There are several ways canals can be classified:
1. Based on the source of water supply - permanent, non-perennial, or inundation canals.
2. Based on function - irrigation, navigation, power, or feeder canals.
3. Based on alignment - watershed/ridge, contour, or side slope canals.
4. Based on discharge capacity - main, branch, distributary, or water course canals.
5. Based on lining - lined or unlined canals.
Canal lining reduces water losses, prevents seepage issues, and lowers maintenance costs but requires a higher initial investment.
Okay, let me solve this step-by-step:
Given:
Discharge of canal (Q) = 50 cumec
Let's assume:
Bed width (B) = x meters
Depth of water (D) = y meters
Cross-sectional area (A) = B*D + 1.5D^2
Wetted perimeter (P) = B + 3.6D
Hydraulic mean depth (R) = A/P
From the economical section condition:
R = D/2
Equating the two expressions of R and solving:
(B*D + 1.5D^2) / (B + 3
This document discusses different types and classifications of canals used for irrigation. Canals are classified in several ways, including by their source of water (permanent, non-perennial, inundation), function (feeder, carrier, distribution, hydel, navigation), size and importance in a network (main, branch, major/minor distributors, water courses), alignment (ridge, contour, side slope), financial role (protective, productive), soil type traversed (alluvial, non-alluvial), and whether they have lining or not (lined, unlined). The key purpose of canals is to transport water from its source to irrigate agricultural lands.
This document discusses spillways and energy dissipators for dams. It defines spillways as structures used to safely release surplus water from reservoirs. The main types of spillways are main, auxiliary, and emergency spillways. Spillways can also be classified based on their prominent features, such as free overflow, overflow, side channel, open channel, tunnel, shaft, and siphon spillways. Energy dissipators, such as stilling basins and bucket types, are also discussed to reduce the energy of water flowing from spillways. Common energy dissipator types include horizontal and sloping apron stilling basins, and solid roller, slotted roller, and ski jump bucket dissipators.
This presentation is covered topic of cross drainage work. In which topics necessity of Cross drainage structures, their types and selection,
comparative merits and demerits, design of
various types of cross-drainage structure:aqueducts, siphon aqueduct, super passage
siphon, level crossing and other types covered.
Canal headworks are hydraulic structures constructed across rivers to divert water into canals. They raise the river water level and regulate flows. There are two main types - diversion and storage headworks. Diversion headworks like weirs and barrages divert water without storage, while dams form storage reservoirs. Key components include weirs/barrages, divide walls, fish ladders, under sluices, silt excluders, and head regulators. Location depends on river characteristics, and sites must be accessible with suitable foundations. Failure can occur through subsurface piping/uplift or surface scouring during floods. Precautions include reducing exit gradients, providing sheet piles, ensuring floor thickness, using filters and energy
The document discusses the planning of reservoirs, outlining several key steps:
1) Decision makers must determine the needs and purposes of the reservoir while considering constraints. This includes social and financial factors.
2) All relevant existing information is assembled, such as previous studies, geological and hydrological data, population and demand forecasts.
3) Potential dam and reservoir sites are identified and evaluated based on topographical suitability, available storage, and other factors. Environmental and social impacts are also assessed.
This document discusses river engineering and types of river training works. It describes guide bank systems, groynes/spurs, and different types of groynes used to control river flows, including permeable tree groynes and pile groynes. The key factors in designing groynes are discussed, such as their length, materials used, and how they can be configured to attract, deflect, or repel river flows and sedimentation. Different specialized groynes are also introduced, such as hockey-shaped, T-headed, and inverted L-shaped groynes.
