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Psychology Super-Notes >> Research Methodology >> Research Methods in Psychology in Behavioral Sciences >> Variables and Constructs
This document provides an introduction to studying mental health. It discusses that nearly half of Australians will experience a mental disorder in their lifetime. It emphasizes studying the topic scientifically and not diagnosing oneself or others. It defines key concepts like normality, mental health, mental illness and psychological dysfunction. Normality is explained using six approaches: socio-cultural, functional, statistical, medical, situational and historical. Mental health involves well-being and coping skills, while mental illness causes distress and dysfunction. The document provides learning activities to further explain these concepts.
The document discusses various psychotherapeutic approaches and treatment methods for psychological disorders. It covers psychoanalysis and its methods developed by Sigmund Freud to access the unconscious mind. It also discusses humanistic therapies focused on empowering clients, like Carl Rogers' client-centered therapy. Behavioral therapies aim to change behaviors through conditioning principles. Cognitive therapies seek to change thinking patterns, exemplified by Aaron Beck and Albert Ellis. Alternative therapies mentioned include light therapy and EMDR. Drug therapies involve various psychopharmacological medications to treat conditions like schizophrenia, anxiety, and depression.
A quick overview of best practice treatments for mental disorders. Great for personal study, as flashcards, for study for the NCMHCE or similar exams, or as a presentation.
Counselor Toolbox Podcast with Dr. Dawn-Elise Snipes produces 2 episodes each week and offers CEUs based on the podcast at AllCEUs.com/counselortoolbox
This document provides an overview of psychiatric nursing. It discusses concepts like mental health and illness, the components of mental health, and criteria for diagnosing mental disorders. It also describes the core of psychiatric nursing as being interpersonal relationships with a focus on the patient. Additionally, it covers topics like the central nervous system, neurotransmitters, genetics/heredity, Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theory including concepts like the id, ego, and superego, and defense mechanisms.
Major depressive disorder is one of the most common psychiatric disorders, affecting nearly 17% of the population. It is characterized by depressed mood or loss of interest/pleasure for at least two weeks, along with other symptoms such as changes in appetite, sleep, energy levels, concentration, feelings of worthlessness and thoughts of death or suicide. Biological factors like abnormalities in neurotransmitter systems, hormones, and sleep patterns are implicated in its etiology. Treatment involves medications and psychotherapy.
Freud believed that personality develops through psychosexual stages in childhood and is composed of the id, ego, and superego. The id operates on the pleasure principle, the ego mediates the id and reality, and the superego incorporates social values. Personality is shaped by how conflicts during psychosexual stages like oral, anal, phallic, latent, and genital are resolved. The ego defends against anxiety using mechanisms like repression, regression, and rationalization. Neo-Freudians like Jung, Adler, and Horney modified Freud's theories, and modern research questions some Freudian concepts like the Oedipus complex and unconscious desires.
Quick review of the essential pointsâ DSM5 diagnosis criteria, assessments, treatmentsâof these disorders to better prepare for the National Clinical Mental Health Counseling Exam. This can be used like flashcards or as a presentation.
Creating and reinforcing psychological health is the goal in successfully living a balanced lifestyle. Learn to preserve and promote psychological health!.
Psychological disorders with age and their management pptBhavya Vashisht
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Three personality disorders are discussed: Borderline Personality Disorder is characterized by instability in relationships, self-image, emotions and impulsivity. Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder involves perfectionism, order and control that interferes with tasks. Paranoid Personality Disorder includes distrust and suspiciousness of others' motives. All three can be treated through psychotherapy and sometimes medications to modify symptoms and promote healthy development.
OCD Action - Making CBT work - Paul Salkovskis joelocdaction
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This document provides information about cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) for obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD). It discusses what OCD is, how it can be understood, and what CBT involves. CBT aims to help patients understand the nature of their problem and "choose to change" by identifying and modifying unhelpful beliefs and behaviors. The document emphasizes that CBT requires active participation from both the patient and therapist working together as "two experts." It provides tips for choosing a therapist and getting the most out of therapy through preparation, goal setting, and behavioral experiments.
This document provides an overview of key concepts in mental health and nursing, including:
1) Qualities of mental health and the DSM-IV diagnostic system with five axes.
2) Professional standards in nursing including ethics, patient's bill of rights, and legal considerations like involuntary commitment.
3) Therapeutic approaches, the stages of the therapeutic relationship, and techniques for communication and assessing anxiety levels.
4) Guidelines for dealing with upset patients, conflict management, and appropriate interventions for different anxiety levels including restraint and seclusion.
This document provides information on bipolar disorders, including their characteristics, diagnostic criteria, and specifiers. Key points include:
- Bipolar disorders involve disturbances in mood ranging from depression to mania. Major types include Bipolar I, Bipolar II, and Cyclothymic Disorder.
- Diagnosis requires meeting criteria for depressive, hypomanic or manic episodes. Hypomanic episodes involve elevated mood for 4+ days with 3+ symptoms. Manic episodes last 1+ weeks with similar but more severe symptoms.
- Specifiers further characterize episodes, such as with anxious distress, mixed features, or rapid cycling. Organic causes and substance use can also induce bipolar-
Schizophrenia is a psychotic disorder characterized by disturbances in thinking, behavior, and emotions. It has biological, psychological, and social contributing factors. Biologically, it is linked to genetic predisposition, changes in brain activity like abnormal dopamine levels, and drug use in some cases. Psychologically, it involves impaired reasoning and memory. Socially, factors include social disadvantages, trauma, and psycho-social stress. Treatment involves both biological approaches like dopamine-blocking medication and psychological/social approaches like CBT, social support, and reducing stigma. A biopsychosocial model recognizes the interaction between biological, psychological, and social vulnerabilities in the development of schizophrenia.
