Pavlov (1927) studied unconditioned reflexes in dogs like salivating in response to food. Later researchers like Watson, Raynor (1920) and Skinner (1957) studied conditioned learning through rewards and punishments in humans and animals. Observational learning theory proposes that behavior can be learned through observing and imitating others. Behavioral therapies for mental health issues are based on classical and operant conditioning principles like systematic desensitization to treat phobias. However, the behavioral approach is limited as it does not consider genetic or cognitive factors in learning and behavior.
The document discusses the history and development of the cognitive perspective in psychology. It notes that early pioneers like John Stuart Mill, Fechner, and Ebbinghaus began experimentally studying topics like memory, learning, and mental processes. Later, William James, Bartlett, and Piaget further demonstrated cognition could be experimentally studied. In the 20th century, Gestalt psychologists, Hebb, and others expanded experimental cognitive psychology. By the 1960s, cognitive science had emerged as an interdisciplinary field combining psychology, linguistics, computer science and more to understand human cognition. Major theories discussed include Beck's cognitive therapy which focuses on automatic thoughts, underlying beliefs and cognitive distortions, and Ellis' rational emotive behavior therapy using the ABC model
Neuropsychological assessment examines cognitive functioning through performance-based testing to determine the effects of brain injury or illness. It assesses areas like memory, intelligence, language, and executive function. The goals are diagnosis of any cognitive problems, understanding the nature and impact of any issues, and measuring change over time such as after treatment. Tests evaluate multiple areas to identify patterns that can indicate neurological disorders. The process involves taking a medical history, interviews, and standardized testing which are compared to norms.
Behavioral assessment focuses on interactions between behavior and environmental situations to effect change. It emphasizes direct observation of problematic behaviors, antecedents, and consequences to understand context and causes. The SORC model conceptualizes problems in terms of Stimulus, Organism, Response, and Consequence. Behavioral assessment methods include interviews, observations in natural and controlled settings using tools like checklists, self-monitoring, and role-playing. Reliability and validity depend on factors like behavior complexity, observer training, content and construct validity, and reactivity.
Pavlov (1927) studied unconditioned reflexes in dogs like salivating in response to food. Later researchers like Watson, Raynor (1920) and Skinner (1957) studied conditioned learning through rewards and punishments in humans and animals. Observational learning theory proposes that behavior can be learned through observing and imitating others. Behavioral therapies for mental health issues are based on classical and operant conditioning principles like systematic desensitization to treat phobias. However, the behavioral approach is limited as it does not consider genetic or cognitive factors in learning and behavior.
The document discusses the history and development of the cognitive perspective in psychology. It notes that early pioneers like John Stuart Mill, Fechner, and Ebbinghaus began experimentally studying topics like memory, learning, and mental processes. Later, William James, Bartlett, and Piaget further demonstrated cognition could be experimentally studied. In the 20th century, Gestalt psychologists, Hebb, and others expanded experimental cognitive psychology. By the 1960s, cognitive science had emerged as an interdisciplinary field combining psychology, linguistics, computer science and more to understand human cognition. Major theories discussed include Beck's cognitive therapy which focuses on automatic thoughts, underlying beliefs and cognitive distortions, and Ellis' rational emotive behavior therapy using the ABC model
Neuropsychological assessment examines cognitive functioning through performance-based testing to determine the effects of brain injury or illness. It assesses areas like memory, intelligence, language, and executive function. The goals are diagnosis of any cognitive problems, understanding the nature and impact of any issues, and measuring change over time such as after treatment. Tests evaluate multiple areas to identify patterns that can indicate neurological disorders. The process involves taking a medical history, interviews, and standardized testing which are compared to norms.
Behavioral assessment focuses on interactions between behavior and environmental situations to effect change. It emphasizes direct observation of problematic behaviors, antecedents, and consequences to understand context and causes. The SORC model conceptualizes problems in terms of Stimulus, Organism, Response, and Consequence. Behavioral assessment methods include interviews, observations in natural and controlled settings using tools like checklists, self-monitoring, and role-playing. Reliability and validity depend on factors like behavior complexity, observer training, content and construct validity, and reactivity.
Sigmund Freud was an Austrian neurologist who developed psychoanalysis. He lived from 1856 to 1939, originally practicing as a doctor in Vienna but later leaving for London after the Nazi takeover of Austria. Freud's psychodynamic theory proposed that unconscious drives and desires shape conscious behavior and personality. He suggested the mind is divided into the id, ego, and superego, and that unconscious conflicts between these lead to neurosis. Freud believed childhood experiences, especially in the psychosexual stages, could impact adult personality and behavior.
Social cognition refers to how people process and respond to social information. It involves interpreting social cues, analyzing social situations, and remembering social information using mental structures called schemas. Schemas help organize our knowledge about social roles, people, and events. When making judgments with limited time and information, people rely on mental shortcuts called heuristics. However, social cognition is not always rational and can involve errors like unrealistic optimism and counterfactual thinking.
Schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders involve positive, negative, and disorganized symptoms that distort thinking, perception, and behavior. Schizophrenia is a chronic condition defined by fundamental distortions in thought, perception, emotion, and behavior. It affects about 1% of the population and typically emerges in early adulthood. Treatment involves antipsychotic medications to reduce positive symptoms as well as psychosocial support. The causes are complex and involve genetic, neurological, developmental, and environmental factors.
