tool use and maintenance, guarding, training, and following manufacturer guidelines to prevent injuries when using hand and grinding tools.
The document discusses various methods of aerating water, including using spray nozzles, permitting water to trickle over cascades, air diffusion using perforated pipes, and using trickling beds. It also discusses water softening processes to remove hardness, including boiling to remove temporary hardness, and lime-soda and zeolite (ion exchange) processes to remove permanent hardness. The lime-soda process uses lime and soda ash to precipitate calcium and magnesium, while zeolite processes exchange sodium ions in zeolite for calcium and magnesium ions in hard water.
This document discusses various types of pressure pipes used in water supply systems. The main types discussed are cast iron pipes, steel pipes, reinforced cement concrete pipes, hume steel pipes, vitrified clay pipes, and asbestos cement pipes. For each type, the document outlines the material properties, sizes available, joining methods, advantages, and disadvantages. Cast iron pipes are described as moderately priced and durable but heavy. Steel pipes are presented as strong but corrosive. Reinforced cement concrete pipes have a long lifespan but are difficult to repair.
Admixtures are materials added to concrete mixes to modify properties. There are two main types - chemical and mineral. Chemical admixtures include plasticizers, superplasticizers, retarders, accelerators, and air-entraining agents. Mineral admixtures include fly ash, slag, and silica fume. Admixtures are used to increase workability, strength, and durability while decreasing water demand and permeability. Common admixtures like plasticizers and superplasticizers work by dispersing cement particles and lubricating the mix to increase flowability.
A compass consists of a magnetic needle, graduated circle, and sighting components housed in a box. There are two main types used for angle measurement: a prismatic compass and a surveyor's compass. A prismatic compass has a fixed graduated card and prism for viewing, while a surveyor's compass rotates the graduated circle and has a slit instead of a prism. Plane table surveying is a graphical surveying method where field observations and plotting are done simultaneously using a plane table, alidade, and other accessories. Common plane table methods include radiation, intersection, traversing, and resection. Potential errors in plane table surveying can arise from imperfect instruments, sighting mistakes, or incorrect plotting.
An In-Depth Exploration of Natural Language Processing: Evolution, Applicatio...DharmaBanothu
Natural language processing (NLP) has
recently garnered significant interest for the
computational representation and analysis of human
language. Its applications span multiple domains such
as machine translation, email spam detection,
information extraction, summarization, healthcare,
and question answering. This paper first delineates
four phases by examining various levels of NLP and
components of Natural Language Generation,
followed by a review of the history and progression of
NLP. Subsequently, we delve into the current state of
the art by presenting diverse NLP applications,
contemporary trends, and challenges. Finally, we
discuss some available datasets, models, and
evaluation metrics in NLP.
Data Communication and Computer Networks Management System Project Report.pdfKamal Acharya
Networking is a telecommunications network that allows computers to exchange data. In
computer networks, networked computing devices pass data to each other along data
connections. Data is transferred in the form of packets. The connections between nodes are
established using either cable media or wireless media.
Cricket management system ptoject report.pdfKamal Acharya
The aim of this project is to provide the complete information of the National and
International statistics. The information is available country wise and player wise. By
entering the data of eachmatch, we can get all type of reports instantly, which will be
useful to call back history of each player. Also the team performance in each match can
be obtained. We can get a report on number of matches, wins and lost.
Sri Guru Hargobind Ji - Bandi Chor Guru.pdfBalvir Singh
Sri Guru Hargobind Ji (19 June 1595 - 3 March 1644) is revered as the Sixth Nanak.
• On 25 May 1606 Guru Arjan nominated his son Sri Hargobind Ji as his successor. Shortly
afterwards, Guru Arjan was arrested, tortured and killed by order of the Mogul Emperor
Jahangir.
• Guru Hargobind's succession ceremony took place on 24 June 1606. He was barely
eleven years old when he became 6th Guru.
