The document discusses network protocols and Ethernet. It provides details on:
- Common network protocols include Ethernet, LocalTalk, Token Ring, FDDI, and ATM. Ethernet is the most widely used protocol.
- Ethernet uses CSMA/CD access method where nodes listen before transmitting and can detect collisions. It operates at speeds of 10 Mbps, 100 Mbps, 1 Gbps, and 10 Gbps.
- Ethernet standards include IEEE 802.3 for 10BASE-T, 802.3u for 100BASE-TX, 802.3z for 1000BASE-T, and 802.3ae for 10 Gbps.
IEEE 802.11 is a set of media access control (MAC) and physical layer (PHY) specifications for implementing wireless local area network (WLAN) computer communication in the 2.4, 3.6, 5, and 60 GHz frequency bands. The goal of 802.11 is to provide simple, robust, and affordable wireless connectivity along with time-bound and asynchronous services. It uses either spread spectrum or infrared signaling techniques. The standard defines the MAC sublayer and three physical layer types: infrared, frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS), and direct-sequence spread spectrum (DSSS). It supports infrastructure-based and ad-hoc network configurations.
This document compares Wi-Fi and WiMAX technologies. Wi-Fi was launched in 1997 and defined by IEEE 802.11 standards, while WiMAX was launched in 2004 and defined by IEEE 802.16 standards. Key differences include Wi-Fi having a shorter range of 100 meters versus WiMAX's 80-90 kilometer range and Wi-Fi transferring data at speeds up to 54Mbps while WiMAX transfers at speeds up to 40Mbps. Additionally, Wi-Fi is primarily an end user technology while WiMAX is deployed by service providers to provide internet services to larger areas.
Transmission media are located below the physical layer and are used to transmit signals representing data. There are two main types of transmission media: guided media (wired), which provide a conduit for transmission, and unguided media (wireless), which transmit via electromagnetic waves without a physical pathway. Common guided media include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable. Unguided media include radio waves, microwaves, and infrared. Each type of transmission media has different characteristics that determine its suitable uses.
This document provides an overview of cellular networks. It begins with an introduction that defines a cellular network as a radio network composed of radio cells served by base stations. It then discusses how cellular networks work by allowing mobile devices to connect to the nearest base station and hand off connections between stations as the device moves between cells. Finally, it covers benefits like increased network capacity and coverage area as well as examples of cellular technologies used in modern mobile phone networks.
The document discusses various IEEE 802 standards for networking technologies including Ethernet, wireless LAN (802.11), and their variants and evolutions over time. It provides details on Ethernet standards and implementations such as 802.3, 10BASE5, 10BASE2, 10BASE-T, 10BASE-F, Fast Ethernet, and Gigabit Ethernet. It also summarizes key aspects of wireless networking standards such as 802.11 components, frame format, and physical layer specifications including FHSS, DSSS, OFDM, and associated data rates and frequencies.
This document provides an overview of mobile communication and wireless networks. It discusses applications such as use in vehicles, emergencies, and business. It also covers a brief history of wireless communication and open research topics like interference and security issues. A simplified reference model is presented showing the protocol stack from the physical to application layers in a wireless environment.
This podcast module provided an overview of wireless access points (APs). It discussed what an AP is and its main function of converting radio signals to Ethernet data. Key AP components like antennas, radios, and Ethernet ports were examined. The module covered AP installation considerations like mounting locations and cabling. It also reviewed configuring AP settings such as IP addresses, SSIDs, VLANs, and security. Finally, it provided an overview of IEEE 802.11 wireless networking standards and common amendments.
This document summarizes a seminar presentation on WiMAX technology. It describes WiMAX as a wireless broadband technology based on the IEEE 802.16 standard that can provide internet access within a range of up to 31 miles. Key points covered include the basic components of a WiMAX system including towers and receivers, how WiMAX connections work, advantages over other technologies like speed and lack of wired infrastructure, and future applications like integrated laptop access. Issues discussed are the challenges of network deployment and lower costs compared to 3G mobile networks.
IEEE 802.11 is a set of media access control (MAC) and physical layer (PHY) specifications for implementing wireless local area network (WLAN) computer communication in the 2.4, 3.6, 5, and 60 GHz frequency bands. The goal of 802.11 is to provide simple, robust, and affordable wireless connectivity along with time-bound and asynchronous services. It uses either spread spectrum or infrared signaling techniques. The standard defines the MAC sublayer and three physical layer types: infrared, frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS), and direct-sequence spread spectrum (DSSS). It supports infrastructure-based and ad-hoc network configurations.
This document compares Wi-Fi and WiMAX technologies. Wi-Fi was launched in 1997 and defined by IEEE 802.11 standards, while WiMAX was launched in 2004 and defined by IEEE 802.16 standards. Key differences include Wi-Fi having a shorter range of 100 meters versus WiMAX's 80-90 kilometer range and Wi-Fi transferring data at speeds up to 54Mbps while WiMAX transfers at speeds up to 40Mbps. Additionally, Wi-Fi is primarily an end user technology while WiMAX is deployed by service providers to provide internet services to larger areas.
Transmission media are located below the physical layer and are used to transmit signals representing data. There are two main types of transmission media: guided media (wired), which provide a conduit for transmission, and unguided media (wireless), which transmit via electromagnetic waves without a physical pathway. Common guided media include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable. Unguided media include radio waves, microwaves, and infrared. Each type of transmission media has different characteristics that determine its suitable uses.
This document provides an overview of cellular networks. It begins with an introduction that defines a cellular network as a radio network composed of radio cells served by base stations. It then discusses how cellular networks work by allowing mobile devices to connect to the nearest base station and hand off connections between stations as the device moves between cells. Finally, it covers benefits like increased network capacity and coverage area as well as examples of cellular technologies used in modern mobile phone networks.
The document discusses various IEEE 802 standards for networking technologies including Ethernet, wireless LAN (802.11), and their variants and evolutions over time. It provides details on Ethernet standards and implementations such as 802.3, 10BASE5, 10BASE2, 10BASE-T, 10BASE-F, Fast Ethernet, and Gigabit Ethernet. It also summarizes key aspects of wireless networking standards such as 802.11 components, frame format, and physical layer specifications including FHSS, DSSS, OFDM, and associated data rates and frequencies.
This document provides an overview of mobile communication and wireless networks. It discusses applications such as use in vehicles, emergencies, and business. It also covers a brief history of wireless communication and open research topics like interference and security issues. A simplified reference model is presented showing the protocol stack from the physical to application layers in a wireless environment.
This podcast module provided an overview of wireless access points (APs). It discussed what an AP is and its main function of converting radio signals to Ethernet data. Key AP components like antennas, radios, and Ethernet ports were examined. The module covered AP installation considerations like mounting locations and cabling. It also reviewed configuring AP settings such as IP addresses, SSIDs, VLANs, and security. Finally, it provided an overview of IEEE 802.11 wireless networking standards and common amendments.
This document summarizes a seminar presentation on WiMAX technology. It describes WiMAX as a wireless broadband technology based on the IEEE 802.16 standard that can provide internet access within a range of up to 31 miles. Key points covered include the basic components of a WiMAX system including towers and receivers, how WiMAX connections work, advantages over other technologies like speed and lack of wired infrastructure, and future applications like integrated laptop access. Issues discussed are the challenges of network deployment and lower costs compared to 3G mobile networks.
The document discusses wireless local area networks (WLANs) and the IEEE 802.11 standard. It introduces various WLAN standards including 802.11b operating at 11 Mbps in the 2.4 GHz band, 802.11a operating at up to 54 Mbps in the 5 GHz band, and 802.11g which also operates at up to 54 Mbps in the 2.4 GHz band. It describes the differences between infrastructure-based WLAN networks that use an access point and ad-hoc networks without an access point. It provides details on the IEEE 802.11 standard including the use of carrier sense multiple access with collision avoidance for medium access. It also discusses some enhancements to
Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) is a set of communication protocols that provides digital transmission of voice, video, and data over telephone lines or normal telephone cables. ISDN was developed in the 1970s and provides end-to-end digital connectivity over digital media. ISDN services include bearer services to transfer information between networks, teleservices to allow networks to process content, and supplementary services that provide additional functionality.