Okay, let me solve this step-by-step:
Given:
Discharge of canal (Q) = 50 cumec
Let's assume:
Bed width (B) = x meters
Depth of water (D) = y meters
Cross-sectional area (A) = B*D + 1.5D^2
Wetted perimeter (P) = B + 3.6D
Hydraulic mean depth (R) = A/P
From the economical section condition:
R = D/2
Equating the two expressions of R and solving:
(B*D + 1.5D^2) / (B + 3
This document discusses different types and classifications of canals used for irrigation. Canals are classified in several ways, including by their source of water (permanent, non-perennial, inundation), function (feeder, carrier, distribution, hydel, navigation), size and importance in a network (main, branch, major/minor distributors, water courses), alignment (ridge, contour, side slope), financial role (protective, productive), soil type traversed (alluvial, non-alluvial), and whether they have lining or not (lined, unlined). The key purpose of canals is to transport water from its source to irrigate agricultural lands.
This document discusses spillways and energy dissipators for dams. It defines spillways as structures used to safely release surplus water from reservoirs. The main types of spillways are main, auxiliary, and emergency spillways. Spillways can also be classified based on their prominent features, such as free overflow, overflow, side channel, open channel, tunnel, shaft, and siphon spillways. Energy dissipators, such as stilling basins and bucket types, are also discussed to reduce the energy of water flowing from spillways. Common energy dissipator types include horizontal and sloping apron stilling basins, and solid roller, slotted roller, and ski jump bucket dissipators.
This presentation is covered topic of cross drainage work. In which topics necessity of Cross drainage structures, their types and selection,
comparative merits and demerits, design of
various types of cross-drainage structure:aqueducts, siphon aqueduct, super passage
siphon, level crossing and other types covered.
Canal headworks are hydraulic structures constructed across rivers to divert water into canals. They raise the river water level and regulate flows. There are two main types - diversion and storage headworks. Diversion headworks like weirs and barrages divert water without storage, while dams form storage reservoirs. Key components include weirs/barrages, divide walls, fish ladders, under sluices, silt excluders, and head regulators. Location depends on river characteristics, and sites must be accessible with suitable foundations. Failure can occur through subsurface piping/uplift or surface scouring during floods. Precautions include reducing exit gradients, providing sheet piles, ensuring floor thickness, using filters and energy
The document discusses the planning of reservoirs, outlining several key steps:
1) Decision makers must determine the needs and purposes of the reservoir while considering constraints. This includes social and financial factors.
2) All relevant existing information is assembled, such as previous studies, geological and hydrological data, population and demand forecasts.
3) Potential dam and reservoir sites are identified and evaluated based on topographical suitability, available storage, and other factors. Environmental and social impacts are also assessed.
This document discusses river engineering and types of river training works. It describes guide bank systems, groynes/spurs, and different types of groynes used to control river flows, including permeable tree groynes and pile groynes. The key factors in designing groynes are discussed, such as their length, materials used, and how they can be configured to attract, deflect, or repel river flows and sedimentation. Different specialized groynes are also introduced, such as hockey-shaped, T-headed, and inverted L-shaped groynes.
The document discusses the design of embankment dams. It defines embankment dams as dams constructed of natural materials like earth or rockfill. It describes the different types of embankment dams including homogeneous dams, zoned dams, and diaphragm dams. It also discusses important design considerations for embankment dams like controlling seepage, providing internal drainage, and ensuring the shear strength of the soil is sufficient to resist failure. Pore water pressure in saturated soils is identified as an important factor that reduces the effective stress and shear strength of soils in embankment dams.
This document discusses balancing depth in canal design, canal lining, and design principles for lined canals. It defines balancing depth as the depth where the amount of cut material equals the amount of fill material. It lists advantages of canal lining such as reducing seepage losses and maintenance costs. Design principles for lined canals include selecting economical cross-sectional shapes based on discharge and using side slopes of 1:1 or 1.25:1 that are stable for the soil. Input data includes discharge, roughness, slopes, and maximum velocity, and output data includes breadth and depth calculated using Manning's equation.
This document discusses different types of canal outlets used to release water from distributing channels into watercourses. It describes non-modular, semi-modular, and modular outlets. Non-modular outlets discharge based on water level differences, while modular outlets discharge independently of water levels. Semi-modular outlets discharge depending on the channel water level but not the watercourse level. Specific outlet types are also defined, such as pipe outlets, open sluice, and Gibbs, Khanna, and Foote rigid modules. Discharge equations for different outlet types are provided.