Emotional and Behavioural Problems in Children - Counselling and Family Thera...PsychoTech Services
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Gender and Mental Health - Counselling and Family Therapy Applications and In...PsychoTech Services
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All About Psychology >>
Psychology Super-Notes >> Research Methodology >> Research Methods in Psychology in Behavioral Sciences >> Variables and Constructs
This document provides an introduction to studying mental health. It discusses that nearly half of Australians will experience a mental disorder in their lifetime. It emphasizes studying the topic scientifically and not diagnosing oneself or others. It defines key concepts like normality, mental health, mental illness and psychological dysfunction. Normality is explained using six approaches: socio-cultural, functional, statistical, medical, situational and historical. Mental health involves well-being and coping skills, while mental illness causes distress and dysfunction. The document provides learning activities to further explain these concepts.
The document discusses various psychotherapeutic approaches and treatment methods for psychological disorders. It covers psychoanalysis and its methods developed by Sigmund Freud to access the unconscious mind. It also discusses humanistic therapies focused on empowering clients, like Carl Rogers' client-centered therapy. Behavioral therapies aim to change behaviors through conditioning principles. Cognitive therapies seek to change thinking patterns, exemplified by Aaron Beck and Albert Ellis. Alternative therapies mentioned include light therapy and EMDR. Drug therapies involve various psychopharmacological medications to treat conditions like schizophrenia, anxiety, and depression.
A quick overview of best practice treatments for mental disorders. Great for personal study, as flashcards, for study for the NCMHCE or similar exams, or as a presentation.
Counselor Toolbox Podcast with Dr. Dawn-Elise Snipes produces 2 episodes each week and offers CEUs based on the podcast at AllCEUs.com/counselortoolbox
This document provides an overview of psychiatric nursing. It discusses concepts like mental health and illness, the components of mental health, and criteria for diagnosing mental disorders. It also describes the core of psychiatric nursing as being interpersonal relationships with a focus on the patient. Additionally, it covers topics like the central nervous system, neurotransmitters, genetics/heredity, Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theory including concepts like the id, ego, and superego, and defense mechanisms.
Major depressive disorder is one of the most common psychiatric disorders, affecting nearly 17% of the population. It is characterized by depressed mood or loss of interest/pleasure for at least two weeks, along with other symptoms such as changes in appetite, sleep, energy levels, concentration, feelings of worthlessness and thoughts of death or suicide. Biological factors like abnormalities in neurotransmitter systems, hormones, and sleep patterns are implicated in its etiology. Treatment involves medications and psychotherapy.
Freud believed that personality develops through psychosexual stages in childhood and is composed of the id, ego, and superego. The id operates on the pleasure principle, the ego mediates the id and reality, and the superego incorporates social values. Personality is shaped by how conflicts during psychosexual stages like oral, anal, phallic, latent, and genital are resolved. The ego defends against anxiety using mechanisms like repression, regression, and rationalization. Neo-Freudians like Jung, Adler, and Horney modified Freud's theories, and modern research questions some Freudian concepts like the Oedipus complex and unconscious desires.
Quick review of the essential pointsâ DSM5 diagnosis criteria, assessments, treatmentsâof these disorders to better prepare for the National Clinical Mental Health Counseling Exam. This can be used like flashcards or as a presentation.
Creating and reinforcing psychological health is the goal in successfully living a balanced lifestyle. Learn to preserve and promote psychological health!.
Psychological disorders with age and their management pptBhavya Vashisht
Â
Three personality disorders are discussed: Borderline Personality Disorder is characterized by instability in relationships, self-image, emotions and impulsivity. Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder involves perfectionism, order and control that interferes with tasks. Paranoid Personality Disorder includes distrust and suspiciousness of others' motives. All three can be treated through psychotherapy and sometimes medications to modify symptoms and promote healthy development.
OCD Action - Making CBT work - Paul Salkovskis joelocdaction
Â
This document provides information about cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) for obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD). It discusses what OCD is, how it can be understood, and what CBT involves. CBT aims to help patients understand the nature of their problem and "choose to change" by identifying and modifying unhelpful beliefs and behaviors. The document emphasizes that CBT requires active participation from both the patient and therapist working together as "two experts." It provides tips for choosing a therapist and getting the most out of therapy through preparation, goal setting, and behavioral experiments.
This document provides an overview of key concepts in mental health and nursing, including:
1) Qualities of mental health and the DSM-IV diagnostic system with five axes.
2) Professional standards in nursing including ethics, patient's bill of rights, and legal considerations like involuntary commitment.
3) Therapeutic approaches, the stages of the therapeutic relationship, and techniques for communication and assessing anxiety levels.
4) Guidelines for dealing with upset patients, conflict management, and appropriate interventions for different anxiety levels including restraint and seclusion.
This document provides information on bipolar disorders, including their characteristics, diagnostic criteria, and specifiers. Key points include:
- Bipolar disorders involve disturbances in mood ranging from depression to mania. Major types include Bipolar I, Bipolar II, and Cyclothymic Disorder.
- Diagnosis requires meeting criteria for depressive, hypomanic or manic episodes. Hypomanic episodes involve elevated mood for 4+ days with 3+ symptoms. Manic episodes last 1+ weeks with similar but more severe symptoms.
- Specifiers further characterize episodes, such as with anxious distress, mixed features, or rapid cycling. Organic causes and substance use can also induce bipolar-
Schizophrenia is a psychotic disorder characterized by disturbances in thinking, behavior, and emotions. It has biological, psychological, and social contributing factors. Biologically, it is linked to genetic predisposition, changes in brain activity like abnormal dopamine levels, and drug use in some cases. Psychologically, it involves impaired reasoning and memory. Socially, factors include social disadvantages, trauma, and psycho-social stress. Treatment involves both biological approaches like dopamine-blocking medication and psychological/social approaches like CBT, social support, and reducing stigma. A biopsychosocial model recognizes the interaction between biological, psychological, and social vulnerabilities in the development of schizophrenia.