This document summarizes dissociative disorders, including their causes, symptoms, and types. Dissociative disorders often develop as a coping mechanism for childhood trauma and result in a disturbance of identity and memory. The main types discussed are dissociative amnesia, characterized by memory loss; dissociative fugue, involving sudden travel away from one's surroundings; and dissociative identity disorder, previously called multiple personality disorder, defined by switching between alternate identities. Biological and neurological factors as well as family dynamics can contribute to dissociative disorders developing in response to trauma.
Ethics, a very important part of psychological research which play major role in the conduction of psychological research it's about the moral values and social norms which applies to all Researchers and there are a comprehensive guidelines about ethics given by American Psychological Association 2013 listed in this presentation.
The document provides an overview of the Rotter Incomplete Sentence Blank (RISB), a projective test used to assess personality and adjustment. It describes the administration and scoring of the 40-item test, with responses scored on a scale of 0-6 compared to norms. Conflict responses indicating maladjustment are scored higher, from 4 for minor issues (CI) to 6 for more serious problems (C3). The RISB aims to quickly screen for adjustment issues rather than provide in-depth diagnosis. It has been found useful for research, selection, and evaluating psychotherapy outcomes.
This document discusses major and mild neurocognitive disorders. It defines neurocognitive disorders as involving cognitive decline and impairment, with mild disorders having slight decline in one function and major disorders having severe decline in one or more functions. It lists several types of neurocognitive disorders including Alzheimer's disease, vascular disorders, frontotemporal disorders, and disorders due to traumatic brain injury, Lewy bodies, Parkinson's disease, prion diseases, and substance abuse. Symptoms vary but include memory loss, confusion, impaired language and motor skills. Treatment involves testing, medication, and psychosocial support.
Clinical assessment involves gathering information to understand abnormal behavior and determine how to help an individual. It can follow three models: the info-gathering model focuses on collecting relevant data; the therapeutic model aims to evaluate treatment progress; and the differential treatment model seeks to determine the best treatment approach. Common assessment methods include clinical interviews, intelligence and personality tests, and behavioral observations. Projective tests like the Rorschach inkblot technique and TAT are also used to reveal unconscious thoughts and feelings.
The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) is a widely used psychological test that was originally developed in 1943 to aid in diagnosing psychological disorders. It uses a self-report format with true/false questions. The revised MMPI-2 version from 1989 includes validity and personality scales in addition to the original clinical scales. The MMPI provides a comprehensive personality profile used to assess psychopathology and adjust clinical diagnoses. It requires literacy at an 8th grade level and takes an untimed administration, with no right or wrong answers.
Object relations theory focuses on how early childhood relationships with caregivers shape mental representations of oneself and others. These internalized object relations influence interpersonal relationships in adulthood. Object relations therapy aims to help clients understand how early relationships impact current difficulties and make adjustments to improve interpersonal functioning. The therapist seeks to build trust so repressed aspects of relationships can be brought to light, enabling clients to experience authentic relationships and less internal conflict. However, object relations therapy requires time and the therapeutic relationship must be secure for insights to develop.
This document discusses different theories of emotion including:
- Common sense theory which links physiological arousal to conscious feelings
- James-Lange theory which links environmental stimuli to physiological responses then emotional experience
- Cannon-Bard theory which links stimuli to simultaneous physiological responses and emotional experiences
- Cognitive appraisal theory which links emotions to cognitive interpretations of situations
It also discusses research on the expression of emotions through nonverbal communication like facial expressions and cultural differences in emotion expression.
Theory of Object Relations was given by, M. Mahler.
Margaret Schönberger Mahler (May 10, 1897 – October 2, 1985) was a Hungarian physician, who later became interested in psychiatry. She was a central figure on the world stage of psychoanalysis. Her main interest was in normal childhood development, but she spent much of her time with psychiatric children and how they arrive at the "self". Mahler developed the separation–individuation theory of child development.
She formulated the theory with Pine & Bergman on 1975.
➡️ Normal autistic phase – First few weeks of life. The infant is detached and self-absorbed. Spends most of his/her time sleeping.
➡️Normal symbiotic phase – Lasts until about 5 months of age. The child is now aware of his/her mother but there is not a sense of individuality. The infant and the mother are one, and there is a barrier between them and the rest of the world.
➡️Separation–individuation phase –
Separation refers to the development of limits, the differentiation between the infant and the mother, whereas individuation refers to the development of the infant's ego, sense of identity, and cognitive abilities.
Mahler explains how a child with the age of a few months breaks out of an "autistic shell" into the world with human connections. This process, labeled separation–individuation, is divided into subphases, each with its own onset, outcomes and risks. The following subphases proceed in this order but overlap considerably
Separation refers to the development of limits, the differentiation between the infant and the mother, whereas individuation refers to the development of the infant's ego, sense of identity, and cognitive abilities.
Mahler explains how a child with the age of a few months breaks out of an "autistic shell" into the world with human connections. This process, labeled separation–individuation, is divided into subphases
▶️Hatching / differentiation
▶️Practicing –
▶️Rapprochement-Rapprochement is divided into a few sub phases:
Beginning – Motivated by a desire to share discoveries with the mother.
Crisis – Between staying with the mother, being emotionally close and being more independent and exploring.
Solution – Individual solutions are enabled by the development of language and the superego.
Disruptions in the fundamental process of separation–individuation can result in a disturbance in the ability to maintain a reliable sense of individual identity in adulthood.