This document discusses canal irrigation and diversion head works. It begins by defining a canal as an artificial channel constructed to carry water from a river, tank, or reservoir to fields. Canals are classified based on their source of supply, financial output, function, and boundary surface. Unlined canals are designed using either Kennedy's Theory from 1895 or Lacey's Theory from 1939. Kennedy's Theory is based on experiments observing eddy formation and silt suspension. Lacey's Theory considers drawbacks of Kennedy's Theory and designs for regime conditions. Both theories use empirical formulae and have limitations in achieving true regime conditions and defining characteristics precisely.
A canal is an artificial channel constructed to carry water from a river or reservoir to fields. Canals are classified based on their source of water supply, financial purpose, function, boundary type, water discharge level, and alignment. Canal alignment should aim to irrigate the maximum area with minimum length and cost. The balancing depth is the depth of cutting where the amount of cut material equals the amount of fill. Canal lining reduces water seepage and includes hard surface materials like concrete and softer materials like compacted earth.
Topics:
1. Types of Gravity Dam
2. Forces Acting on a Gravity Dam
3. Causes of failure of Gravity Dam
4. Elementary Profile of Gravity Dam
5. Practical Profile of Gravity Dam
6. Limiting height of Gravity Dam
7. Drainage and Inspection Galleries
This document provides information on spillway and energy dissipator design. It begins with an introduction to spillways, their classification, and factors considered in design. It then focuses on the design of ogee or overflow spillways. It discusses spillway crest profiles, discharge characteristics including effects of approach depth, upstream slope, and submergence. It provides example designs for overflow spillways and calculations for determining spillway length. The key aspects covered are types of spillways, design considerations, standard crest profiles, discharge equations, and worked examples for spillway sizing.
The document discusses various components of irrigation canal cross-sections, including:
1) Side slopes, berms, freeboard, banks, and service roads which are designed to retain water within the canal.
2) Back berms/counter berms which ensure saturation lines remain covered.
3) Spoil banks and borrow pits which are used to dispose of excess excavated earth or provide earth for filling sections.
It also outlines the main types of water losses from canals as evaporation, seepage/percolation, and absorption and describes the advantages of lining canals to reduce losses and maintenance needs.
Cross drainage works are structures constructed where canals cross natural drainages like rivers or streams. There are several types of cross drainage works depending on the relative bed levels of the canal and drainage. The document discusses determining the maximum flood discharge of a drainage using various empirical formulas and methods. It also covers topics like fluming of canals, which involves contracting the canal width to reduce the size of cross drainage structures.
The document discusses different types of canals including contour canals, ridge canals, and side slope canals. It describes how canals are classified based on alignment and position. The key parts of a canal system are described including main canals, branch canals, distributaries, and water courses. Methods for fixing canal alignment and designing canal cross-sections are outlined. Different types of canal lining materials and their purposes are also summarized.
Canal design involves defining types of canals based on use and discharge. There are two main types - aqueducts for water supply and navigable waterways. Canals are also classified based on discharge into main, branch, major/minor distributaries and watercourses. Design considers canal shape, lining requirements, and layout to minimize curves and balance cuts and fills. Proper drainage systems including surface ditches and subsurface pipes are also important to control water levels and allow cultivation. Explicit equations have been developed for least-cost design of common canal shapes like triangular, rectangular, trapezoidal and circular.
A weir is a solid structure built across a river to raise the water level and divert water into canals. There are different types of weirs including masonry weirs with vertical drops, rock fill weirs with sloping aprons, and concrete weirs with downstream slopes. Weirs can fail due to subsurface piping, uplift pressure, surface water suction or scouring. Remedies include installing sheet piles and ensuring sufficient floor thickness and length. A barrage is similar to a weir but uses gates rather than a solid structure to control water levels. Barrages are more expensive than weirs but allow better control of water levels and less silting during floods by raising the gates.