• As ordered by Guru Arjan Dev Ji, he put on two swords, one indicated his spiritual
authority (PIRI) and the other, his temporal authority (MIRI). He thus for the first time
initiated military tradition in the Sikh faith to resist religious persecution, protect
people’s freedom and independence to practice religion by choice. He transformed
Sikhs to be Saints and Soldier.
• He had a long tenure as Guru, lasting 37 years, 9 months and 3 days
5. When the rough spots can no longer hold,
the sudden release of the built-up motion
releases, and the sudden movement under
the sea floor causes a submarine
earthquake.
This area of slippage both horizontally and
vertically is called the epicenter, and has the
highest magnitude, and causes the greatest
damage
6. As with a continental earthquake the severity of the
damage is not often caused by the earthquake at the rift
zone, but rather by events which are triggered by the
earthquake.
Where a continental earthquake will cause damage
and loss of life on land from fires, damaged structures,
and flying objects; a submarine earthquake alters the
sea bed floor, resulting in a series of waves, and
depending on the length and magnitude of the
earthquake, huge tidal waves and tsunamis, which bear
down on coastal cities causing property damages and
loss of life.
7. Submarine earthquakes can also damage
submarine communications cables, leading
to widespread disruption of the Internet and
international telephone network in those
areas. This is particularly common in Asia,
where many submarine links cross
submarine earthquake zones such as the
Pacific Ring of Fire.
8. Tsunamis are a series of catastrophic ocean
waves that are formed after submarine
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, landslides,
or asteroids striking the earth.
Asteroids may not be a normal occurrence;
however, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions,
and landslides under the ocean happen
more frequently than you realize.
9. produced by a submarine earthquake, volcanic eruption,
sediment slide
Seafloor movements in
submarine earthquake
11. Once the earthquake occurs and the
ocean floor is disturbed, waves travel
outward in all directions from the focus of
the earthquake.
Imagine throwing a rock into a lake on a
summer day. When the rock breaks the
surface of the water, ripples appear and
radiate outward from the point where the
rock entered the water.
12. The waves then travel through the open sea.
In the open ocean, these waves may reach a
speed up to 500 miles per hour (720
kilometers per hour).
Their wavelengths may also be up to several
hundred miles. One surprising fact is that
their heights at this point may only reach less
than three feet (one meter). Even a ship at
sea would not notice this tsunami wave.
13. The different ways in which tectonic plates rub
against each other under the ocean or sea floor
to create submarine earthquakes.
The type of friction created may be due to the
characteristic of the geologic fault or the plate
boundary as follows. Some of the main areas
of large tsunami producing submarine
earthquakes are the Pacific Ring of Fire and
the Great Sumatran fault
14. The older, and denser plate moves below the lighter plate. The
further down it moves, the hotter it becomes, until finally melting
altogether at the asthenosphere and inner mantle and the crust
is actually destroyed.
The location where the two oceanic plates actually meet become
deeper and deeper creating trenches with each successive
action. There is an interplay of various densities of lithosphere
rock, asthenosphere magma, cooling ocean water and plate
movement for example the Pacific Ring of Fire.
Therefore the site of the sub oceanic trench will be a site of
submarine earthquakes; for example the Mariana Trench.
15. A transform-fault boundary, or simply a
transform boundary is where two plates will
slide past each other, and the irregular
pattern of their edges may catch on each
other.
The lithosphere is neither added to from the
asthenosphere nor is it destroyed as in
convergent plate action.
16. May 4, 1998
A part of the island of Yonaguni was destroyed by a
submarine earthquake.
May 22, 1960 , Valdivia earthquake(Great Chilean
Earthquake) The epicenter is off the coast of South
Central Chile. Magnitude of 9.5.This is the strongest
earthquake ever recorded.
December 20, 1946 , Nankaido earthquake The
epicenter is off the southern coast of Kii
Peninsula and Shikoku,Japan . Magnitude of 8.1
December 7, 1944 Tōnankai earthquake .The
epicenter is about 20 km off the coast of the Shima
Peninsula in Japan. Magnitude of 8.0
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