▶️Object constancy or Consolidation phase-
This document provides an overview of sensation and perception. It discusses how sensation is the process of receiving stimulus energies from the external environment through sensory organs like the eyes, ears, skin, tongue and nose. Perception is described as the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information to give it meaning. Sensory receptors detect and transmit stimulus information to the brain. The document outlines concepts like sensory thresholds, habituation, adaptation and top-down and bottom-up processing. It provides examples of absolute and difference thresholds for different senses.
Biological, psychosocial, and sociocultural factors all contribute to abnormal behavior. The document discusses several causal factors at each level:
Biological factors include genetic defects, constitutional liabilities, physical deprivation, disruptive emotional processes, and brain pathology. Psychosocial factors comprise maternal deprivation, pathogenic family environments, early psychic trauma, and problematic interpersonal relationships. Sociocultural influences involve issues like war, prejudice, economic problems, and rapid social change. The causes of abnormal behavior are complex and multifactorial rather than the result of any single influence.
This document discusses motor disorders and their classification. It covers disorders of adaptive movements including expressive, reactive, and goal directed movements. Disorders of non-adaptive movements like stereotypies, parakinesia, tics, tremors, chorea, athetosis, and spasmodic torticollis are described. Motor speech disturbances, disorders of posture, abnormal complex patterns of behavior like stupor and excitement, and drug-induced movement disorders are also summarized.
Sigmund Freud was an Austrian neurologist who developed psychoanalysis. He lived from 1856 to 1939, originally practicing as a doctor in Vienna but later leaving for London after the Nazi takeover of Austria. Freud's psychodynamic theory proposed that unconscious drives and desires shape conscious behavior and personality. He suggested the mind is divided into the id, ego, and superego, and that unconscious conflicts between these lead to neurosis. Freud believed childhood experiences, especially in the psychosexual stages, could impact adult personality and behavior.
Social cognition refers to how people process and respond to social information. It involves interpreting social cues, analyzing social situations, and remembering social information using mental structures called schemas. Schemas help organize our knowledge about social roles, people, and events. When making judgments with limited time and information, people rely on mental shortcuts called heuristics. However, social cognition is not always rational and can involve errors like unrealistic optimism and counterfactual thinking.
Schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders involve positive, negative, and disorganized symptoms that distort thinking, perception, and behavior. Schizophrenia is a chronic condition defined by fundamental distortions in thought, perception, emotion, and behavior. It affects about 1% of the population and typically emerges in early adulthood. Treatment involves antipsychotic medications to reduce positive symptoms as well as psychosocial support. The causes are complex and involve genetic, neurological, developmental, and environmental factors.
This document summarizes dissociative disorders, including their causes, symptoms, and types. Dissociative disorders often develop as a coping mechanism for childhood trauma and result in a disturbance of identity and memory. The main types discussed are dissociative amnesia, characterized by memory loss; dissociative fugue, involving sudden travel away from one's surroundings; and dissociative identity disorder, previously called multiple personality disorder, defined by switching between alternate identities. Biological and neurological factors as well as family dynamics can contribute to dissociative disorders developing in response to trauma.
Ethics, a very important part of psychological research which play major role in the conduction of psychological research it's about the moral values and social norms which applies to all Researchers and there are a comprehensive guidelines about ethics given by American Psychological Association 2013 listed in this presentation.
The document provides an overview of the Rotter Incomplete Sentence Blank (RISB), a projective test used to assess personality and adjustment. It describes the administration and scoring of the 40-item test, with responses scored on a scale of 0-6 compared to norms. Conflict responses indicating maladjustment are scored higher, from 4 for minor issues (CI) to 6 for more serious problems (C3). The RISB aims to quickly screen for adjustment issues rather than provide in-depth diagnosis. It has been found useful for research, selection, and evaluating psychotherapy outcomes.
This document discusses major and mild neurocognitive disorders. It defines neurocognitive disorders as involving cognitive decline and impairment, with mild disorders having slight decline in one function and major disorders having severe decline in one or more functions. It lists several types of neurocognitive disorders including Alzheimer's disease, vascular disorders, frontotemporal disorders, and disorders due to traumatic brain injury, Lewy bodies, Parkinson's disease, prion diseases, and substance abuse. Symptoms vary but include memory loss, confusion, impaired language and motor skills. Treatment involves testing, medication, and psychosocial support.
Clinical assessment involves gathering information to understand abnormal behavior and determine how to help an individual. It can follow three models: the info-gathering model focuses on collecting relevant data; the therapeutic model aims to evaluate treatment progress; and the differential treatment model seeks to determine the best treatment approach. Common assessment methods include clinical interviews, intelligence and personality tests, and behavioral observations. Projective tests like the Rorschach inkblot technique and TAT are also used to reveal unconscious thoughts and feelings.
The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) is a widely used psychological test that was originally developed in 1943 to aid in diagnosing psychological disorders. It uses a self-report format with true/false questions. The revised MMPI-2 version from 1989 includes validity and personality scales in addition to the original clinical scales. The MMPI provides a comprehensive personality profile used to assess psychopathology and adjust clinical diagnoses. It requires literacy at an 8th grade level and takes an untimed administration, with no right or wrong answers.