Canal & canal types with design of channels by dj sir covered kennedy lacey t...Denish Jangid
This document discusses canals and their classification and design. It describes different types of canals including contour canals, which follow the contour lines of the land to minimize engineering works. The document outlines several steps for determining the depth and bed width of canals based on factors like area and peak discharge. It also lists considerations for aligning canals, such as minimizing costs, serving the intended irrigation area, and balancing cut and fill amounts.
Cross drainage works are hydraulic structures built where canals intersect natural streams or drainage in order to prevent mixing of canal and drainage waters. There are three main types of cross drainage works depending on the relative bed levels of the canal and drainage: 1) where the canal passes over the drainage (e.g. aqueduct or siphon aqueduct), 2) where the drainage passes over the canal (e.g. super passage or siphon super passage), and 3) where the canal and drainage intersect at the same level (e.g. level crossing or inlet and outlet). The appropriate type of structure is selected based on factors like relative bed levels, foundation conditions, cost, and hydraulic requirements.
Diversion headworks are structures constructed at the head of a canal to divert river water into the canal. They include components like weirs, barrages, canal head regulators, divide walls, fish ladders, and guide banks. The objectives are to raise water levels, control silt entry, regulate water flow, and allow fish passage. Proper site selection and design are needed to prevent failures from subsurface water flow, uplift pressure, hydraulic jumps, or scouring during floods. Remedies include increasing seepage lengths, adding sheet piles, and using thicker impervious floors.
The document provides information on diversion head works and their components. It can be summarized as:
1) Diversion head works are structures constructed at the head of a canal to divert river water into the canal and ensure a regulated supply of silt-free water with a minimum head.
2) Key components of diversion head works include under sluices, divide walls, fish ladders, silt exclusion devices, guide banks, and head regulators. Under sluices control silt entry and water levels. Divide walls separate flows. Fish ladders allow fish passage.
3) Site selection factors for diversion head works include suitable foundations, positioning the weir at a right angle to river flow, space for
The gross command area is the total area that can be economically irrigated by an irrigation project without considering water limitations. It includes cultivable land as well as uncultivable areas like ponds, forests, and roads. When a canal system lies in a doab, which is the area between two drainages, the irrigation is more economical and the gross command area is defined as the area enclosed by the drainages on both sides.
This document discusses various methods of irrigation, including surface irrigation methods like furrow irrigation, contour farming, and flooding methods. It also discusses subsurface irrigation methods like sprinkler irrigation and drip/trickle irrigation. For each method, it describes the basic components and process, as well as advantages and disadvantages. Surface irrigation methods are best suited for row crops, while sprinkler and drip irrigation methods reduce evaporation and allow more precise water and fertilizer application. Drip irrigation in particular minimizes water usage and loss. The document emphasizes matching the appropriate irrigation method to field and crop conditions.
1) Canals are artificial channels constructed to carry water from a source like a river or reservoir to agricultural fields.
2) Canals are classified based on their water source (permanent or inundation), function (irrigation, navigation, power), alignment (watershed, contour, side slope), discharge (main, branch, distributary), and whether they have lining.
3) The cross-section of a canal includes components like side slopes, berms, freeboard, banks, and may involve partial cutting and filling to achieve a balancing depth.
WREII Canals Head Works and Distribution systemMitaliShelke
1. Canals are artificial channels constructed to carry water from rivers or reservoirs to irrigate fields. Canals can be classified based on their source of supply, financial output, function, boundary material, discharge importance, and alignment.
2. Losses in canals include evaporation, transpiration, and seepage. Evaporation losses depend on climatic factors and canal design. Seepage losses are a major source of loss in unlined canals.
3. An ideal canal cross-section aims to balance excavated and filled material. It includes side slopes, berms, freeboard, banks, and may include service roads.