Universal mobile telecommunication System (UMTS) is actually the third generation mobile, which uses WCDMA. The Dream was that 2G and 2.5G systems are incompatible around the world.
-Worldwide devices need to have multiple technologies inside of them, i.e. tri-band phones, dual-mode phones
To develop a single standard that would be accepted around the world.
-One device should be able to work anywhere.
Increased data rate.
- Maximum 2048Kbps
UMTS is developed by 3GPP (3 Generation Partnership Project) a joint venture of several organization
3G UMTS is a third-generation (3G): broadband, packet-based transmission of text, digitized voice, video, multimedia at data rates up to 2 Mbps
Also referred to as wideband code division multiple access(WCDMA)
Allows many more applications to be introduce to a worldwide
Also provide new services like alternative billing methods or calling plans.
The higher bandwidth also enables video conferencing or IPTV.
Once UMTS is fully available, computer and phone users can be constantly attached to the Internet wherever they travel and, as they roam, will have the same set of capabilities.
The application layer is the top layer of the OSI model and controls how applications communicate over a network. It provides services for applications including mail, file transfer, domain name translation and network security. Protocols at this layer include HTTP, FTP, SMTP, DNS and others that allow applications to access remote files and exchange messages over the internet in a standardized way. The application layer hides the complexities of the underlying network from applications and ensures reliable and secure communication between devices.
DSL is a technology that provides high-speed internet access over traditional phone lines. There are two main types: asymmetric DSL (ADSL), which provides more bandwidth for downloading, and symmetric DSL (SDSL), which provides equal bandwidth for both uploads and downloads. A DSL modem is required for the customer to connect to their internet provider, who uses equipment called a DSLAM. DSL allows voice and internet access to work simultaneously over the same phone line. It is widely used globally and supports applications like online gaming, video streaming, and telecommuting.
ADSL (Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line) is a technology that allows for faster data transmission over existing copper telephone lines. It provides download speeds of up to 50 Mbps while supporting voice, video, and data simultaneously. ADSL uses frequencies higher than those used for voice calls to transmit digital data, allowing both to occur over the same line. It works by splitting a telephone line into separate frequencies for downstream and upstream data transmission, with downstream speeds typically much higher than upstream speeds. ADSL requires a telephone line, modem, and subscription to an Internet service provider to function.
Wireless local area networks (WLANs) use radio waves to connect devices in a building or campus wirelessly. They integrate with wired networks through access points that bridge wireless and wired traffic. WLANs operate similarly to wired LANs but have some differences like lower security, limited bandwidth, and variable performance depending on location within the network coverage area. Common devices that use WLANs include tablets, smartphones and laptops.
Unit 1 Introduction to wireless telecommunication system and networksAshutha K
The document traces the history and evolution of wireless communication systems from early radio experiments to modern 4G networks. It discusses key milestones like the development of 1G analog cellular networks like AMPS, their transition to 2G digital standards like GSM and CDMA, the introduction of 3G technologies enabling data and multimedia, and the advanced capabilities of 4G LTE including high data rates, quality of service, and integrated services. The document is presented as part of a lecture on wireless telecommunications systems and networks.
DSL is a technology that provides high-speed internet access over ordinary copper telephone lines. It allows data transmission faster than traditional modems. There are different types of DSL including ADSL, VDSL, HDSL, and SDSL. ADSL provides higher download speeds than upload speeds, making it suitable for homes. VDSL and HDSL can provide higher speeds but over shorter distances. SDSL provides equal speeds upstream and downstream, making it more suitable for businesses that transmit large amounts of data in both directions.
This document discusses network architecture and design. It covers component architectures, addressing and routing architectures, network management architecture, performance architecture, and security architecture. Some key points include:
- Component architecture describes how network functions are applied using hardware and software mechanisms.
- Addressing involves applying identifiers to network devices, while routing learns connectivity and forwards packets. Common addressing mechanisms include subnetting, super-netting, dynamic addressing, and private/public addressing.
- Network management architecture provides functions for controlling, planning, and monitoring network resources using mechanisms like monitoring, instrumentation, and configuration.
- Performance architecture allocates network resources to users and applications using mechanisms like quality of service, resource control, service level agreements, and policies.
These slides cover a topic on Spread spectrum in Data Communication. All the slides are explained in a very simple manner. It is useful for engineering students & also for the candidates who want to master data communication & computer networking.
This document discusses different networking devices including hubs, switches, routers, bridges, and brouters. It provides information on their functions, design, and operation at both the physical and data link layers of the OSI model. It also discusses IP addresses and their role in identifying devices and enabling communication using the Internet Protocol.
Wireless local area networks (WLANs) allow for mobility by using radio frequency or infrared communications instead of cables to connect devices to a network. Common WLAN standards include 802.11a, 802.11b, 802.11g, and 802.11n. WLANs use technologies like direct sequence spread spectrum, frequency hopping spread spectrum, and orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing. The 802.11 architecture defines the physical layer, data link layer including logical link control and media access control, and network topologies like peer-to-peer, access point based, and point-to-multipoint.
The document provides an overview of IEEE 802.11 standards for wireless local area networks. It discusses the creation of 802.11 by IEEE, the physical layer, frame formats, and various 802.11 protocols including 802.11b, 802.11a, 802.11g, 802.11n, and 802.11ac. It also describes the media access control including CSMA/CA and security features like authentication and WEP encryption.
Network architecture defines the design of a communications network, including its physical components and their organization, operational principles, and data formats. There are two main network architectures: the OSI reference model and the TCP/IP model. The OSI model has seven layers - physical, data link, network, transport, session, presentation, and application - with each layer performing a distinct function in sending data across a network in a standardized way.
The document discusses spread spectrum techniques used to prevent eavesdropping and jamming by adding redundancy. It describes two types of spread spectrum: Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS) which spreads signals across the frequency domain, and Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) which spreads signals across the time domain. The document then compares FHSS and DSSS in terms of performance, issues, acceptance and applications.
Transmission media (data communication)Pritom Chaki
Transmission media is the material pathway that connects computers, different kinds of devices and people on a network. It can be compared to a superhighway carrying lots of information. Transmission media uses cables or electromagnetic signals to transmit data.
Ethernet was first created by Robert Metcalfe and standardized by IEEE as 802.3. Fast Ethernet (802.3u) transmitted data 10 times faster than standard Ethernet at 100 Mbps while still being backward compatible. Gigabit Ethernet (802.3z) further increased speed to 1000 Mbps and supported full duplex between computers and switches or half duplex between computers and hubs using CSMA/CD. Switched Ethernet uses switches containing plug-in cards to reduce collisions by separating collision domains and allowing parallel transmission between cards.
The document discusses the network layer in computer networking. It describes how the network layer is responsible for routing packets from their source to destination. It covers different routing algorithms like distance vector routing and link state routing. It also compares connectionless and connection-oriented services, as well as datagram and virtual circuit subnets. Key aspects of routing algorithms like optimality, stability, and fairness are defined.
This document discusses data communication and computer networks. It covers the basic elements of a communication system including sender, receiver, and medium. It describes different data transmission modes such as simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex. It also discusses digital and analog transmission, transmission media such as twisted pair, coaxial cable, and fiber optics. The document defines protocols, computer networks, network topologies like star, ring and bus. It explains peer to peer and client/server networking and different types of networks including LAN, WAN and MAN. Finally, it provides details about local area networks, LAN protocols like Ethernet and Token Ring.
This document discusses various methods of information transmission including digital-to-digital, analog-to-digital, transmission modes, digital-to-analog, and analog-to-analog conversion. It describes techniques such as line coding, block coding, pulse code modulation, delta modulation, asynchronous/synchronous/isochronous transmission, and analog modulation methods including amplitude, frequency, and phase modulation. The key steps and processes involved in each conversion technique are explained, along with considerations for bandwidth and how analog or digital signals are represented.