Emotional and Behavioural Problems in Children - Counselling and Family Thera...PsychoTech Services
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A proprietary approach developed by bringing together the best of learning theories from Psychology, design principles from the world of visualization, and pedagogical methods from over a decade of training experience, that enables you to: Learn better, faster!
Gender and Mental Health - Counselling and Family Therapy Applications and In...PsychoTech Services
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A proprietary approach developed by bringing together the best of learning theories from Psychology, design principles from the world of visualization, and pedagogical methods from over a decade of training experience, that enables you to: Learn better, faster!
Understanding of Self - Applied Social Psychology - Psychology SuperNotesPsychoTech Services
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Promoting Wellbeing - Applied Social Psychology - Psychology SuperNotesPsychoTech Services
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A proprietary approach developed by bringing together the best of learning theories from Psychology, design principles from the world of visualization, and pedagogical methods from over a decade of training experience, that enables you to: Learn better, faster!
Aggression - Applied Social Psychology - Psychology SuperNotesPsychoTech Services
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ProSocial Behaviour - Applied Social Psychology - Psychology SuperNotesPsychoTech Services
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Emotion-Focused Couples Therapy - Marital and Family Therapy and Counselling ...PsychoTech Services
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75% of adults reported moderate to high stress levels in the past month. Stress is the body's reaction to challenges and threats and causes wear and tear on the mind and body. There are two types of stress - eustress, which can be exciting and energizing, and distress, which occurs when faced with challenges like job loss. Long-term stress can harm health if not managed properly. Relaxation techniques like breathing exercises and mindfulness can help reduce stress in the short term, while developing organizational skills and a support system provide long-term stress relief. Cognitive behavioral therapy teaches stress management by changing negative thoughts and behaviors.
This document provides an overview of hypothesis formulation in research methods in psychology. It defines a hypothesis as a tentative and testable statement about the possible relationship between two or more variables. It discusses the importance of formulating clear and testable hypotheses to guide research. The main types of hypotheses are the null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis. The document outlines considerations for formulating good hypotheses, such as operationalizing variables and reviewing relevant literature. Challenges in hypothesis formulation include a lack of theoretical frameworks or evidence. Errors in hypothesis testing can occur through faulty sampling, measurement, study design, or statistical analysis.
Harassment and Abuse - Counselling and Family Therapy Applications and Interv...PsychoTech Services
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Understand the psychology of human brain and its use in everyday life.
catch the liars vested in the crowd and read some astonishing psychological facts
Niyati Gupta, Student of sem 2 from department of journalism and mass communication, JIMS Vasant Kunj II talk about when do you need a psychologist??
Have a Look!!
For more updates: visit: jimssouthdelhi.com
How to Stop Anxiety and Overthinking with Guided Meditation.pdfKnowing Overt
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"Anxiety and Overthinking with Guided Meditation" isn't merely a combination of words; it encapsulates a profound journey toward mental tranquility. In the hustle and bustle of modern life, where anxiety and overthinking often take center stage, this symbiotic relationship with guided meditation emerges as a transformative remedy. It's an ode to finding solace amidst the chaos, a testament to reclaiming mental balance through intentional and mindful practice. As individuals grapple with the whirlwind of incessant thoughts and overwhelming worries, the practice of guided meditation stands as a steadfast companion, offering a pathway to navigate the labyrinth of emotions. Embracing "Anxiety and Overthinking with Guided Meditation" means delving into an introspective voyage, where the tumultuous seas of anxious thoughts gradually find repose, paving the way for serenity and newfound mental resilience.
This document provides an overview of anxiety disorders, including:
- Definitions of anxiety and fear and how anxiety disorders can affect daily life.
- The six main types of anxiety disorders - generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, specific phobias, agoraphobia, social anxiety disorder, and separation anxiety disorder.
- Common symptoms, diagnostic criteria, and treatments for anxiety disorders, which often involve psychotherapy and medication.
- Risk factors for anxiety disorders include genetic and environmental influences.
This document presents an ebook about developing coping skills for stress. It discusses how stress is an inevitable part of life today due to increased pressures and competition. When coping resources are inadequate, stressful events can lead to unhealthy outcomes like suicide. The ebook recommends becoming more knowledgeable about stress, understanding its effects, identifying stressors, anticipating stressful periods, and developing stress management techniques. It also discusses two models of how people think, feel and act in response to situations - reacting reflexively or responding thoughtfully. Developing skills like critical thinking, problem solving, communication, interpersonal skills, and self-regulation can help people better cope with stressful life events.
Interview Methods - Marital and Family Therapy and Counselling - Psychology S...PsychoTech Services
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The document discusses mental health problems in India. It begins by defining mental health and outlines some common mental health issues people face such as anxiety, behavioral disorders, bipolar disorder, and emotional regulation issues. It then lists some common reasons for mental health problems like death of a loved one, divorce, financial issues, trauma, and loneliness. Statistics about mental health in India are provided, showing many people suffer from issues like depression but there is not enough trained professionals and resources. Suggestions are made for improving employee and individual mental health through programs, education, and developing coping skills.
Feeling anxious and fearful? Here is the best guide for you that help you to know the steps to overcome from it. So Know these steps and start a new journey.
psychiatristjaipur.com
All About Psychology >>
Psychology Super-Notes >> Research Methodology >> Research Methods in Psychology >> Understanding Research and Research Process
Similar to Mental Disorders >> Phobic Disorder (20)
Research Tools in Family Therapy - Marital and Family Therapy and Counselling...PsychoTech Services
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A proprietary approach developed by bringing together the best of learning theories from Psychology, design principles from the world of visualization, and pedagogical methods from over a decade of training experience, that enables you to: Learn better, faster!