The document discusses the design of embankment dams. It defines embankment dams as dams constructed of natural materials like earth or rockfill. It describes the different types of embankment dams including homogeneous dams, zoned dams, and diaphragm dams. It also discusses important design considerations for embankment dams like controlling seepage, providing internal drainage, and ensuring the shear strength of the soil is sufficient to resist failure. Pore water pressure in saturated soils is identified as an important factor that reduces the effective stress and shear strength of soils in embankment dams.
This document discusses balancing depth in canal design, canal lining, and design principles for lined canals. It defines balancing depth as the depth where the amount of cut material equals the amount of fill material. It lists advantages of canal lining such as reducing seepage losses and maintenance costs. Design principles for lined canals include selecting economical cross-sectional shapes based on discharge and using side slopes of 1:1 or 1.25:1 that are stable for the soil. Input data includes discharge, roughness, slopes, and maximum velocity, and output data includes breadth and depth calculated using Manning's equation.
This document discusses different types of canal outlets used to release water from distributing channels into watercourses. It describes non-modular, semi-modular, and modular outlets. Non-modular outlets discharge based on water level differences, while modular outlets discharge independently of water levels. Semi-modular outlets discharge depending on the channel water level but not the watercourse level. Specific outlet types are also defined, such as pipe outlets, open sluice, and Gibbs, Khanna, and Foote rigid modules. Discharge equations for different outlet types are provided.
This document discusses canal irrigation and diversion head works. It begins by defining a canal as an artificial channel constructed to carry water from a river, tank, or reservoir to fields. Canals are classified based on their source of supply, financial output, function, and boundary surface. Unlined canals are designed using either Kennedy's Theory from 1895 or Lacey's Theory from 1939. Kennedy's Theory is based on experiments observing eddy formation and silt suspension. Lacey's Theory considers drawbacks of Kennedy's Theory and designs for regime conditions. Both theories use empirical formulae and have limitations in achieving true regime conditions and defining characteristics precisely.
A canal is an artificial channel constructed to carry water from a river or reservoir to fields. Canals are classified based on their source of water supply, financial purpose, function, boundary type, water discharge level, and alignment. Canal alignment should aim to irrigate the maximum area with minimum length and cost. The balancing depth is the depth of cutting where the amount of cut material equals the amount of fill. Canal lining reduces water seepage and includes hard surface materials like concrete and softer materials like compacted earth.
Topics:
1. Types of Gravity Dam
2. Forces Acting on a Gravity Dam
3. Causes of failure of Gravity Dam
4. Elementary Profile of Gravity Dam
5. Practical Profile of Gravity Dam
6. Limiting height of Gravity Dam
7. Drainage and Inspection Galleries
This document provides information on spillway and energy dissipator design. It begins with an introduction to spillways, their classification, and factors considered in design. It then focuses on the design of ogee or overflow spillways. It discusses spillway crest profiles, discharge characteristics including effects of approach depth, upstream slope, and submergence. It provides example designs for overflow spillways and calculations for determining spillway length. The key aspects covered are types of spillways, design considerations, standard crest profiles, discharge equations, and worked examples for spillway sizing.
The document discusses various components of irrigation canal cross-sections, including:
1) Side slopes, berms, freeboard, banks, and service roads which are designed to retain water within the canal.
2) Back berms/counter berms which ensure saturation lines remain covered.
3) Spoil banks and borrow pits which are used to dispose of excess excavated earth or provide earth for filling sections.
It also outlines the main types of water losses from canals as evaporation, seepage/percolation, and absorption and describes the advantages of lining canals to reduce losses and maintenance needs.
Cross drainage works are structures constructed where canals cross natural drainages like rivers or streams. There are several types of cross drainage works depending on the relative bed levels of the canal and drainage. The document discusses determining the maximum flood discharge of a drainage using various empirical formulas and methods. It also covers topics like fluming of canals, which involves contracting the canal width to reduce the size of cross drainage structures.