The document discusses the Domain Name System (DNS) which provides a hierarchical and distributed naming system that maps human-friendly domain names to computer-friendly IP addresses. It describes the domain name space structure, distribution of name servers across a hierarchy, DNS in the internet with different top-level domains, name resolution process, DNS message formats, record types, registrars, dynamic DNS, and encapsulation using UDP and TCP.
The document discusses wireless local area networks (WLANs) and the IEEE 802.11 standard. It introduces various WLAN standards including 802.11b operating at 11 Mbps in the 2.4 GHz band, 802.11a operating at up to 54 Mbps in the 5 GHz band, and 802.11g which also operates at up to 54 Mbps in the 2.4 GHz band. It describes the differences between infrastructure-based WLAN networks that use an access point and ad-hoc networks without an access point. It provides details on the IEEE 802.11 standard including the use of carrier sense multiple access with collision avoidance for medium access. It also discusses some enhancements to
Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) is a set of communication protocols that provides digital transmission of voice, video, and data over telephone lines or normal telephone cables. ISDN was developed in the 1970s and provides end-to-end digital connectivity over digital media. ISDN services include bearer services to transfer information between networks, teleservices to allow networks to process content, and supplementary services that provide additional functionality.
Universal mobile telecommunication System (UMTS) is actually the third generation mobile, which uses WCDMA. The Dream was that 2G and 2.5G systems are incompatible around the world.
-Worldwide devices need to have multiple technologies inside of them, i.e. tri-band phones, dual-mode phones
To develop a single standard that would be accepted around the world.
-One device should be able to work anywhere.
Increased data rate.
- Maximum 2048Kbps
UMTS is developed by 3GPP (3 Generation Partnership Project) a joint venture of several organization
3G UMTS is a third-generation (3G): broadband, packet-based transmission of text, digitized voice, video, multimedia at data rates up to 2 Mbps
Also referred to as wideband code division multiple access(WCDMA)
Allows many more applications to be introduce to a worldwide
Also provide new services like alternative billing methods or calling plans.
The higher bandwidth also enables video conferencing or IPTV.
Once UMTS is fully available, computer and phone users can be constantly attached to the Internet wherever they travel and, as they roam, will have the same set of capabilities.
The application layer is the top layer of the OSI model and controls how applications communicate over a network. It provides services for applications including mail, file transfer, domain name translation and network security. Protocols at this layer include HTTP, FTP, SMTP, DNS and others that allow applications to access remote files and exchange messages over the internet in a standardized way. The application layer hides the complexities of the underlying network from applications and ensures reliable and secure communication between devices.
DSL is a technology that provides high-speed internet access over traditional phone lines. There are two main types: asymmetric DSL (ADSL), which provides more bandwidth for downloading, and symmetric DSL (SDSL), which provides equal bandwidth for both uploads and downloads. A DSL modem is required for the customer to connect to their internet provider, who uses equipment called a DSLAM. DSL allows voice and internet access to work simultaneously over the same phone line. It is widely used globally and supports applications like online gaming, video streaming, and telecommuting.
ADSL (Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line) is a technology that allows for faster data transmission over existing copper telephone lines. It provides download speeds of up to 50 Mbps while supporting voice, video, and data simultaneously. ADSL uses frequencies higher than those used for voice calls to transmit digital data, allowing both to occur over the same line. It works by splitting a telephone line into separate frequencies for downstream and upstream data transmission, with downstream speeds typically much higher than upstream speeds. ADSL requires a telephone line, modem, and subscription to an Internet service provider to function.
Wireless local area networks (WLANs) use radio waves to connect devices in a building or campus wirelessly. They integrate with wired networks through access points that bridge wireless and wired traffic. WLANs operate similarly to wired LANs but have some differences like lower security, limited bandwidth, and variable performance depending on location within the network coverage area. Common devices that use WLANs include tablets, smartphones and laptops.
Unit 1 Introduction to wireless telecommunication system and networksAshutha K
The document traces the history and evolution of wireless communication systems from early radio experiments to modern 4G networks. It discusses key milestones like the development of 1G analog cellular networks like AMPS, their transition to 2G digital standards like GSM and CDMA, the introduction of 3G technologies enabling data and multimedia, and the advanced capabilities of 4G LTE including high data rates, quality of service, and integrated services. The document is presented as part of a lecture on wireless telecommunications systems and networks.
DSL is a technology that provides high-speed internet access over ordinary copper telephone lines. It allows data transmission faster than traditional modems. There are different types of DSL including ADSL, VDSL, HDSL, and SDSL. ADSL provides higher download speeds than upload speeds, making it suitable for homes. VDSL and HDSL can provide higher speeds but over shorter distances. SDSL provides equal speeds upstream and downstream, making it more suitable for businesses that transmit large amounts of data in both directions.
This document discusses network architecture and design. It covers component architectures, addressing and routing architectures, network management architecture, performance architecture, and security architecture. Some key points include:
- Component architecture describes how network functions are applied using hardware and software mechanisms.
- Addressing involves applying identifiers to network devices, while routing learns connectivity and forwards packets. Common addressing mechanisms include subnetting, super-netting, dynamic addressing, and private/public addressing.
- Network management architecture provides functions for controlling, planning, and monitoring network resources using mechanisms like monitoring, instrumentation, and configuration.
- Performance architecture allocates network resources to users and applications using mechanisms like quality of service, resource control, service level agreements, and policies.
These slides cover a topic on Spread spectrum in Data Communication. All the slides are explained in a very simple manner. It is useful for engineering students & also for the candidates who want to master data communication & computer networking.
This document discusses different networking devices including hubs, switches, routers, bridges, and brouters. It provides information on their functions, design, and operation at both the physical and data link layers of the OSI model. It also discusses IP addresses and their role in identifying devices and enabling communication using the Internet Protocol.
Wireless local area networks (WLANs) allow for mobility by using radio frequency or infrared communications instead of cables to connect devices to a network. Common WLAN standards include 802.11a, 802.11b, 802.11g, and 802.11n. WLANs use technologies like direct sequence spread spectrum, frequency hopping spread spectrum, and orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing. The 802.11 architecture defines the physical layer, data link layer including logical link control and media access control, and network topologies like peer-to-peer, access point based, and point-to-multipoint.
The document provides an overview of IEEE 802.11 standards for wireless local area networks. It discusses the creation of 802.11 by IEEE, the physical layer, frame formats, and various 802.11 protocols including 802.11b, 802.11a, 802.11g, 802.11n, and 802.11ac. It also describes the media access control including CSMA/CA and security features like authentication and WEP encryption.
Network architecture defines the design of a communications network, including its physical components and their organization, operational principles, and data formats. There are two main network architectures: the OSI reference model and the TCP/IP model. The OSI model has seven layers - physical, data link, network, transport, session, presentation, and application - with each layer performing a distinct function in sending data across a network in a standardized way.
The document discusses spread spectrum techniques used to prevent eavesdropping and jamming by adding redundancy. It describes two types of spread spectrum: Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS) which spreads signals across the frequency domain, and Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) which spreads signals across the time domain. The document then compares FHSS and DSSS in terms of performance, issues, acceptance and applications.
Transmission media (data communication)Pritom Chaki
Transmission media is the material pathway that connects computers, different kinds of devices and people on a network. It can be compared to a superhighway carrying lots of information. Transmission media uses cables or electromagnetic signals to transmit data.
Ethernet was first created by Robert Metcalfe and standardized by IEEE as 802.3. Fast Ethernet (802.3u) transmitted data 10 times faster than standard Ethernet at 100 Mbps while still being backward compatible. Gigabit Ethernet (802.3z) further increased speed to 1000 Mbps and supported full duplex between computers and switches or half duplex between computers and hubs using CSMA/CD. Switched Ethernet uses switches containing plug-in cards to reduce collisions by separating collision domains and allowing parallel transmission between cards.
The document discusses the network layer in computer networking. It describes how the network layer is responsible for routing packets from their source to destination. It covers different routing algorithms like distance vector routing and link state routing. It also compares connectionless and connection-oriented services, as well as datagram and virtual circuit subnets. Key aspects of routing algorithms like optimality, stability, and fairness are defined.