Self-Report Scales - Marital and Family Therapy and Counselling - Psychology ...PsychoTech Services
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A proprietary approach developed by bringing together the best of learning theories from Psychology, design principles from the world of visualization, and pedagogical methods from over a decade of training experience, that enables you to: Learn better, faster!
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A proprietary approach developed by bringing together the best of learning theories from Psychology, design principles from the world of visualization, and pedagogical methods from over a decade of training experience, that enables you to: Learn better, faster!
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A proprietary approach developed by bringing together the best of learning theories from Psychology, design principles from the world of visualization, and pedagogical methods from over a decade of training experience, that enables you to: Learn better, faster!
Essential Skills for Family Assessment - Marital and Family Therapy and Couns...PsychoTech Services
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A proprietary approach developed by bringing together the best of learning theories from Psychology, design principles from the world of visualization, and pedagogical methods from over a decade of training experience, that enables you to: Learn better, faster!
Sexuality - Issues, Attitude and Behaviour - Applied Social Psychology - Psyc...PsychoTech Services
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IGNOU MSCCFT and PGDCFT Exam Question Pattern: MCFT003 Counselling and Family...PsychoTech Services
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Study smart! The most important topics for your IGNOU exam are in this document.
We analyzed the examination pattern for IGNOUâs PGDCFT and MSCCFT courses â taking into account every single question of every exam of every single subject to generate these very useful, high-quality insights. Forget about 10 years papers â study smart using FIHCâs IGNOU Exam Question Pattern!
Tips to score more in exams - if you are giving essay type (subjective) exams then this will be useful for you, whether you are in school or university, or a student or arts or science.
A congenital heart defect is a problem with the structure of the heart that a child is born with.
Some congenital heart defects in children are simple and don't need treatment. Others are more complex. The child may need several surgeries done over a period of several years.
Applications of NMR in Protein Structure Prediction.pptxAnagha R Anil
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This presentation explores the pivotal role of Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) spectroscopy in predicting protein structures. It delves into the methodologies, advancements, and applications of NMR in determining the three-dimensional configurations of proteins, which is crucial for understanding their function and interactions.
Storyboard on Acne-Innovative Learning-M. pharm. (2nd sem.) CosmeticsMuskanShingari
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Acne is a common skin condition that occurs when hair follicles become clogged with oil and dead skin cells. It typically manifests as pimples, blackheads, or whiteheads, often on the face, chest, shoulders, or back. Acne can range from mild to severe and may cause emotional distress and scarring in some cases.
**Causes:**
1. **Excess Oil Production:** Hormonal changes during adolescence or certain times in adulthood can increase sebum (oil) production, leading to clogged pores.
2. **Clogged Pores:** When dead skin cells and oil block hair follicles, bacteria (usually Propionibacterium acnes) can thrive, causing inflammation and acne lesions.
3. **Hormonal Factors:** Fluctuations in hormone levels, such as during puberty, menstrual cycles, pregnancy, or certain medical conditions, can contribute to acne.
4. **Genetics:** A family history of acne can increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
**Types of Acne:**
- **Whiteheads:** Closed plugged pores.
- **Blackheads:** Open plugged pores with a dark surface.
- **Papules:** Small red, tender bumps.
- **Pustules:** Pimples with pus at their tips.
- **Nodules:** Large, solid, painful lumps beneath the surface.
- **Cysts:** Painful, pus-filled lumps beneath the surface that can cause scarring.
**Treatment:**
Treatment depends on the severity and type of acne but may include:
- **Topical Treatments:** Such as benzoyl peroxide, salicylic acid, or retinoids to reduce bacteria and unclog pores.
- **Oral Medications:** Antibiotics or oral contraceptives for hormonal acne.
- **Procedures:** Such as chemical peels, extraction of comedones, or light therapy for more severe cases.
**Prevention and Management:**
- **Cleanse:** Regularly wash skin with a gentle cleanser.
- **Moisturize:** Use non-comedogenic moisturizers to keep skin hydrated without clogging pores.
- **Avoid Irritants:** Such as harsh cosmetics or excessive scrubbing.
- **Sun Protection:** Use sunscreen to prevent exacerbation of acne scars and inflammation.
Acne treatment can take time, and consistency in skincare routines and treatments is crucial. Consulting a dermatologist can help tailor a treatment plan that suits individual needs and reduces the risk of scarring or long-term skin damage.
Breast cancer :Receptor (ER/PR/HER2 NEU) Discordance.pptxDr. Sumit KUMAR
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Receptor Discordance in Breast Carcinoma During the Course of Life
Definition:
Receptor discordance refers to changes in the status of hormone receptors (estrogen receptor ERÎą, progesterone receptor PgR, and HER2) in breast cancer tumors over time or between primary and metastatic sites.
Causes:
Tumor Evolution:
Genetic and epigenetic changes during tumor progression can lead to alterations in receptor status.
Treatment Effects:
Therapies, especially endocrine and targeted therapies, can selectively pressure tumor cells, causing shifts in receptor expression.
Heterogeneity:
Inherent heterogeneity within the tumor can result in subpopulations of cells with different receptor statuses.
Impact on Treatment:
Therapeutic Resistance:
Loss of ERÎą or PgR can lead to resistance to endocrine therapies.
HER2 discordance affects the efficacy of HER2-targeted treatments.
Treatment Adjustment:
Regular reassessment of receptor status may be necessary to adjust treatment strategies appropriately.
Clinical Implications:
Prognosis:
Receptor discordance is often associated with a poorer prognosis.
Biopsies:
Obtaining biopsies from metastatic sites is crucial for accurate receptor status assessment and effective treatment planning.