The document discusses different types of canals including contour canals, ridge canals, and side slope canals. It describes how canals are classified based on alignment and position. The key parts of a canal system are described including main canals, branch canals, distributaries, and water courses. Methods for fixing canal alignment and designing canal cross-sections are outlined. Different types of canal lining materials and their purposes are also summarized.
Canal design involves defining types of canals based on use and discharge. There are two main types - aqueducts for water supply and navigable waterways. Canals are also classified based on discharge into main, branch, major/minor distributaries and watercourses. Design considers canal shape, lining requirements, and layout to minimize curves and balance cuts and fills. Proper drainage systems including surface ditches and subsurface pipes are also important to control water levels and allow cultivation. Explicit equations have been developed for least-cost design of common canal shapes like triangular, rectangular, trapezoidal and circular.
A weir is a solid structure built across a river to raise the water level and divert water into canals. There are different types of weirs including masonry weirs with vertical drops, rock fill weirs with sloping aprons, and concrete weirs with downstream slopes. Weirs can fail due to subsurface piping, uplift pressure, surface water suction or scouring. Remedies include installing sheet piles and ensuring sufficient floor thickness and length. A barrage is similar to a weir but uses gates rather than a solid structure to control water levels. Barrages are more expensive than weirs but allow better control of water levels and less silting during floods by raising the gates.
Canal & canal types with design of channels by dj sir covered kennedy lacey t...Denish Jangid
This document discusses canals and their classification and design. It describes different types of canals including contour canals, which follow the contour lines of the land to minimize engineering works. The document outlines several steps for determining the depth and bed width of canals based on factors like area and peak discharge. It also lists considerations for aligning canals, such as minimizing costs, serving the intended irrigation area, and balancing cut and fill amounts.
Cross drainage works are hydraulic structures built where canals intersect natural streams or drainage in order to prevent mixing of canal and drainage waters. There are three main types of cross drainage works depending on the relative bed levels of the canal and drainage: 1) where the canal passes over the drainage (e.g. aqueduct or siphon aqueduct), 2) where the drainage passes over the canal (e.g. super passage or siphon super passage), and 3) where the canal and drainage intersect at the same level (e.g. level crossing or inlet and outlet). The appropriate type of structure is selected based on factors like relative bed levels, foundation conditions, cost, and hydraulic requirements.
Diversion headworks are structures constructed at the head of a canal to divert river water into the canal. They include components like weirs, barrages, canal head regulators, divide walls, fish ladders, and guide banks. The objectives are to raise water levels, control silt entry, regulate water flow, and allow fish passage. Proper site selection and design are needed to prevent failures from subsurface water flow, uplift pressure, hydraulic jumps, or scouring during floods. Remedies include increasing seepage lengths, adding sheet piles, and using thicker impervious floors.
The document provides information on diversion head works and their components. It can be summarized as:
1) Diversion head works are structures constructed at the head of a canal to divert river water into the canal and ensure a regulated supply of silt-free water with a minimum head.
2) Key components of diversion head works include under sluices, divide walls, fish ladders, silt exclusion devices, guide banks, and head regulators. Under sluices control silt entry and water levels. Divide walls separate flows. Fish ladders allow fish passage.
3) Site selection factors for diversion head works include suitable foundations, positioning the weir at a right angle to river flow, space for
The gross command area is the total area that can be economically irrigated by an irrigation project without considering water limitations. It includes cultivable land as well as uncultivable areas like ponds, forests, and roads. When a canal system lies in a doab, which is the area between two drainages, the irrigation is more economical and the gross command area is defined as the area enclosed by the drainages on both sides.
This document discusses various methods of irrigation, including surface irrigation methods like furrow irrigation, contour farming, and flooding methods. It also discusses subsurface irrigation methods like sprinkler irrigation and drip/trickle irrigation. For each method, it describes the basic components and process, as well as advantages and disadvantages. Surface irrigation methods are best suited for row crops, while sprinkler and drip irrigation methods reduce evaporation and allow more precise water and fertilizer application. Drip irrigation in particular minimizes water usage and loss. The document emphasizes matching the appropriate irrigation method to field and crop conditions.