Object relations theory focuses on how early childhood relationships with caregivers shape mental representations of oneself and others. These internalized object relations influence interpersonal relationships in adulthood. Object relations therapy aims to help clients understand how early relationships impact current difficulties and make adjustments to improve interpersonal functioning. The therapist seeks to build trust so repressed aspects of relationships can be brought to light, enabling clients to experience authentic relationships and less internal conflict. However, object relations therapy requires time and the therapeutic relationship must be secure for insights to develop.
This document discusses different theories of emotion including:
- Common sense theory which links physiological arousal to conscious feelings
- James-Lange theory which links environmental stimuli to physiological responses then emotional experience
- Cannon-Bard theory which links stimuli to simultaneous physiological responses and emotional experiences
- Cognitive appraisal theory which links emotions to cognitive interpretations of situations
It also discusses research on the expression of emotions through nonverbal communication like facial expressions and cultural differences in emotion expression.
Theory of Object Relations was given by, M. Mahler.
Margaret Schönberger Mahler (May 10, 1897 – October 2, 1985) was a Hungarian physician, who later became interested in psychiatry. She was a central figure on the world stage of psychoanalysis. Her main interest was in normal childhood development, but she spent much of her time with psychiatric children and how they arrive at the "self". Mahler developed the separation–individuation theory of child development.
She formulated the theory with Pine & Bergman on 1975.
➡️ Normal autistic phase – First few weeks of life. The infant is detached and self-absorbed. Spends most of his/her time sleeping.
➡️Normal symbiotic phase – Lasts until about 5 months of age. The child is now aware of his/her mother but there is not a sense of individuality. The infant and the mother are one, and there is a barrier between them and the rest of the world.
➡️Separation–individuation phase –
Separation refers to the development of limits, the differentiation between the infant and the mother, whereas individuation refers to the development of the infant's ego, sense of identity, and cognitive abilities.
Mahler explains how a child with the age of a few months breaks out of an "autistic shell" into the world with human connections. This process, labeled separation–individuation, is divided into subphases, each with its own onset, outcomes and risks. The following subphases proceed in this order but overlap considerably
Separation refers to the development of limits, the differentiation between the infant and the mother, whereas individuation refers to the development of the infant's ego, sense of identity, and cognitive abilities.
Mahler explains how a child with the age of a few months breaks out of an "autistic shell" into the world with human connections. This process, labeled separation–individuation, is divided into subphases
▶️Hatching / differentiation
▶️Practicing –
▶️Rapprochement-Rapprochement is divided into a few sub phases:
Beginning – Motivated by a desire to share discoveries with the mother.
Crisis – Between staying with the mother, being emotionally close and being more independent and exploring.
Solution – Individual solutions are enabled by the development of language and the superego.
Disruptions in the fundamental process of separation–individuation can result in a disturbance in the ability to maintain a reliable sense of individual identity in adulthood.
▶️Object constancy or Consolidation phase-
This document provides an overview of sensation and perception. It discusses how sensation is the process of receiving stimulus energies from the external environment through sensory organs like the eyes, ears, skin, tongue and nose. Perception is described as the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information to give it meaning. Sensory receptors detect and transmit stimulus information to the brain. The document outlines concepts like sensory thresholds, habituation, adaptation and top-down and bottom-up processing. It provides examples of absolute and difference thresholds for different senses.
Biological, psychosocial, and sociocultural factors all contribute to abnormal behavior. The document discusses several causal factors at each level:
Biological factors include genetic defects, constitutional liabilities, physical deprivation, disruptive emotional processes, and brain pathology. Psychosocial factors comprise maternal deprivation, pathogenic family environments, early psychic trauma, and problematic interpersonal relationships. Sociocultural influences involve issues like war, prejudice, economic problems, and rapid social change. The causes of abnormal behavior are complex and multifactorial rather than the result of any single influence.
This document discusses motor disorders and their classification. It covers disorders of adaptive movements including expressive, reactive, and goal directed movements. Disorders of non-adaptive movements like stereotypies, parakinesia, tics, tremors, chorea, athetosis, and spasmodic torticollis are described. Motor speech disturbances, disorders of posture, abnormal complex patterns of behavior like stupor and excitement, and drug-induced movement disorders are also summarized.
Emotional and Behavioural Problems in Children - Counselling and Family Thera...PsychoTech Services
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All About Psychology >>
Psychology Super-Notes >> Research Methodology >> Research Methods in Psychology in Behavioral Sciences >> Variables and Constructs
This document provides an overview of hypothesis formulation in research methods in psychology. It defines a hypothesis as a tentative and testable statement about the possible relationship between two or more variables. It discusses the importance of formulating clear and testable hypotheses to guide research. The main types of hypotheses are the null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis. The document outlines considerations for formulating good hypotheses, such as operationalizing variables and reviewing relevant literature. Challenges in hypothesis formulation include a lack of theoretical frameworks or evidence. Errors in hypothesis testing can occur through faulty sampling, measurement, study design, or statistical analysis.
75% of adults reported moderate to high stress levels in the past month. Stress is the body's reaction to challenges and threats and causes wear and tear on the mind and body. There are two types of stress - eustress, which can be exciting and energizing, and distress, which occurs when faced with challenges like job loss. Long-term stress can harm health if not managed properly. Relaxation techniques like breathing exercises and mindfulness can help reduce stress in the short term, while developing organizational skills and a support system provide long-term stress relief. Cognitive behavioral therapy teaches stress management by changing negative thoughts and behaviors.