This document discusses data communication and computer networks. It covers the basic elements of a communication system including sender, receiver, and medium. It describes different data transmission modes such as simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex. It also discusses digital and analog transmission, transmission media such as twisted pair, coaxial cable, and fiber optics. The document defines protocols, computer networks, network topologies like star, ring and bus. It explains peer to peer and client/server networking and different types of networks including LAN, WAN and MAN. Finally, it provides details about local area networks, LAN protocols like Ethernet and Token Ring.
This document discusses various methods of information transmission including digital-to-digital, analog-to-digital, transmission modes, digital-to-analog, and analog-to-analog conversion. It describes techniques such as line coding, block coding, pulse code modulation, delta modulation, asynchronous/synchronous/isochronous transmission, and analog modulation methods including amplitude, frequency, and phase modulation. The key steps and processes involved in each conversion technique are explained, along with considerations for bandwidth and how analog or digital signals are represented.
The document discusses the Domain Name System (DNS) which provides a hierarchical and distributed naming system that maps human-friendly domain names to computer-friendly IP addresses. It describes the domain name space structure, distribution of name servers across a hierarchy, DNS in the internet with different top-level domains, name resolution process, DNS message formats, record types, registrars, dynamic DNS, and encapsulation using UDP and TCP.
This document discusses various types of analog transmission techniques. It defines analog transmission as the transmission of analog signals using a band-pass channel, where baseband signals are converted to complex analog signals with frequencies suitable for the channel. It describes different modulation techniques used in analog transmission including amplitude shift keying (ASK), frequency shift keying (FSK), phase shift keying (PSK), and quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM). It also discusses analog-to-analog conversion techniques such as amplitude modulation (AM), frequency modulation (FM), and phase modulation (PM).
The document summarizes key concepts related to network layer addressing, error reporting, and multicasting from Chapter 21. It includes:
1) Address mapping allows mapping between logical and physical addresses either statically or dynamically using protocols like ARP.
2) ICMP compensates for IP's lack of error reporting and host/management queries through error messages and query messages.
3) IGMP manages multicast group membership and communication on local networks through group management and messages.
4) ICMPv6 is modified from ICMPv4 for IPv6 with updated error reporting and query messages.
This document discusses different types of connecting devices used in computer networks, including passive hubs, active hubs, bridges, switches, routers and gateways. It also covers backbone networks that allow multiple LANs to be connected using bus or star topologies. Finally, it describes virtual LANs (VLANs) which use software rather than physical wiring to configure local area networks and control communication between switches.
The document discusses network security and provides an overview of five security services: message confidentiality, message integrity, message authentication, message nonrepudiation, and entity authentication. It describes how each of these services can be achieved using techniques like symmetric and asymmetric encryption, hashing, digital signatures, challenge-response authentication, and key management protocols.
The document discusses different types of switched networks, including circuit-switched networks, datagram networks, and virtual-circuit networks. It provides examples of how each type can be used and their characteristics. The document also describes the structure of switches used in different network types, including crossbar switches, multistage switches, time-slot interchange switches, and banyan switches. Key aspects like resource reservation, routing, addressing, and delays are compared between the different network types.
Chapter 26 - Remote Logging, Electronic Mail & File TransferWayne Jones Jnr
TELNET is a general-purpose client/server application that allows users to access applications on remote computers. Electronic mail is one of the most popular Internet services, using user agents, message transfer agents, and message access agents. File Transfer Protocol (FTP) allows transferring files between computers using separate TCP connections for control commands and data transfer.
The document discusses various technologies used for data transmission over telephone and cable networks, including:
1. Telephone networks originally used analog signals and circuit switching to transmit voice over the plain old telephone system (POTS). Digital subscriber line (DSL) technology and dial-up modems using modulation/demodulation allow higher data transmission speeds over existing telephone lines.
2. Cable TV networks were originally unidirectional but evolved to support bidirectional communication over hybrid fiber-coaxial (HFC) networks. Cable companies now provide high-speed data using bandwidth sharing and Data Over Cable Service Interface Specification (DOCSIS) technology.
3. Technologies discussed include asynchronous DSL (ADSL), discrete multitone modulation
The document introduces some key concepts in data communication, including:
1) Different types of transmission media such as guided (e.g. fiber optic cable) and unguided (e.g. wireless).
2) Analog and digital signals and how analog data can be transmitted using either type of signal.
3) Factors that can impair transmission such as attenuation, delay distortion, and different types of noise. The Nyquist bandwidth and Shannon capacity formulas for calculating maximum data rates are also covered.
Serial transmission reduces costs compared to parallel transmission by sending data one bit at a time over a single communication channel rather than multiple bits simultaneously over multiple channels. There are two types of serial transmission: synchronous uses a common clock and eliminates wasted bits while asynchronous uses start and stop bits but is slower. Shift registers can be used to serially input and output data from a data word non-destructively using control lines to indicate writing versus reading cycles.
Modulation is the process of varying one or more characteristics of a high-frequency carrier signal based on an information signal that contains the message to be transmitted. Some key points:
1. Modulation is necessary to transmit digital data over analog mediums like phone lines or wireless signals. It converts the digital data into an analog format suitable for transmission.
2. Common analog modulation techniques vary the amplitude, frequency, or phase of the carrier signal, while digital modulation techniques include amplitude-shift keying, frequency-shift keying, and phase-shift keying.
3. More advanced techniques like quadrature amplitude modulation vary both the amplitude and phase of the carrier simultaneously to transmit more data using a given bandwidth
This document discusses analog transmission techniques. It covers digital-to-analog conversion methods like ASK, FSK, PSK and QAM. It then discusses analog-to-analog modulation techniques like amplitude modulation, frequency modulation and phase modulation. It provides examples of calculating the bandwidth requirements for different modulation schemes and how analog signals are allocated specific frequency bands for transmission.
This document discusses various digital-to-analog conversion techniques used in analog transmission of digital data. It describes amplitude shift keying (ASK), frequency shift keying (FSK), phase shift keying (PSK) and quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM). ASK encodes data by changing the amplitude of a carrier signal. FSK uses frequency changes to encode data while PSK varies the phase. QAM combines ASK and PSK, encoding multiple bits onto distinct signal points defined by amplitude and phase. The bandwidth requirements of these techniques are also examined along with examples of calculating bit rates from given parameters.
This document discusses analog transmission and digital-to-analog conversion. It is a presentation by the team Blackhole from Sylhet International University. The team members are listed. The presentation will discuss analog transmission, digital-to-analog conversion, and analog-to-analog modulation. It defines analog transmission and digital-to-analog conversion. It also discusses bit and baud rates. The types of digital-to-analog modulation covered are ASK, FSK, PSK, and QAM. Implementations of these modulations are shown. Finally, it discusses the three types of analog-to-analog modulation: amplitude modulation, frequency modulation, and phase modulation.
Digital data transmission,line coding and pulse shapingAayush Kumar
This document discusses digital data transmission, line coding, and pulse shaping. It covers several key topics:
- Digital data transmission involves converting analog signals like voice or images to binary digits for transmission and reconverting them at the receiving end. This allows for clearer, faster transmission using less bandwidth.
- There are two main transmission modes: parallel transmits multiple bits at once for higher speed, while serial transmits one bit at a time to reduce costs. Conversion is needed between parallel and serial interfaces.
- Line coding converts digital bits to voltage levels for transmission. Common schemes include NRZ, RZ, Manchester, AMI, and pseudoternary.
- Pulse shaping filters transmitted pulses to limit
This document discusses Frame Relay and Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) networking technologies. It covers Frame Relay architecture, addressing formats, and the lack of flow and error control. It then covers ATM design goals, cell-based transmission, virtual paths and connections, ATM layers, and adaptation layers. The document concludes by discussing using ATM for local area networks and the LAN Emulation standard.