1) Canals are artificial channels constructed to carry water from a source like a river or reservoir to agricultural fields.
2) Canals are classified based on their water source (permanent or inundation), function (irrigation, navigation, power), alignment (watershed, contour, side slope), discharge (main, branch, distributary), and whether they have lining.
3) The cross-section of a canal includes components like side slopes, berms, freeboard, banks, and may involve partial cutting and filling to achieve a balancing depth.
WREII Canals Head Works and Distribution systemMitaliShelke
1. Canals are artificial channels constructed to carry water from rivers or reservoirs to irrigate fields. Canals can be classified based on their source of supply, financial output, function, boundary material, discharge importance, and alignment.
2. Losses in canals include evaporation, transpiration, and seepage. Evaporation losses depend on climatic factors and canal design. Seepage losses are a major source of loss in unlined canals.
3. An ideal canal cross-section aims to balance excavated and filled material. It includes side slopes, berms, freeboard, banks, and may include service roads.
Canal irrigation involves open waterways that carry water from its source to agricultural fields. There are several types of canals based on water source, function, alignment, and discharge. Canals aligned along ridge lines or watersheds ensure gravity irrigation on both sides. Contour canals irrigate only one side in hilly areas. Unlined canals experience high water losses through seepage, percolation, and absorption while lined canals conserve water through impervious surfaces like concrete and brick. Proper canal design considers factors like side slopes, berms, freeboard, and borrow pits to efficiently transport water while withstanding pressures.
This document discusses types of canals and reservoirs. It outlines 7 types of canal classifications based on source of supply, function, discharge, alignment, financial output, soil type, and lining. Key canal components include main canals, branch canals, and distributaries. The document also defines important canal terms like gross command area and culturable command area. It describes reservoir components and storage zones, and outlines investigations done at reservoir sites including engineering surveys, geological investigations, and hydrological studies.
This document provides guidelines for designing irrigation channels, including:
1. Typical canal cross-sections, side slopes, berms, freeboard, banks, and other design elements are described.
2. Methods for calculating balancing depth to minimize earthworks and borrow pits are outlined.
3. The design procedure is demonstrated through an example that involves plotting longitudinal sections, calculating discharges and losses, and using Garret's diagram to determine channel dimensions.
This document provides information on canal irrigation, including definitions, types of canals based on use and discharge, canal components like main canals and branch canals, canal shapes, lined and unlined canals, canal design theories by Kennedy and Lacey for unlined canals on alluvial soils, and comparisons between the two theories. It discusses parameters for canal design like critical velocity, silt factor, and presents equations for determining velocity, discharge, and slope in canal design.
The document discusses various aspects of selecting a site for a diversion headworks and its components. It provides criteria for selecting an optimal site, such as the river being straight and narrow, having a higher elevation than the irrigation area, and having stable banks. It also discusses types of weirs, barrages, and other structures used at diversion headworks, such as under sluices, fish ladders, canal head regulators, and silt control works. Key considerations for site selection aim to minimize construction costs and water losses while safely diverting water for irrigation.
This document discusses various hydraulic structures used for river engineering, including headworks, diversion structures, weirs, and flow control structures. It describes the functions and types of structures such as storage versus diversion headworks, vertical drop versus sloping weirs, and bendway weirs versus engineered log jams. Modes of failure for weirs and methods to control flow and grade using structures like vanes, drop structures, and logjams are also summarized.
presentation of industrial training irrigation (2).pptxMaloth3
This document provides a summary of an industrial training report on the J.Chokkarao dhevadhula lift irrigation scheme in India. The key points are:
1. The training involved construction of the Nashkal wier, head sluice, and package 6 works, as well as the Dhevannapeta pump house and Dharmasagar pump house.