How to Stop Anxiety and Overthinking with Guided Meditation.pdfKnowing Overt
"Anxiety and Overthinking with Guided Meditation" isn't merely a combination of words; it encapsulates a profound journey toward mental tranquility. In the hustle and bustle of modern life, where anxiety and overthinking often take center stage, this symbiotic relationship with guided meditation emerges as a transformative remedy. It's an ode to finding solace amidst the chaos, a testament to reclaiming mental balance through intentional and mindful practice. As individuals grapple with the whirlwind of incessant thoughts and overwhelming worries, the practice of guided meditation stands as a steadfast companion, offering a pathway to navigate the labyrinth of emotions. Embracing "Anxiety and Overthinking with Guided Meditation" means delving into an introspective voyage, where the tumultuous seas of anxious thoughts gradually find repose, paving the way for serenity and newfound mental resilience.
Understand the psychology of human brain and its use in everyday life.
catch the liars vested in the crowd and read some astonishing psychological facts
All About Psychology >>
Psychology Super-Notes >> Research Methodology >> Research Methods in Psychology >> Understanding Research and Research Process
Similar to Mental Disorders >> Panic Disorder (20)
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IGNOU MSCCFT and PGDCFT Exam Question Pattern: MCFT003 Counselling and Family...PsychoTech Services
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Tips to score more in exams - if you are giving essay type (subjective) exams then this will be useful for you, whether you are in school or university, or a student or arts or science.
Nutritional deficiency Disorder are problems in india.
It is very important to learn about Indian child's nutritional parameters as well the Disease related to alteration in their Nutrition.
Applications of NMR in Protein Structure Prediction.pptxAnagha R Anil
This presentation explores the pivotal role of Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) spectroscopy in predicting protein structures. It delves into the methodologies, advancements, and applications of NMR in determining the three-dimensional configurations of proteins, which is crucial for understanding their function and interactions.
Breast cancer :Receptor (ER/PR/HER2 NEU) Discordance.pptxDr. Sumit KUMAR
Receptor Discordance in Breast Carcinoma During the Course of Life
Definition:
Receptor discordance refers to changes in the status of hormone receptors (estrogen receptor ERα, progesterone receptor PgR, and HER2) in breast cancer tumors over time or between primary and metastatic sites.
Causes:
Tumor Evolution:
Genetic and epigenetic changes during tumor progression can lead to alterations in receptor status.
Treatment Effects:
Therapies, especially endocrine and targeted therapies, can selectively pressure tumor cells, causing shifts in receptor expression.
Heterogeneity:
Inherent heterogeneity within the tumor can result in subpopulations of cells with different receptor statuses.
Impact on Treatment:
Therapeutic Resistance:
Loss of ERα or PgR can lead to resistance to endocrine therapies.
HER2 discordance affects the efficacy of HER2-targeted treatments.
Treatment Adjustment:
Regular reassessment of receptor status may be necessary to adjust treatment strategies appropriately.
Clinical Implications:
Prognosis:
Receptor discordance is often associated with a poorer prognosis.
Biopsies:
Obtaining biopsies from metastatic sites is crucial for accurate receptor status assessment and effective treatment planning.
Monitoring:
Continuous monitoring of receptor status throughout the disease course can guide personalized therapy adjustments.
Understanding and managing receptor discordance is essential for optimizing treatment outcomes and improving the prognosis for breast cancer patients.
Fexofenadine is sold under the brand name Allegra.
It is a selective peripheral H1 blocker. It is classified as a second-generation antihistamine because it is less able to pass the blood–brain barrier and causes lesser sedation, as compared to first-generation antihistamines.
It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. Fexofenadine has been manufactured in generic form since 2011.
congenital GI disorders are very dangerous to child. it is also a leading cause for death of the child.
this congenital GI disorders includes cleft lip, cleft palate, hirchsprung's disease etc.
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Selective alpha1 blockers are Prazosin, Terazosin, Doxazosin, Tamsulosin and Silodosin majorly used to treat BPH, also hypertension, PTSD, Raynaud's phenomenon, CHF
Storyboard on Acne-Innovative Learning-M. pharm. (2nd sem.) CosmeticsMuskanShingari
Acne is a common skin condition that occurs when hair follicles become clogged with oil and dead skin cells. It typically manifests as pimples, blackheads, or whiteheads, often on the face, chest, shoulders, or back. Acne can range from mild to severe and may cause emotional distress and scarring in some cases.
**Causes:**
1. **Excess Oil Production:** Hormonal changes during adolescence or certain times in adulthood can increase sebum (oil) production, leading to clogged pores.
2. **Clogged Pores:** When dead skin cells and oil block hair follicles, bacteria (usually Propionibacterium acnes) can thrive, causing inflammation and acne lesions.
3. **Hormonal Factors:** Fluctuations in hormone levels, such as during puberty, menstrual cycles, pregnancy, or certain medical conditions, can contribute to acne.
4. **Genetics:** A family history of acne can increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
**Types of Acne:**
- **Whiteheads:** Closed plugged pores.
- **Blackheads:** Open plugged pores with a dark surface.
- **Papules:** Small red, tender bumps.
- **Pustules:** Pimples with pus at their tips.
- **Nodules:** Large, solid, painful lumps beneath the surface.
- **Cysts:** Painful, pus-filled lumps beneath the surface that can cause scarring.
**Treatment:**
Treatment depends on the severity and type of acne but may include:
- **Topical Treatments:** Such as benzoyl peroxide, salicylic acid, or retinoids to reduce bacteria and unclog pores.