A computer network connects computers that communicate over transmission lines. There are three main types of networks: local area networks (LANs) that connect computers in a single location, wide area networks (WANs) that connect computers across different geographic sites, and the Internet which is a global network of networks. LANs connect computers within half a mile using switches, cables, and network interface cards. WANs connect computers at physically separate sites using technologies like leased lines, public switched networks, and virtual private networks. When choosing a network, considerations include setup, operational, and maintenance costs as well as performance factors and growth potential.
The document discusses bandwidth utilization techniques including multiplexing and spreading. Multiplexing allows simultaneous transmission of multiple signals across a single data link by dividing the bandwidth into channels. Efficiency is achieved through multiplexing while privacy and anti-jamming is achieved through spreading techniques that add redundancy such as frequency hopping spread spectrum and direct sequence spread spectrum. The document provides examples and figures to illustrate concepts such as frequency-division multiplexing, time-division multiplexing, and digital signal hierarchies.
This document discusses error detection and correction techniques for digital data transmission. It introduces different types of errors that can occur, such as single-bit and burst errors. It describes how redundancy is used to detect and correct errors using block coding techniques. Specific examples are provided to illustrate how block codes are constructed and used to detect and correct errors. Key concepts discussed include linear block codes, Hamming distance, minimum Hamming distance, and how these relate to the error detection and correction capabilities of different coding schemes.
This document provides an overview of LAN network design and various high-speed networking technologies. It discusses the evolution of networking needs that led to faster LANs, describes Ethernet and some of its variants like Fast Ethernet and Gigabit Ethernet. It also covers wireless LAN technologies and fiber optic networks like Fibre Channel. Key concepts explained include CSMA/CD, full duplex operation, and different physical layer specifications for networks operating at speeds of 100Mbps, 1Gbps, and 10Gbps.
This was made along with a simple research paper in my Network + course. I don't have any negative intention in uploading of this. I only hope it could help in any ways
Fast Ethernet and Gigabit Ethernet provide higher speeds over Ethernet networks. Fast Ethernet operates at 100 Mbps using various physical layer encoding schemes like 100BASE-T4 over twisted pair cables. Gigabit Ethernet provides 1 Gbps speeds using different cabling options like fiber optics or twisted pair. It utilizes 8B/10B encoding and builds upon Fast Ethernet and Ethernet standards to achieve higher throughput while maintaining compatibility. Gigabit Ethernet was developed to meet increasing bandwidth demands and leverage existing Ethernet infrastructure.
This document discusses various networking technologies including media types, network topologies, and LAN standards. It describes common media like twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber optic cable. It also discusses network topologies like star, ring, and bus. Finally, it summarizes several LAN standards including Ethernet, Fast Ethernet, Gigabit Ethernet, and 10-Gigabit Ethernet and how they have evolved to support higher bandwidths. It also briefly mentions other technologies like Token Ring, LocalTalk, and FDDI.
LAN technologies allow computers to communicate over a shared medium. They use hardware addressing and MAC addresses to allow direct communication between any two hosts. Network interface cards connect computers to the physical network and use MAC addresses to identify devices. Common LAN technologies include Ethernet, Fast Ethernet, Gigabit Ethernet, and Wi-Fi, which use CSMA/CD protocols and packet framing to share the transmission medium.
Group 7 presented on various network technologies. They discussed Ethernet, including its history and generations from standard Ethernet to 10 Gigabit Ethernet. They also covered Token Ring, Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI), and Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM). FDDI uses fiber optic cables to connect LANs over long distances, while ATM supports high-speed transfer of both voice and data.
Ethernet is a widely used local area network technology that uses coaxial cable or twisted pair wires. Advanced versions include switched Ethernet, Fast Ethernet, and Gigabit Ethernet. Fast Ethernet operates at 100 Mbps using 4B/5B encoding. Gigabit Ethernet provides speeds of 1000 Mbps and maintains backward compatibility with previous Ethernet standards. It uses 8B/10B encoding and leverages technologies from Fibre Channel.
Ethernet is a family of networking technologies used for local area networks (LANs). It was introduced in 1980 and standardized in 1985, providing data link layer services divided into logical link control and media access control sublayers. Ethernet has evolved to support higher data rates up to 10 Gbps while maintaining compatibility through consistent frame formats and addressing. Fiber optic and twisted pair cable implementations allow Ethernet to scale from campus to wide area networks.
The document discusses IEEE standards for local area networks (LANs) including Ethernet LANs, Token Ring LANs, and wireless LANs. It describes the IEEE 802 standards family, common LAN topologies and cabling, how CSMA/CD and token protocols work, and comparisons of Ethernet and Token Ring technologies. It also outlines wireless LAN specifications including 802.11, 802.11a, 802.11b, and 802.11g.
This document provides an overview of Ethernet networking including:
1. Ethernet uses layers 1 and 2 of the OSI model and the Network Access layer of the TCP/IP model. It evolved from early LAN technologies and uses frames, MAC addressing, and CSMA/CD.
2. Switches avoid collisions by forwarding frames only to destination ports, improving performance over hubs. Higher bandwidth standards like Fast Ethernet and Gigabit Ethernet require full-duplex links without collisions.
3. Ethernet addressing uses MAC addresses to identify devices locally and IP addresses to route between networks. ARP resolves IP addresses to MAC addresses to allow communication between hosts.
The document discusses several networking technologies and standards including Ethernet, token passing, wireless, FDDI, and various cable standards. Ethernet using CSMA/CD is currently the most common technology and operates at speeds between 3-1000 Mbps using UTP cable. Token passing networks avoid collisions but have higher overhead. Wireless networks use radio frequencies and CSMA/CA. Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) uses token passing over fiber optic cable at 100 Mbps. Fast Ethernet includes 100BaseTX at 100 Mbps over CAT5 cable. Gigabit Ethernet includes 1000BaseT at 1 Gbps over CAT5e/6 cable. 10 Gigabit Ethernet allows 10 Gbps transmission over fiber using the 10G
Ethernet uses CSMA/CD access method where nodes can sense carrier and detect collisions. It was first defined in 1978 and formed basis for IEEE 802.3 standard. It uses exponential backoff to retry transmission after collisions and is limited to 2500m to ensure collisions can be detected. Ethernet addresses are unique to each adapter and frames contain fields for source, destination, data and error checking.
Fast Ethernet and Gigabit Ethernet are standards that provide higher network connection speeds than traditional Ethernet. Fast Ethernet provides speeds of 100 Mbps using several transmission methods over twisted pair cable or fiber optic cable. Gigabit Ethernet provides speeds of 1000 Mbps using fiber optic or twisted pair cable with various encoding and signaling schemes. It was developed to provide higher speeds while maintaining compatibility with existing Ethernet standards.
This document summarizes the evolution of Ethernet standards over time. It discusses the key differences between 10 Mbps, 100 Mbps, and 1000 Mbps Ethernet, including changes to the physical layer encoding and signaling to increase speeds while maintaining reliability. Higher speeds required more advanced encoding schemes like 4B/5B and 8B/10B to maintain synchronization and signal quality over copper and fiber cables.
Ethernet, Fast Ethernet, Gigabit Ethernet, and 10 Gigabit Ethernet are common LAN technologies that use CSMA/CD for media access and have evolved to higher bandwidths over time. Ethernet addresses devices using unique MAC addresses and uses a frame structure with fields for preamble, addresses, length, CRC, and data payload. Ethernet can be implemented over various physical media like coaxial cable, UTP cable, or fiber with different maximum segment lengths.
Ethernet is a widely used wired networking technology that has evolved over generations to support higher data rates. It uses CSMA/CD for media access and defines physical layer standards for copper and fiber optic cabling. Key Ethernet standards include 10BaseT, 100BaseTX, 1000BaseT, and 10 Gigabit Ethernet, with higher speeds enabled by new cabling types and increased maximum segment lengths.
FDDI and Gigabit Ethernet were developed to address increasing bandwidth demands. FDDI specifies a dual-ring 100 Mbps token-passing fiber optic network that can cover 200 km, while Gigabit Ethernet provides 1 Gbps transmission over copper or fiber. To enable collision detection at high speeds, Gigabit Ethernet uses carrier extension and frame bursting, padding small frames to 512 bytes and allowing bursts of multiple frames. Both technologies provide higher speeds and fault tolerance over longer distances than previous standards.