Monitoring:
Continuous monitoring of receptor status throughout the disease course can guide personalized therapy adjustments.
Understanding and managing receptor discordance is essential for optimizing treatment outcomes and improving the prognosis for breast cancer patients.
Nutritional deficiency Disorder are problems in india.
It is very important to learn about Indian child's nutritional parameters as well the Disease related to alteration in their Nutrition.
Congestive Heart failure is caused by low cardiac output and high sympathetic discharge. Diuretics reduce preload, ACE inhibitors lower afterload, beta blockers reduce sympathetic activity, and digitalis has inotropic effects. Newer medications target vasodilation and myosin activation to improve heart efficiency while lowering energy requirements. Combination therapy, following an assessment of cardiac function and volume status, is the most effective strategy to heart failure care.
The Children are very vulnerable to get affected with respiratory disease.
In our country, the respiratory Disease conditions are consider as major cause for mortality and Morbidity in Child.
Understanding Atherosclerosis Causes, Symptoms, Complications, and Preventionrealmbeats0
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Definition: Atherosclerosis is a condition characterized by the buildup of plaques, which are made up of fat, cholesterol, calcium, and other substances, in the walls of arteries. Over time, these plaques harden and narrow the arteries, restricting blood flow.
Importance: This condition is a major contributor to cardiovascular diseases, including coronary artery disease, carotid artery disease, and peripheral artery disease. Understanding atherosclerosis is crucial for preventing these serious health issues.
Overview: We will cover the aims and objectives of this presentation, delve into the signs and symptoms of atherosclerosis, discuss its complications, and explore preventive measures and lifestyle changes that can mitigate risk.
Aim: To provide a detailed understanding of atherosclerosis, encompassing its pathophysiology, risk factors, clinical manifestations, and strategies for prevention and management.
Purpose: The primary purpose of this presentation is to raise awareness about atherosclerosis, highlight its impact on public health, and educate individuals on how they can reduce their risk through lifestyle changes and medical interventions.
Educational Goals:
Explain the pathophysiology of atherosclerosis, including the processes of plaque formation and arterial hardening.
Identify the risk factors associated with atherosclerosis, such as high cholesterol, hypertension, smoking, diabetes, and sedentary lifestyle.
Discuss the clinical signs and symptoms that may indicate the presence of atherosclerosis.
Highlight the potential complications arising from untreated atherosclerosis, including heart attack, stroke, and peripheral artery disease.
Provide practical advice on preventive measures, including dietary recommendations, exercise guidelines, and the importance of regular medical check-ups.
Part III - Cumulative Grief: Learning how to honor the many losses that occur...bkling
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Cumulative grief, also known as compounded grief, is grief that occurs more than once in a brief period of time. As a person with cancer, a caregiver or professional in this world, we are often met with confronting grief on a frequent basis. Learn about cumulative grief and ways to cope with it. We will also explore methods to heal from this challenging experience.
Storyboard on Skin- Innovative Learning (M-pharm) 2nd sem. (Cosmetics)MuskanShingari
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Skin is the largest organ of the human body, serving crucial functions that include protection, sensation, regulation, and synthesis. Structurally, it consists of three main layers: the epidermis, dermis, and hypodermis (subcutaneous layer).
1. **Epidermis**: The outermost layer primarily composed of epithelial cells called keratinocytes. It provides a protective barrier against environmental factors, pathogens, and UV radiation.
2. **Dermis**: Located beneath the epidermis, the dermis contains connective tissue, blood vessels, hair follicles, and sweat glands. It plays a vital role in supporting and nourishing the epidermis, regulating body temperature, and housing sensory receptors for touch, pressure, temperature, and pain.
3. **Hypodermis**: Also known as the subcutaneous layer, it consists of fat and connective tissue that anchors the skin to underlying structures like muscles and bones. It provides insulation, cushioning, and energy storage.
Skin performs essential functions such as regulating body temperature through sweat production and blood flow control, synthesizing vitamin D when exposed to sunlight, and serving as a sensory interface with the external environment.
Maintaining skin health is crucial for overall well-being, involving proper hygiene, hydration, protection from sun exposure, and avoiding harmful substances. Skin conditions and diseases range from minor irritations to chronic disorders, emphasizing the importance of regular care and medical attention when needed.
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Psychopathology >> Clinical Features of Anxiety Disorders - Phobic Disorder >> Contents
Contents
1. Introduction to Anxiety Disorders
2. Phobic Disorder - Diagnosis & Epidemiology
3. Types of Phobic Disorders
4. Case Study
5. Aetiology
6. Treatment
10
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Psychopathology >> Clinical Features of Anxiety Disorders â Phobic Disorder >> Introduction to Anxiety Disorders
1. Introduction to Anxiety Disorders (1/2)
11
Anxiety is normalâŚ
⢠Anxiety is a common reaction to stress. It prevents
humans from being careless.
⢠Examples:
⢠Anxiety about your examination makes you study.
⢠Anxiety over her babyâs health makes a mother
care for her baby.
âŚhowever, in same situations anxiety can be abnormal
⢠If anxiety crosses a reasonable limit, it might become a disorder
⢠Examples:
⢠when one is so anxious that he/she has a breakdown in the
exam hall, forgetting everything
⢠when a mother is so anxious about her babyâs health, that she
spends day and night praying to God
Nature of Anxiety
Fear
⢠Fear is a basic emotion of human beings associated with
the perception of a real threatening situation and involves
the âfight or flightâ response activated by the sympathetic
nervous system.
⢠Example: If a street thug attacks you, you would feel intense
fear. Then, you would either run for dear life, or hit him back.
⢠Thus fear involves:
⢠cognition of the threatening object,
⢠subjective cognition of being in danger,
⢠physiological components like increased heart rate,
⢠behavioural components like running or hitting.