- **Oral Medications:** Antibiotics or oral contraceptives for hormonal acne.
- **Procedures:** Such as chemical peels, extraction of comedones, or light therapy for more severe cases.
**Prevention and Management:**
- **Cleanse:** Regularly wash skin with a gentle cleanser.
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Psychopathology >> Clinical Features of Anxiety Disorders - Panic Disorder >> Contents
Contents
1. Introduction to Anxiety Disorders
2. Introduction to Panic Attacks
3. Diagnosis & Epidemiology
4. Case Study
5. Aetiology
6. Treatment
10
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Psychopathology >> Clinical Features of Anxiety Disorders - Panic Disorder >> Introduction to Anxiety Disorders
1. Introduction to Anxiety Disorders (1/2)
11
Anxiety is normal…
• Anxiety is a common reaction to stress. It prevents
humans from being careless.
• Examples:
• Anxiety about your examination makes you study.
• Anxiety over her baby’s health makes a mother
care for her baby.
…however, in same situations anxiety can be abnormal
• If anxiety crosses a reasonable limit, it might become a disorder
• Examples:
• when one is so anxious that he/she has a breakdown in the
exam hall, forgetting everything
• when a mother is so anxious about her baby’s health, that she
spends day and night praying to God
Nature of Anxiety
Fear
• Fear is a basic emotion of human beings associated with
the perception of a real threatening situation and involves
the ‘fight or flight’ response activated by the sympathetic
nervous system.
• Example: If a street thug attacks you, you would feel intense
fear. Then, you would either run for dear life, or hit him back.
• Thus fear involves:
• cognition of the threatening object,
• subjective cognition of being in danger,
• physiological components like increased heart rate,
• behavioural components like running or hitting.
Anxiety
• Anxiety also involves subjective perception of threat,
physiological changes and some behavioural reaction.
• However, there is no immediate threat - you are
projecting the threatening situation in future and
reacting to it as if it is imminent. If you cannot go out of
your home because of apprehensions of an attack by a
hoodlum, it is anxiety.
• Anxiety serves an adaptive function - it prepares a person
for fight or flight if the danger really comes. But if the
person avoids the situation that in her perception may
cause the danger, and if such imagined situations are
unrealistic, then the effect becomes debilitating.
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One may distinguish between adaptive
anxiety and pathological anxiety by
assessing the realistic probability of the
occurrence of the object of anxiety and
by assessing how dysfunctional it makes
the person.
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1. Introduction to Anxiety Disorders (2/2)
13
Common Characteristics/Nature of Anxiety Disorders
• Cognition or subjective perception of danger – may be accompanied by
vivid, occasionally morbid, images of the difficulties encountered.
• Physiological Responses - through activation of sympathetic nervous
system. Usually includes dilated pupils, increased heart rate, trembling,
breathing discomfort, nausea etc.
• Behavioural Responses - usually a tendency to avoid the dreaded situation.
Except in OCD and sometimes PTSD, where repetitive behaviour is observed.
Anxiety
Disorder
Anxiety Disorder is a blanket term that covers a group of disorders characterized by
irrational fear of some thing or situation. The person is usually aware of the irrationality.
Focus of this document
1
Panic Disorder
(with or without
agoraphobia)
2
Phobic Disorders
(specific or social)
3
Generalised
Anxiety Disorder
(GAD)
4
Obsessive
Compulsive
Disorder
(OCD)
5
Post Traumatic
Stress Disorder
(PTSD)
Types of Anxiety Disorders
(DSM IV TR)
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Psychopathology >> Clinical Features of Anxiety Disorders - Panic Disorder >> Contents
Contents
1. Introduction to Anxiety Disorders
2. Introduction to Panic Attacks
3. Diagnosis & Epidemiology
4. Case Study
5. Aetiology
6. Treatment
14
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Psychopathology >> Clinical Features of Anxiety Disorders - Panic Disorder >> Introduction to Panic Attacks
2. Introduction to Panic Attacks
• Panic attacks are characterized by their unexpectedness - the symptoms develop abruptly
and usually reach its peak within 10 - 15 minutes. During such attack the victim becomes
completely overpowered by the symptoms, many of which are physiological in nature.
• Panic attack is not dangerous, but it can be truly frightening. In a number of cases patients
have been admitted for emergency cardiac care, particularly because the symptoms, mostly
physiological, mimic cardiac symptoms.
• Panic attacks can be with or without agoraphobia.
• Panic attacks with agoraphobia seem to be precipitated by attending a cinema hall, a
shopping mall, a queue, tunnels, trains, aircrafts etc., where a large number of people
congregate and escape in case of a panic attack may be difficult.
15
Panic Attack
Panic attack is an episode of irrational intense fear or apprehension that is of sudden
onset. It is accompanied by strong autonomic arousal and numerous bodily symptoms
often mimicking cardiac attack.
Agoraphobia
The word ‘agora’ is Greek for ‘public places’ or ‘assembly of people.’ Agoraphobia is the
irrational intense fear of crowded places from where escape might be difficult.
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Psychopathology >> Clinical Features of Anxiety Disorders - Panic Disorder >> Introduction to Panic Attacks
2.1. Clinical Features of a Panic Attack
Brain: Irritability, Dizziness
16
Throat: Lump
Muscles: Tension
Skin: Sweating
Blood: High BP
Intestine: Nausea, Diarrhea
Limb Extremities:
Paresthesia (pins and
needles sensation)
Windpipe: Choking sensation
Lungs: Breathlessness
Heart: Palpitation
• The typical clinical description of panic attack is
featured by intense terror, at times in the form
of fear of dying or going crazy.