There are two main types of wireless topologies: ad hoc networks which connect wireless computers directly to each other, and infrastructure networks which connect wireless computers to a wired network via an access point. IEEE 802.11 standards define wireless networking protocols including 802.11a, 802.11b, and others. Common cabling systems include coaxial cable, fiber optic cable, and twisted pair cable. UTP cable standards like Category 5e support speeds up to 1 Gbps and are commonly used to connect devices within a local area network.
Ethernet refers to a family of local area network technologies for connecting devices on a network. It uses the CSMA/CD protocol to determine when devices can transmit data over a shared medium, such as coaxial cable or twisted pair cables. Ethernet has evolved to support higher data rates up to 10 Gbps through standards like Fast Ethernet, Gigabit Ethernet, and beyond. Devices on an Ethernet network include end stations like PCs and servers, and intermediate devices like switches, routers, and repeaters.
Similar to Data communication and network Chapter - 2 (20)
The document outlines the technical architecture of a taxi app, including the user interface, data and application tiers, backend servers, APIs, and databases that power the mobile apps. It also includes a use case diagram showing the authentication and account processes for customers and drivers, such as login, profile access, payments, and system updates. The overall structure separates the UI, presentation, application and data tiers from the backend servers that handle functions like maps, e-commerce, and administrative reporting.
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The document discusses the Unified Modeling Language (UML) which is a standardized modeling language used in software engineering. It provides an overview of what UML is, what it is not, what it can be used for, why it should be used, its history and development over time, the different types of UML diagrams, and the core structural and behavioral elements that make up UML models.
The document discusses software prototyping techniques used in rapid software development. It describes evolutionary prototyping where an initial prototype is refined through stages to the final system. Throw-away prototyping involves building a prototype to validate requirements and then discarding it. Rapid prototyping techniques discussed include using high-level languages, database programming, and component reuse. The benefits of prototyping include early validation of requirements and improved usability, while challenges include potential maintenance issues from continual changes.
A binary search tree (BST) is a binary tree where the value of each node is greater than all values in its left subtree and less than all values in its right subtree. This property allows efficient search, insert, and delete operations in O(logN) time. To search a BST, the algorithm starts at the root and recursively checks if the target value is equal to, less than, or greater than the value of the current node to determine if it proceeds to the left or right child. Insertion finds the appropriate position to add a new node by recursively comparing its value to ancestors' values.
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The document discusses non-structured and structured programming. Non-structured programming uses sequential statements and line numbering to control flow with jumps. It lacks procedures, local variables, and complex data types. Structured programming uses procedures, control structures like loops and conditionals, and blocks to improve clarity, quality and development time over non-structured programming. Key aspects of structured programming include proper use of subroutines, selection and iteration control structures, and single entry/exit points in loops.
A Management Information System (MIS) provides information to help organizations manage efficiently and effectively. An MIS provides managers with information to support decision-making and feedback on daily operations. It generates reports from accumulated transaction processing data. An MIS is management-oriented, integrated, has a central database, supports long-term planning, and helps implement organizational policies. It aims to provide a comprehensive view of the organization through its various sub-systems.
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Data communication and network Chapter -1Zafar Ayub
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220711130100 udita Chakraborty Aims and objectives of national policy on inf...
Data communication and network Chapter - 2
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Chapter - 2
Compile by Zafar Ayub
1
2. Network Protocol
A protocol is a set of rules that governs the communications
between computers on a network. In order for two computers to
talk to each other, they must be speaking the same language.
These rules include guidelines that regulate the following
characteristics of a network; access method, allowed physical
topologies, types of cabling, and speed of data transfer.
Many different types of network protocols and standards are
required to ensure that your computer (no matter which operating
system, network card, or application you are using) can
communicate with another computer located on the next desk or
half-way around the world.
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3. Types of Network Protocols
¢ Network protocols also known as Network Technologies, the most
common network protocols are;
¢ Ethernet (LAN protocol; architecture developed by Xerox,
DEC, and Intel in 1976)
¢ Local Talk ( network protocol that was developed by Apple
Computer, Inc. for Macintosh computers)
¢ Token Ring ( patented by IBM in 1981, is a network protocol
that employs token-passing between computers arranged in a
logical ring network)
¢ FDDI (set of ANSI and ISO standards for data transmission on
fiber optic lines in a local area network (LAN) that can extend
in range up to 200 km (124 miles).
¢ ATM (ATM is a high-speed networking standard designed to
support both voice and data communications. ATM is normally
utilized by Internet service providers on their private long-
distance networks)
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4. Ethernet Protocol
¢ The Ethernet protocol is by far the most widely used. Ethernet uses
an access method called CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple
Access/Collision Detection).
¢ This is a system where each computer listens to the cable before
sending anything through the network. If the network is clear, the
computer will transmit.
¢ If some other node is already transmitting on the cable, the
computer will wait and try again when the line is clear.
¢ Sometimes, two computers attempt to transmit at the same instant.
When this happens a collision occurs. Each computer then backs off
and waits a random amount of time before attempting to
retransmit.
¢ With this access method, it is normal to have collisions. However,
the delay caused by collisions and retransmitting is very small and
does not normally effect the speed of transmission on the network.
ring network)
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5. Types of Ethernet
¢ 10 Base 5
Coaxial cable (10Base5)
Thicknet. (Bus Topology)
¢ 10 Base 2
Thin coax cable (10Base2)
Thinnet. (Bus Topology)
¢ 10 Base T
Twisted pair Ethernet (10BaseT)
Star Topology on HUBs
¢ 100 Base T (Fast Ethernet)
100BASE-TX: two pairs of high-quality twisted-pair wires
100BASE-T4: four pairs of normal-quality twisted-pair wires
100BASE-FX: fiber optic cables
100 Mbps speed on Star Topologies on HUBs (Twisted pair CAT-6
cable)
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6. ¢ Giga Base T / 1000 Base X
High speed Ethernet on layer 3 switches with twisted pair
and fiber cable
Name Medium Specified distance
1000BASE-CX Twinaxial cabling 25 meters
1000BASE-SX Multi-mode fiber 220 to 550 meters dependent on fiber
diameter and bandwidth
1000BASE-LX Multi-mode fiber 550 meters
1000BASE-LX Single-mode fiber 5 km
1000BASE-LX10 Single-mode fiber using 1,310 nm wavelength 10 km
1000BASE-ZX Single-mode fiber at 1,550 nm wavelength ~ 70 km
1000BASE-BX10 Single-mode fiber, over single-strand fiber: 10 km
1,490 nm downstream 1,310 nm upstream
1000BASE-T Twisted-pair cabling (Cat-5, Cat-5e, Cat-6, or 100 meters
Cat-7)
1000BASE-TX Twisted-pair cabling (Cat-6, Cat-7) 100 meters
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7. ¢ 10G Base Ethernet
For core network backbone and submarine cables
Name Medium Specified distance
10GBASE-SR Multi-mode fiber 100 meters
10GBASE-LR Single-mode fiber 10 km
10GBASE-LRM Multi-mode fiber 300 meters
10GBASE-ER Single-mode fiber 40 Km
10GBASE-ZR Single – mode fiber 80 km
10GBASE-LX4 Single-mode fiber at 1,550 nm wavelength 10 km
10GBASE-T Twisted pair 100 m
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8. Standard of Ethernet
¢ 10 Base T
10 Mbps (Half Duplex)
IEEE 802.3 at Data Link Layer / Layer 2
¢ 100 Base T (Fast Ethernet)
100 Mbps (Half Duplex / Full Duplex)
IEEE 802.3u at Data Link Layer / Layer 2
¢ Giga Ethernet
1000 Mbps (Full Duplex )
IEEE 802.3z at Data Link Layer / Layer 2
¢ 10 Giga Ethernet
10000 Mbps (Full Duplex)
IEEE 802.3ae at Data Link Layer / Layer 2
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9. CSMA / CD
¢ Carrier Sense: wait till medium is idle before sending frame.