Anxiety
⢠Anxiety also involves subjective perception of threat,
physiological changes and some behavioural reaction.
⢠However, there is no immediate threat - you are
projecting the threatening situation in future and
reacting to it as if it is imminent. If you cannot go out of
your home because of apprehensions of an attack by a
hoodlum, it is anxiety.
⢠Anxiety serves an adaptive function - it prepares a person
for fight or flight if the danger really comes. But if the
person avoids the situation that in her perception may
cause the danger, and if such imagined situations are
unrealistic, then the effect becomes debilitating.
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One may distinguish between adaptive
anxiety and pathological anxiety by
assessing the realistic probability of the
occurrence of the object of anxiety and
by assessing how dysfunctional it makes
the person.
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Focus of this document
Psychopathology >> Clinical Features of Anxiety Disorders â Phobic Disorder >> Introduction to Anxiety Disorders
1. Introduction to Anxiety Disorders (2/2)
13
Common Characteristics/Nature of Anxiety Disorders
⢠Cognition or subjective perception of danger â may be accompanied by
vivid, occasionally morbid, images of the difficulties encountered.
⢠Physiological Responses - through activation of sympathetic nervous
system. Usually includes dilated pupils, increased heart rate, trembling,
breathing discomfort, nausea etc.
⢠Behavioural Responses - usually a tendency to avoid the dreaded situation.
Except in OCD and sometimes PTSD, where repetitive behaviour is observed.
Anxiety
Disorder
Anxiety Disorder is a blanket term that covers a group of disorders characterized by
irrational fear of some thing or situation. The person is usually aware of the irrationality.
1
Panic Disorder
(with or without
agoraphobia)
2
Phobic Disorders
(specific or social)
3
Generalised
Anxiety Disorder
(GAD)
4
Obsessive
Compulsive
Disorder
(OCD)
5
Post Traumatic
Stress Disorder
(PTSD)
Types of Anxiety Disorders
(DSM IV TR)
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Psychopathology >> Clinical Features of Anxiety Disorders - Phobic Disorder >> Contents
Contents
1. Introduction to Anxiety Disorders
2. Phobic Disorder - Diagnosis & Epidemiology
3. Types of Phobic Disorders
4. Case Study
5. Aetiology
6. Treatment
14
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Psychopathology >> Clinical Features of Anxiety Disorders â Phobic Disorder >> Diagnosis and Epidemiology
2. Phobic Disorder Diagnosis and Epidemiology
15
Phobia
Derived from the name of the Greek god âPhobosâ who used to frighten his enemies, a
phobia is an intense and irrational fear of some object, living being or situation.
Diagnosis
To be diagnosed as suffering from phobic disorder (as per DSM IVâTR):
⢠one must have a persistent and disproportionate fear of some specific
object, social situation or crowded place that actually carries little danger.
⢠Exposure to the phobic stimulus almost invariably produces intense
anxiety response.
⢠Patient knows that the fear is unreasonable, but has no control on the
reaction.
⢠The phobic situation is usually avoided, or if forced to endured, may be
tolerated with great discomfort. When forced to encounter the phobic
stimulus, the reactions may be like panic attack, or a little less severe.
⢠The attention of the person facing the phobic object is directed completely
toward it, the affect is intense fear and the behavioural reaction is escape.
⢠As soon as the person escapes from the presence of the phobic stimulus,
the negative affect and accompanying physiological reactions subside.
⢠Thus, the flight reaction is reinforced as it provides relief from tension.
Epidemiology of Phobic
Disorder
⢠Not all phobias are of
equal prevalence.
⢠Social phobias are more
common than specific
phobias. While specific
phobias are estimated to
be around 4.5%, the
estimated prevalence of
social phobia is around 11%.
⢠Phobias, like panic
disorders, are more
common in women than
men.
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Contents
1. Introduction to Anxiety Disorders
2. Phobic Disorder - Diagnosis & Epidemiology
3. Types of Phobic Disorders
4. Case Study
5. Aetiology
6. Treatment
16
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Psychopathology >> Clinical Features of Anxiety Disorders â Phobic Disorder >> Types of Phobia
3. Types of Phobia (as per DSM IVâTR)
17
1. Specific Phobia
⢠Specific phobias are the irrational
fear of specific objects, animals
or situations.
⢠Examples: fear of closed space
(claustrophobia), fear of fire
(pyrophobia) and even fear of
phobias (phobophobia.)
⢠Specific phobias can be divided
into some subtypes:
⢠animal type - cued by animals or
insects
⢠natural environment type - cued
by objects in the environment,
such as storms, heights, or water
⢠blood-injection-injury type -
cued by witnessing some invasive
medical procedure
⢠situational type - cued by a
specific situation, such as public
transportation, tunnels, bridges,
elevators, flying, driving, or
enclosed spaces
⢠other type - cued stimuli not
covered above, such as choking,
vomiting, or contracting an illness.
2. Social Phobia
⢠Social phobia is an irrational
intense fear of being exposed to
a crowd of people, specially
where one has to perform and be
evaluated.
⢠Often extreme feelings of shyness
and self-consciousness build into a
powerful fear, making it difficult to
participate in everyday social
situations.
⢠People with social phobia can
usually interact easily with close
and familiar persons, but meeting
new people, talking in a group, or
speaking in public can trigger the
phobic reaction.
⢠Often situations where one might
be evaluated become the phobic
situation.
⢠Normal individuals occasionally
have social anxieties, especially
under a judgmental situation, but a
person with social phobia often
becomes incapable of normal
social interaction.
3. Agoraphobia
⢠Agoraphobia refers to the fear of
public spaces where many people
congregate.
⢠Agoraphobia without history of
panic disorder has been given a
special emphasis in DSM IVâTR.