• Nervousness, shaking and stress are common.
• The most prominent underlying characteristic is
the person seems to have no control on oneself.
• Sometimes one feels like the beginning of a heart
attack, as difficulty in breathing (as if one is not
getting enough air), palpitation, hyperventilation,
rapid heart bits, chest pain and choking sensation
along with profuse sweating predominate.
• Often there is a dizziness, lightheadedness,
nausea and fainting.
• One feels dissociated from reality – one almost
seems to be detached from the immediate
surroundings and drawn in a whirlpool of odd
sensations.
• Occasionally there are hot flashes or sudden
chills, burning sensation in facial and neck area,
tingling in fingers and toes (paresthesia).
• Difficulty in vision is also observed in the form of
flashing vision and tunnel vision (loss of
peripheral vision).
• The reactions are usually those associated with
activation of sympathetic nervous system.
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Contents
1. Introduction to Anxiety Disorders
2. Introduction to Panic Attacks
3. Diagnosis & Epidemiology
4. Case Study
5. Aetiology
6. Treatment
17
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Psychopathology >> Clinical Features of Anxiety Disorders - Panic Disorder >> Diagnosis and Epidemiology
3. Panic Disorder Diagnosis and Epidemiology
18
Diagnosis
• As per DSM IV TR a person can be diagnosed as suffering from
panic disorder if she has experienced recurrent unexpected attacks
and is persistently concerned with having another attack for at least
one month.
• She must have at least 4 of the 13 symptoms during the attack:
1. Palpitation or pounding heart
2. Sweating
3. Trembling or shaking
4. Sensation of shortness of breath or being smothered
5. Feeling of choking
6. Chest pain or discomfort
7. Nausea or abdominal distress
8. Feeling dizzy, lightheaded or faint
9. Derealisation or depersonalisation
10. Fear of losing control or going crazy
11. Fear of dying
12. Paresthesias
13. Chill or hot flushes.
Epidemiology of Panic Attacks
• Estimations of prevalence of
panic disorder and panic attacks
at some point of life ranges
between 3% to 5% of the
population.
• It is usually more common in
women.
• This gender difference may be
attributed to cultural factors, as
unrealistic fear is tolerated more
in women, but men need to
keep up a brave face.
• Thus, in different cultures with
different gender role
prescriptions, the male female
ratio may change.
• The age of onset is usually
between 15 and 24.
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Contents
1. Introduction to Anxiety Disorders
2. Introduction to Panic Attacks
3. Diagnosis & Epidemiology
4. Case Study
5. Aetiology
6. Treatment
19
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Psychopathology >> Clinical Features of Anxiety Disorders - Panic Disorder >> Case Study
4. Panic Disorder Case Study
• Background: Sophia is a young lady from a middle class family, studying at the University. She lives in the suburbs and
regularly takes the metro to the University. She is somewhat introvert, apparently cool and rational, and determined to
finish her education.
• Event:
− One day while waiting for the train, she had some kind of physical discomfort. However, she ignored it and boarded
the train. The train was moderately crowded and she did not get a seat. She stood in front of the seat reserved for
ladies.
− A few minutes later, she felt choked and nauseated, started sweating profusely. She was so uncomfortable that she
asked the elderly lady sitting in front of her for help. This lady immediately offered her a seat and asked her what her
problem was.
− By this time, Sophia was trembling and started crying - “I am going to die.” Other passengers gave her water to drink,
and at the next station they took her out of the train and contacted the authority.
− She was taken to a hospital and her father was informed. By the time he arrived, Sophia was feeling much better.
• Diagnosis:
− Doctors found a rapid pulse rate, but did not get anything indicating cardiac problem.
− She retrospectively reported extreme fear of being choked to death, especially as she was in an underground train
and could not jump out and run for the sunlight up on the streets.
− The experience left Sophia extremely fearful of travel by underground train. She understands that this is irrational, but
cannot face traveling by underground train again, or even crowded buses. Now she takes auto rickshaws for her
travel and has to change vehicles a number of times to reach the University.
− Her confidence has lowered considerably. Often she insists that her father accompany her.
− She has been diagnosed of panic attack with agoraphobia.
20
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Psychopathology >> Clinical Features of Anxiety Disorders - Panic Disorder >> Contents
Contents
1. Introduction to Anxiety Disorders
2. Introduction to Panic Attacks
3. Diagnosis & Epidemiology
4. Case Study
5. Aetiology
6. Treatment
21
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Psychopathology >> Clinical Features of Anxiety Disorders - Panic Disorder >> Aetiology
5. Panic Disorder Aetiology
22
Causes of Panic Disorder
1
Biological Causes
1.1
Genetic Factors
1.2
Biochemical abnormalities
in the Brain
2
Psychosocial Causes
2.1
Learning Factors
2.2
Cognitive Factors
Changes in the individual’s
perception which trigger
panic attacks.
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Psychopathology >> Clinical Features of Anxiety Disorders - Panic Disorder >> Aetiology
5.1. Biological Factors
23
1.1. Genetic Factors
• Family and twin studies indicate
that panic disorder runs in
families. Identical twins seem to
have greater possibilities of
panic disorder, while
concordance is less in fraternal
twins.