¢ Multiple Access: multiple computers use the same shared media.
Each uses same access algorithm.
¢ Collision Detection: Listen to medium – detect if another station’s
signal interferes – back off and try again later.
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10. CSMA / CD - Transmitting
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11. ¢ When Ethernet network determine transmission of data, data
broken into packet, and packed into frames.
¢ Maintain queued for transmission, usually this process occur on
NIC.
¢ Before transmission, transceiver listen on medium is used or not, if
free then start transmission, other wise wait for an algorithm.
¢ The listing process through out whole cable transceivers.
¢ It is possible that two or more of them sense simultaneously, and
began transmitting, cable medium is shared medium; so possibly two
or more transmission frames collapse with each other.
¢ Collapse known as collision.
¢ When transmission began, sender station continuously monitor the
medium, and when collision is occur, then transmit “Jam Signal”.
¢ At this stage all station which are involved in this collision, began
“evasive action”, is an algorithm for waiting of random period of
time.
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12. ¢ If collision occurs: wait a random time t1 - 0< t1<d.
D depends on transmission speed – time for frame width or 512
bits.
¢ If second collision occurs, wait a random time t2 - 0< t2<2d.
Double range for each successive collision.
¢ If collision occur its maximum value, transmission aboard.
¢ And if no collision, then again listen cable that is busy or not.
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13. CSMA / CD - Receiving
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14. ¢ Each station on the medium, listen incoming frames and check for
fragments; fragments are partial frame (faulty or collision occur
frames).
¢ In first step, check frame size, valid Ethernet frame has
approximately size is 64 bytes.
¢ If frame is shooter, then assumed that collision may occur, then not
further process, and try again.
¢ In second step, station also check MAC address of destination
frame, if this address is not match, then start receiving again.
¢ And if address match, then check series of various elements, like
receiving frame not too long, conditionally length is 1518 bytes, if
exceed assumed that frame is faulty, and transmission terminate due
to over size of frame.
¢ If over size test is clear, then check CRC formula, and comparing
result value with receiving frame value.
¢ if comprising value checked then, and result is match then
disassemble frame, and successful receiving.
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15. ¢ If length field is not match, then aboard receiving.
¢ And CRC not match, then check extra bit (check sum), if no extra
bit then end of receiving due to CRC error.
¢ And If add extra value in CRC, then again aboard receiving due to
alignment error.
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16. Token Ring Protocol
¢ Initially used only in IBM computers in 1981, it was eventually
standardized with protocol IEEE 802.5.
¢ Token ring technology is a local area network protocol which
resides at the data link layer (DLL 2 layer) of the OSI model.
o It uses a special three-byte frame called a token that travels around
the ring.
o Active monitor grants the possessor permission to transmit on the
medium.
o Token ring frames travel completely around the loop.
o Like Ethernet any computer start transmitting at every time; not
possible, either wait for special frame “token”, and when it get on
wire and if is token is empty then copy their data on it, and passing
through forward.
o This token traveling method is clockwise and called as token passing
method.
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17. Token Ring Topology
¢ Ring topology is used for token ring protocol; but actually physically
star topology and logically ring topology are used.
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18. ¢ In token ring protocol, ring topology used MSAU as central device,
CAT-3 (4Mbps to16Mbps), and IBM token ring adapter.
¢ MSAU (Multi Station Access Unit) just like Ethernet hub, but every
computer linked with two UTP / STP cables, one for received and
second for transmit.
¢ These short cable which are attached with computer to MSAU, is
called Lobe.
¢ There are two types of computers on token ring topology, only one
at ring is active monitor, and all other reaming are standby monitor.
¢ Active monitor responsible for generating token and passing
through on network in clock wise.
¢ Standby monitors just like clients which are directly connected on
ring , waiting for token for data transmission at its own parity.
¢ Active monitor selection is done by automatically by an election
method, and if within 10 millisecond, active monitor is out of
response, automatically election generated and new computer
active monitor.
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19. Token Passing
¢ The first computer set its NIC default value.
¢ In second perform lobe test, transmit and receive cables initially
connected with MSAU, in this test computer send single on their
transmit cable and listening back same signal at its receiving cable.
¢ If successful communication occur then other process shall be
start, other wise computer goes to fail for ring attachment; this test
called loopback test.
¢ In next stage computer place current (phantom current) on cable
ring, which cause this lobe is active on MSAU, otherwise MSAU
assume this computer is going switch off.
¢ After this network adapter now checks to insure that its MAC
address is unique on network; for this its send special signal
(destination its own MAN address) if no computer set an indicator
flag on this frame, then its assume its address is unique, otherwise
remove from network until anyone reconfigure its MAC address.
¢ Within seven second, a ring poll occur, by this every computer get
know its upstream neighbor address.
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20. ¢ Ring poll: ring polling occur every seven second, by this process
every computer aware of its next upstream neighbor MAC address.
All of this value also be save at active, and in every seven second
every computer listen that active monitor is present or not other
wise again election shall be occur.
¢ By clearing all test computer become full flag member of ring.
¢ Lets start a ring which have five computer A to E, where A is a
active monitor.
¢ Computer A is automatically elected by an election, now B
required to send data to E, then when token is pass through at B
computer, its check if token is empty then he copy their data into
empty token.
¢ Token is now moving forward C; again C check that this token is
for its or not, forward it, token forward to D; again this process
happened, and when this token at E, this computer NIC check that
destination MAC is match, if yes then copy all data and copied
flagged is down means off.
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21. ¢ Again token forwarding back to A, after reaching A computer check
if copy flag is down or off then again up this flag and assume that
data has been copied other wise again transmit in ring.
¢ When this happen means data has been copied, A also up all
reaming flags; like token is empty, data copy, and if any error then
remove from frame.
¢ Then A again transmit this token on ring, when its pass through by
B, computer B check and if token empty flag is up then computer B
able to copy their data on this token, and computer B copy their
data on exiting pervious computer A data.
¢ Token priority / flag: There are 8 priority / flags on token ring
transmission; from 0-7, every flag represent any one operation like
token is empty, data has been copied or error, etc.
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22. Active Monitor: Every station in a token ring network is either an
active monitor (AM) or standby monitor (SM) station. However, there
can be only one active monitor on a ring at a time. The active monitor
is chosen through an election or monitor contention process.
The monitor contention process is initiated when
•a loss of signal on the ring is detected.
•an active monitor station is not detected by other stations on
the ring.
•a particular timer on an end station expires such as the case
when a station hasn't seen a token frame in the past 7 seconds.
When any of the above conditions take place and a station decides
that a new monitor is needed, it will transmit a "claim token" frame,
announcing that it wants to become the new monitor. If that token
returns back to the sender, it is OK for it to become the monitor. If
some other station tries to become the monitor at the same time
then the station with the highest MAC address will win the election
process. Every other station becomes a standby monitor. All stations
must be capable of becoming an active monitor station if necessary.
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23. The active monitor performs a number of ring
administration functions.
•The first function is to operate as the master clock
for the ring in order to provide synchronization of the
signal for stations on the wire.
•Another function of the AM is to insert a 24-bit delay
into the ring, to ensure that there is always sufficient
buffering in the ring for the token to circulate.
•A third function for the AM is to ensure that exactly
one token circulates whenever there is no frame being
transmitted, and to detect a broken ring.
•Lastly, the AM is responsible for removing circulating
frames from the ring.
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24. 24 Copyright revised for Zafar Ayub
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25. FDDI Protocol
¢ Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) provides a 100 Mbps
optical standard for data transmission in a local area network that
can extend in range up to 200 kilometers (120 mi).
¢ Although FDDI logical topology is a ring-based token network, it
does not use the IEEE 802.5 token ring protocol as its basis; instead,
its protocol is derived from the IEEE 802.4 token bus timed token
protocol.