⢠It develops slowly and insidiously
from early adolescence or late
childhood, and gradually becomes
debilitating.
⢠Panic or Phobia?
⢠If it is a part of the panic attack, it
should be coded within Panic
disorders.
⢠If it occurs as a source of anxiety
and a strong urge to avoid, but
does not constitute a palpable
panic attack, it should be coded
within Phobia.
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Psychopathology >> Clinical Features of Anxiety Disorders - Phobic Disorder >> Contents
Contents
1. Introduction to Anxiety Disorders
2. Phobic Disorder - Diagnosis & Epidemiology
3. Types of Phobic Disorders
4. Case Study
5. Aetiology
6. Treatment
18
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Psychopathology >> Clinical Features of Anxiety Disorders â Phobic Disorder >> Case Study
4. Phobia Case Study â Specific Phobia
⢠Background
â Raju, 25, comes from a lower class family of fishermen.
â They earn livelihood by fishing in shallow backwater or rivulets branching out from the bigger rivers.
â He studied up to class 5 in the local school, but stopped due to poverty.
⢠Situation
â As a child, he accompanied his father to the backwaters, especially where they cultivated prawns.
â Sometimes, very rarely, crocodiles would swim in from the river with which the backwater was
connected. There were stories about crocodiles killing men around the village. Everybody had heard
these, but since crocodiles come rarely, everybody works in knee deep water without much anxiety.
⢠Problem
â Starting in early adolescence, Raju gradually became afraid of crocodiles, which then turned into
specific phobia - Herpetophobia. He was unable to work in the water, because if he sees any shadow,
even those of underwater plants and fish, he got uncontrollably scared.
â As Rajuâs family has no land to cultivate, and Raju doesnât have any other skill, he is unable to work. So
he has become financially dependent on his poor family.
â Raju understands that his fear is irrational, and he has never even heard of a man being attacked by a
crocodile in their locality.
â He understands that he is becoming a burden on his family; but he cannot overcome the intense fear.
â While he attributes the fear to the stories he had listened to in childhood, he knows that these are not
enough to provoke such strong reactions.
19
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Psychopathology >> Clinical Features of Anxiety Disorders - Phobic Disorder >> Contents
Contents
1. Introduction to Anxiety Disorders
2. Phobic Disorder - Diagnosis & Epidemiology
3. Types of Phobic Disorders
4. Case Study
5. Aetiology
6. Treatment
20
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Psychopathology >> Clinical Features of Anxiety Disorders â Phobic Disorder >> Aetiology
5.1. Biological Factors
Biological factors are of less importance in phobias than in panic disorders.
22
1. Genetic Factors
⢠The genetic basis of phobias
has been suggested by some
studies, but it has not been
well established.
⢠At best the impact of genetic
factors is modest.
2. Temperament
⢠Temperament plays a
significant role in developing
phobia.
⢠Some children are
temperamentally jumpy or
easily aroused. This lability-
stability dimension is a
function of the
predisposition of the
autonomic activity.
⢠Those who are easily
aroused may have greater
chance of developing
anxiety disorders in later life.
3. Evolutionary Factors
⢠People are more likely to
develop fear of snakes or
heights than of books or cups.
⢠Thus, there seems to be a
âpreparednessâ to consider
some objects as more
phobic than others.
⢠This preparedness has been
retained by nature because
the primates who identified
these danger signals quickly
had a survival advantage.
⢠However, for the normal
person, the reality of the
danger is judged, while for
the phobic person the
reaction is exaggerated.
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Psychopathology >> Clinical Features of Anxiety Disorders â Phobic Disorder >> Aetiology
5.2.1. Psychoanalytical Approach
⢠The psychoanalytical approach emphasises
the role of unconscious needs and conflicts.
⢠Freud, in his description of fear of horses in
little Hans proposed that phobias are the
egoâs way of dealing with childhood conflict.
⢠For example, Hans could not resolve his
oedipal conflict properly and his fear of father
was displaced onto horses.
⢠Other psychoanalytical models attribute
phobias not to id drives, but to disastrous
interpersonal experiences. The mistrust and
generalised fear of environment seems to be
displaced on the phobic object or situation.
⢠Social phobia may be particularly well
explained by this latter view.
23
Psychoanalytical Explanation of Phobia
Repressing force
of the ego
Unconscious
conflict seeking
expression
Displacement on
the phobic object
Defensive Solution
Criticism of Psychoanalytical Approach
Learning theorists state that many phobias develop as result of association with a fear
eliciting object, and we donât need to go deeper to the id impulses for explaining them.
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Psychopathology >> Clinical Features of Anxiety Disorders â Phobic Disorder >> Aetiology
5.2.2. Behavioural Approach: 1. Conditioning
⢠Watson and Rayner, through their experiments, conditioned little Albert to fear furry
objects by associating a rat with a loud bang.
⢠The learning theorists take this experiment on avoidance conditioning as the model
of phobic reactions.
⢠Phobia, as per this approach, is the end result of a process of a neutral stimulus
being turned into a phobic object due to unwarranted association in time with a
feared object.
⢠Initially the association creates the fear of the neutral stimulus, and then escape or
avoidance of the stimulus results in relaxation.
⢠This relaxation in turn acts as a reinforcer and maintains the phobia.
24
Explanation of Phobia by Conditioning
An object
elicits real fear
(Unconditioned
Stimulus)
Fear response
is attached to
a neutral
object
The neutral
object, over
time, begins
eliciting fear
(Conditioned
Stimulus)
Escape or
avoidance of
conditioned
object causes
relaxation
Relaxation
reinforces/
maintains the
phobia
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Psychopathology >> Clinical Features of Anxiety Disorders â Phobic Disorder >> Aetiology
5.2.2. Behavioural Approach: 2. Modeling
⢠Vicarious learning refers to the fact that a child models
behaviours, but also attitudes and emotions.