• The specific genes responsible
for panic disorder are yet to be
discovered. However, there
seems some evidence that
panic disorder and phobia may
have some genetic
commonness.
1.2. Brain and biochemical abnormalities
• Exposure to certain biochemicals causes panic attack in those who
are already suffering from panic disorder, while there may be no
impact on others. Thus, there might be definite neurobiological
differences between those with panic disorder and normal individuals.
• Some substances provoking panic are sodium lactate, carbon
dioxide, caffeine etc. However, the brain mechanisms associated with
their actions are not identical and possibly a single neurobiological
mechanism may not be responsible for all types of panic attacks.
• Some brain mechanisms implicated in panic attack are:
• Increased activity in the hippocampus and locus coeruleus, which
are responsible for monitoring external and internal stimuli and
moderate brain’s reactions to them.
• Amygdala is critically important in fear reaction, and is involved in
the ‘fear network’ of the brain. Abnormal sensitivity in this region
may cause repeated anxiety attacks.
• Increased noradrenergic activity simulates cardiac problem by
enhancing heart rate and breathing problems.
• People with panic disorder may have abnormalities in their
benzodiazepine receptors which help in anxiety reduction. The role
of GABA neurotransmitter may be important.
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The Vicious Panic Cycle
Psychopathology >> Clinical Features of Anxiety Disorders - Panic Disorder >> Aetiology
5.2.1. Learning Factors
24
Perceived
Threat
Apprehension
of panic attack
(fear of fear)
Bodily
Sensations
Interpretation
of sensations as
catastrophe
Triggering Stimulus
(external or internal)
• Learning theory views panic attacks as a learnt
phenomena – specifically as responses to
conditioned stimuli.
• Sophia’s case:
• Her first panic attack happened in the metro.
• So the situation of the train became the
conditioned stimulus, and she is afraid that
panic attack may happen again when she is in
a crowded vehicle.
• Thus, the initial learning is reinforced and
increases in vigour by reinforcements in a
cyclic pattern. This explanation is also known
as ‘fear of fear’.
• Sometimes, an internal stimulus may act as the
trigger for panic attack.
• Example: an increased heart rate may be so
associated with panic attack experiences that if
heart rate increases for any reason, panic
attack starts.
• Thus, oversensitivity to internal stimuli can also
be a cause of panic disorder. Triggering Stimulus
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Psychopathology >> Clinical Features of Anxiety Disorders - Panic Disorder >> Aetiology
5.2.2. Cognitive Factors
• The cognitive approach to panic attack focuses on the interpretation of bodily sensations and
external cues that may trigger the attack.
• While the learning approach highlights the oversensitivity to bodily cues, the cognitive approach further
affirms that a catastrophic meaning may be assigned to the bodily sensation.
− Example: racing of the heart may be attributed to a serious malfunctioning of the cardiac system,
rather than to the medicine one has taken.
• If the person is not aware of this catastrophic thought, it may fall within the arena of ‘automatic thoughts’
that non-consciously result in the attack.
• The role of interpretation is crucial here.
− This has been highlighted by experiments where the heart rate has been increased in panic disorder
patients by using drugs.
− If the person knows about the possible effects of the drug, panic attack does not take place or occurs
to a much milder degree.
• Panic disorder patients are also known to demonstrate cognitive bias toward certain experiences and
symbols.
− Example: they may be more prone to words like ‘fainting’ or ‘shortness of breath’.
− It is, however, not clear whether these biases have been generated after repeated panic attacks or
were already present before the first attack.
• But, there seems to be accumulating evidence that a special kind of cognitive orientation is present in
some people, which make them more amenable to consider certain stimuli as triggers of panic attack
more quickly than others.
25
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Psychopathology >> Clinical Features of Anxiety Disorders - Panic Disorder >> Contents
Contents
1. Introduction to Anxiety Disorders
2. Introduction to Panic Attacks
3. Diagnosis & Epidemiology
4. Case Study
5. Aetiology
6. Treatment
26
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Psychopathology >> Clinical Features of Anxiety Disorders - Panic Disorder >> Treatment
6. Panic Disorder Treatment
Panic disorder may be treated by pharmacology or psychotherapy, or a combination of both.
27
Pharmacology
• Tranquilizers from the Benzodiazepine group
of drugs (alprazolam or clonazepam) are often
used to handle panic attacks.
• These however, have the side effect of being
addictive.
• Antidepressants like Tricyclics and SSRIs
(Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors) have
also been used successfully to deal with panic
attacks.
• These drugs, particularly SSRIs do not have
the immediate calming effect like the
Benzodiazepine group of drugs
• They are relatively free from addiction and
have better result in long term treatment.
• Although extrapyramidal effects like
dryness of mouth may be occasional side
effects, these are better tolerated by most
people also.
Psychotherapy
• Relaxation techniques and breathing exercises are
useful for self management by the patient.
• These techniques include gradually relaxing the
muscles of your body, progressively from one
extremity to another, and controlling breathing so
that the internal cues of fear are regulated and under
control.
• Cognitive technique can be used to identify the
erroneous automatic thoughts and review them in the
light of reality orientation.
• Example: ask the patient to imagine the worst that
can happen to her and to judge the probability of its
occurrence in real life. Ask her to identify the
triggering cues and to dissociate them by practice
from the immediate physiological responses.
• It has been suggested that cognitive technique is
more helpful than medicine for long term
maintenance of the cure in case pf panic disorder.
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