¢ In addition to covering large geographical areas, FDDI local area
networks can support thousands of users. As a standard underlying
medium it uses optical fiber, although it can use copper cable, in
which case it may be referred to as CDDI (Copper Distributed
Data Interface). FDDI offers both a Dual-Attached Station (DAS),
counter-rotating token ring topology and a Single-Attached Station
(SAS), token bus passing ring topology
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26. Network Topologies
A Network Topology is the layout pattern of interconnections of the
various elements (links, cables, devices, etc) of a computer system.
In network arrangement of computers or flow of network traffic,
known as Network Topology.
Means arrangement of device on network with structural (physical)
or virtual (logical) is Network Topology.
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27. Types of Network Topologies
¢ Network topologies may be physical or logical with respect to their
functionality.
¢ Physical topology refers to the physical design of a network
including the devices, location and cable installation.
The shape of the cabling layout used to link devices is called the
physical topology of the network.This refers to
the layout of cabling
the locations of nodes
the interconnections between the nodes and the cabling
The physical topology of a network is determined by;
the capabilities of the network access devices and media
the level of control
fault tolerance desired
the cost associated with cabling or telecommunications
circuits.
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28. ¢ Logical topology refers to how data is actually transferred in a
network as opposed to its physical design.
The logical topology is define;
is the way that the signals act on the network media
the way that the data passes through the network from one
device to the next without regard to the physical interconnection of
the devices.
A network's logical topology is not necessarily the same as its
physical topology. For example;
the original UTP Ethernet using hubs / switches, but logically
connected bus topology layout.
Token Ring is a logical ring topology, but is wired a physical
star from the MSAU (Media Station Access Unit).
¢ In general physical topology relates to a core network whereas
logical topology relates to basic network.
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29. BUS Topology
¢ A bus network topology is a network architecture in which a set of
clients are connected via a shared communications line / medium,
called a BUS topology.
¢ The bus topology is often referred to as a linear bus because the
computers are connected in a straight line. This is the simplest and
most common method of networking computers.
Advantages :
Easy to connect a computer or peripheral to a linear bus.
Easy to implement and extend
Well suited for temporary networks (quick setup)
Typically the cheapest topology to implement
Faster than a ring network.
If any node on the bus network fails, the bus its self is not effected.
Requires less cable length than a star topology.
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30. Disadvantages :
Difficult to administer/troubleshoot
Limited cable length and number of stations
A cable break can disable the entire network
Maintenance costs may be higher in the long run
Performance degrades as additional computers are added or on
heavy traffic
Low security (all computers on the bus can see all data
transmissions)
One virus in the network will affect all of them (but not as badly as a
star or ring network)
Proper termination is required.(loop must be in closed path)
Significant Capacitive Load (each bus transaction must be able to
stretch to most distant link).
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31. How it’s work?
¢ A Bus networks are the simplest way to connect multiple clients,
but may have problems when two clients want to transmit at the
same time on the same bus.
¢ The Ethernet is common protocol for bus topology.
¢ Thus systems which use bus network architectures normally have
some scheme of collision handling or collision avoidance for
communication on the bus, quite often using CSMA / CD(Carrier
Sense Multiple Access / Collision Detection).
¢ In Bus topology computers are connected with each other via cable,
called coax cable (thick net / thin net) with their NIC.
¢ NIC connect with cable via passive device called BNC -T(British
Naval Connector) / Transverse (DB-15) and at last of both cables
ends T-Connector or open loop must be closed.
¢ Bus topology has two basic types 10Base-2 and 10Base-5.
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32. 10Base-2
¢ In 10Base-2 coax cable used Thinnet cable (RG-58) 50 ohm.
¢ It is capable of covering up to 590 feet (180 meters) and is not
highly susceptible to noise interference.
¢ It transmits at 10Mbps megabits per second and can support up to
30 nodes per segment.
¢ This is a type of coax cable you can use for networks it’s a thinner
cable, like the one you find on your cable television.
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34. ¢ 10Base-2 specification;
Category Notes
Maximum segment length 185 meters (607 feet)
Connection to network interface card BNC T connector
Trunk segments and repeaters Five segments can be joined using four repeaters
Computers per segment 30 computers per segment by specification
Segments that can have computers Three of the five segments can be populated
Total number of computers 90 computers
Maximum total network length 925 meters (3035 feet)
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35. 5-4-3 Rule:
A thinnet network can combine as many as five cable segments
connected by four repeaters; but only three segments can have
stations attached.
Thus, two segments are untapped and are often referred to as
"inter-repeater links." This is known as the 5-4-3 rule.
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36. ¢ There are five segments, four repeaters, and trunk segments 1, 2,
and 5 are populated (have computers attached to them).
¢ Trunk segments 3 and 4 exist only to increase the total length of
the network and to allow the computers on trunk segments 1 and
5 to be on the same network.
¢ Because normal Ethernet limits are too confining for a large
business, repeaters can be used to join Ethernet segments and
extend the network to a total length of 925 meters (3035 feet).
Note:
The 5-4-3-2-1 rule limits the range of a collision domain by limiting the
propagation delay to a "reasonable" amount of time. The rule breaks
down as follows:
5 - The number of network segments
4 - the number of repeaters needed to join the segments into one
collision domain
3 - the number of network segments that have active (transmitting)
devices attached
2 - the number of segments that do not have active devices attached
1 - the number of collision domains
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37. Advantages:
Relatively inexpensive
Easy to install
Easy to configure
Disadvantages:
Limitation of computer till max 90 computers
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38. 10Base-5
¢ In 10Base-5 coax cable used Thicknet cable (RG-59) 50 ohm.
¢ Thick-net cable is often used as backbone in local area network
environment.
¢ It transmit data speed of 10Mbps covers distances of up to 1640
feet / 500 meters and accommodates up to 100 nodes per
segments.
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39. ¢ Thicknet cabling components include;
¢ Transceivers These are devices that can both transmit and receive,
provide communications between the computer and the main LAN
cable, and are located in the vampire taps attached to the cable
¢ Transceiver cables The transceiver cable (drop cable) connects the
transceiver to the NIC.
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40. ¢ DIX (or AUI) connectors These are the connectors on the
transceiver cable.
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41. ¢ N-series connectors, including N-series barrel
connectors, and N-series terminators
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42. ¢ 10Base-5 specification;
Category Notes
Maximum segment length 500 meters (1640 feet).
Transceivers Connected to the segment (in the tap).
Maximum computer-to-transceiver distance 50 meters (164 feet).
Minimum distance between transceivers 2.5 meters (8 feet).
Trunk segments and repeaters Five segments can be joined using four repeaters.
Segments that can have computers Three of the five segments can be populated.
Maximum total length of joined segments 2500 meters (8200 feet).
Maximum number of computers per segment 100 by specification.
Total number of computers 300 computers
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43. 5-4-3 Rule:
One thicknet Ethernet network can have a maximum of five
backbone segments connected using repeaters , of which up to
three can accommodate computers.
Figure shows how the 5-4-3 rules are applied to thicknet.
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44. ¢ The length of the transceiver cables is not used to measure the
distance supported on the thicknet cable; only the end-to-end
length of the thicknet cable segment itself is used.
¢ Between connections, the minimum thicknet cable segment is 2.5
meters (about 8 feet).
¢ This measurement excludes transceiver cables. Thicknet was
designed to support a backbone for a large department or an entire
building.
Note:
The 5-4-3-2-1 rule limits the range of a collision domain by limiting the
propagation delay to a "reasonable" amount of time. The rule breaks
down as follows:
5 - The number of network segments
4 - the number of repeaters needed to join the segments into one
collision domain
3 - the number of network segments that have active (transmitting)
devices attached
2 - the number of segments that do not have active devices attached
1 - the number of collision domains
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45. Advantages:
Backbone cable
Covers distances of up to 1640 feet or 500 meters
Accommodates up to 100 nodes per segment
Disadvantages:
it’s very difficult to work
it transmits data at speeds of 10Mbps
A loose connection or missing terminator could cause erratic
network performance.
This will lead to reduced speed, error counts in high-frame
transmission or even a lack of network connectivity.
When using thin-net, a malfunction transceiver could also
cause excessive packet transmission or frame transmission
errors.
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