⢠The modeling theory proposes that phobias are learnt
via observational learning processes.
⢠Example: If a child repeatedly sees her mother being
afraid of something, the same would be observed in the
child also.
25
Explanation of Phobia by Modeling
Criticism of Learning Approach
⢠While learning theory justifies the origin of a number of phobias in
some cases, it is unable to explain all phobias.
⢠It is unable to explain phenomenon where there is a role of
preparedness (biological factor).
⢠Thus, learning may play a role in phobia, but it cannot be the
whole story.
Role model expresses
fear of a being or
thing
Child observes
repeatedly
Child develops fear of
the being or thing
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Psychopathology >> Clinical Features of Anxiety Disorders â Phobic Disorder >> Aetiology
5.2.3. Cognitive Approach
⢠Cognitive approach to phobias indicates a
greater selective attention towards the phobic
object.
⢠There is often an underlying core belief that
negative things are going to happen.
â Particularly in case of social phobia, but also in
other specific phobias, catastrophic outcomes
are believed to be inevitable, thus distorting the
reality for the person.
⢠The core belief may remain at a non-conscious
level, thus making it difficult to modify.
â However, if the person is taught to look into
her own erroneous assumptions and cognitive
biases, the distortion in thought process may
be identified.
26
Cognitive Explanation of Phobia
Core belief about
inevitable negative
events
Automatic
thoughts about
impending
catastrophe
Phobic Reaction
Core belief
justified
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Psychopathology >> Clinical Features of Anxiety Disorders - Phobic Disorder >> Contents
Contents
1. Introduction to Anxiety Disorders
2. Phobic Disorder - Diagnosis & Epidemiology
3. Types of Phobic Disorders
4. Case Study
5. Aetiology
6. Treatment
27
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Psychopathology >> Clinical Features of Anxiety Disorders â Phobic Disorder >> Treatment
6. Phobic Disorder Treatment
28
Treatment of Phobic Disorder
1
Pharmocology
2
Psychological
Approaches
2.1
Psychoanalytical
Approach
2.2
Behavioural
Approach
2.3
Cognitive
Approach
As in case of panic disorder,
anxiolytics and anti-
depressants are used for
treating phobic disorders,
particularly social phobia.
They have greater
effectiveness
They try to unearth repressed
conflicts and deal with them at
a mature level than by
displacing them onto objects
and situations
⢠Cognitive approach is not the best option for specific phobic
disorders as the person already knows the unreasonableness of
her fear. Simply making her see the irrationality is of little help.
⢠Exposure to the situation seems to be essential for reduction of
specific phobia.
⢠However, cognitive behaviour therapy is useful in case of social
phobia. There are often automatic thoughts about self and others
underlying social phobia. Exploring such erroneous automatic
thought and making the client approach it from a new
perspective have been helpful in treating social phobia.
In real life the therapist might go for a
combination of therapies depending
upon the specific need of the client.
Methods like flooding, modeling,
systemic desensitization, and
relaxation techniques can be
used. Details on next page >>
<<
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6.2.2. Behavioural Approaches (1/2)
29
Systematic Desensitization Process
Step 1
⢠Before starting
systematic
desensitisation,
teach your client
the relaxation
technique
scientifically.
Step 2
⢠Prepare the
âhierarchies of
anxietyâ, and
design situations
to expose her
gradually from
the lowest level
of anxiety to the
highest.
Step 3
⢠Start with the
lowest level
⢠Example: if client
is afraid of
snakes, show her
a cartoon picture
of a snake, which
would probably
not elicit phobic
responses in her.
⢠Ask her to relax
in the presence
of this picture,
and she should
be able to do it
well.
Step 4
⢠Show her a
perfectly realistic
photograph of a
snake
⢠She may be able
to relax even
though she is a
bit
uncomfortable
⢠.You continue till
she becomes
comfortable with
this step.
Step 5âŚ
⢠Then show her a
3D picture
⢠She may become
disturbed.
⢠You continue
working with her
till she learns to
relax in front of it.
⢠Then you show
her a video â and
so on.
Final Step
⢠Finally, when she
is ready to take
her chance, take
her to a snake
park to show her
live snakes
⢠Ask her to relax
and enjoy.
⢠You continue till
she becomes
comfortable.
1. Systematic
Desensitization
A therapeutic technique based on behavioural approach where the client is exposed to
the phobic object or its image in graded stages, starting from a point where she is fully
relaxed, and then guided progressively toward staying relaxed even in situations where
she experienced intense fear
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6.2.2. Behavioural Approaches (2/2)
30
⢠It is the opposite of graded exposure â as you expose your client straightaway to the feared
situation or object and ask her to relax.
⢠Example: This is the technique rural people take for teaching swimming to young boys. They throw the
protesting child in water with a cloth tightly wound around his waist. The child struggles and gasps in
water, and at last through random movements float up. He may be rescued at any moment with the
help of the cloth tied around his body. The same may be used with phobic people.
⢠Flooding needs to be used cautiously as there is a risk that the client may be traumatized.
2. Flooding
(Exposure
Therapy)
⢠A therapeutic technique based on behavioural approach where the client is exposed
all at once to the phobic object.
⢠She is instructed to relax instead of being afraid.
⢠Once she can relax in presence of the phobic object she is able to master her fear.
4. Modeling
⢠A therapeutic technique based on behavioural approach where the client observes
others in the group facing the same situation.
⢠Seeing others in a group facing the situation without fear may help the client in trying
to do the same.
3. Relaxation
Techniques
⢠A behavioural technique that includes any method, process, procedure, or activity
that helps a person to relax and to be free from stress and anxiety.
⢠Example: progressive muscular relaxation, controlled breathing, meditation ,
biofeedback etc.
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