2. The overall project aims to lift 38.16 TMC of water from the Godavari River to irrigate over 6 lakh acres of drought-prone land across three districts.
3. The report discusses the importance of irrigation canals for carrying water from sources to fields, preventing water tables from dropping,
This document discusses the design of canals. It defines canals as artificial channels used for navigation or irrigation. There are two main types of canals - aqueducts for water supply and waterways for transportation. Canals are also classified based on their discharge sizes and whether they are lined or unlined. The document outlines the different components of canal systems like main canals, branch canals and distributaries. It describes the common shapes, materials used for lining and advantages of lined canals over unlined ones. Drainage systems are also discussed including surface and subsurface drainage.
This document provides lecture notes on canal irrigation. It begins by defining canal irrigation and describing the different types of canals based on size, alignment, surface, and purpose. It then discusses the key parts of a canal irrigation system including conveyance structures like aqueducts and regulatory structures like head regulators. The document concludes by defining important canal irrigation terms and describing common methods to determine water requirements, such as the inductive, critical growth period, and consumptive use methods.
The document discusses the design of irrigation channels. It covers the design of non-alluvial channels, which are excavated in non-silty soils like clay and do not experience silt deposition. The design involves selecting a channel shape and size so that the mean flow velocity is below the maximum permissible velocity for the soil type to prevent erosion. It provides tables of permissible velocities and Manning's roughness coefficients for different soil types. An example problem demonstrates how to use the Manning equation to design a trapezoidal channel with given discharge, slope and roughness.
This document discusses different types of irrigation canals and structures used to regulate water flow in canal networks. It describes:
1. The main types of canals - main canals, branch canals, distributaries, and water courses. Distributaries are further divided into major and minor types.
2. The primary structures used to regulate water flow - head regulators at the head of canals, cross regulators along canals, and outlets that deliver water to water courses from distributaries.
3. Additional structures like falls used to lower water levels across changes in ground elevation, escapes to discharge excess water, and tail escapes at canal ends.
Diversion headworks are structures constructed across rivers to raise water levels and divert water into canals. They have several purposes, including increasing the commanded area, regulating water supply to canals, and controlling silt entry. There are two types - temporary and permanent. Key components include weirs/barrages, under sluices, divide walls, fish ladders, and head regulators. The optimal location depends on the river's characteristics, balancing factors like water availability, construction costs, and proximity to agricultural land.
This document discusses the design of irrigation channels. It begins by introducing different types of channels, including non-alluvial channels, rigid boundary channels, and alluvial channels. It then covers procedures for designing non-alluvial channels using Manning's formula or Chezy's equation to determine parameters like cross-sectional area, depth, and width. Examples are provided to demonstrate this process. The document also discusses design considerations for lined canals as rigid boundary channels, which can withstand higher velocities. Overall, the document provides guidance on selecting channel alignments and sizes based on factors like soil type, discharge needs, and permissible velocities.
CHAPTER 5- Water Conveynance and Control-1.pptxMamushLeta
This document discusses irrigation distribution systems and the design of irrigation and drainage canals. It covers the following key points:
- Irrigation canals convey clean water from higher to lower levels to distribute water to fields, while drainage canals carry dirty water from lower to higher levels to evacuate excess water.
- The preliminary layout of canals considers physical feasibility, economic feasibility, and locates irrigation canals on higher parts and drainage canals in lower parts of the area.
- Canals are classified based on alignment and size. Design considers factors like permissible velocity, tractive force, bed stability, and uses equations like Manning's or Chezy to calculate flow characteristics.
- Parameters for lined,
Surface and subsurface drainage systems are used to remove excess water from irrigated areas. Surface drainage involves open ditches and land grading to carry water away, while subsurface or tile drainage uses underground pipes to drain water from below the soil surface. Tile drains are made of porous material and laid in trenches backfilled with filter material to prevent soil intrusion. They are connected to larger surface drains or pumps. Different tile drainage layouts are used depending on topography, including natural, gridiron, herringbone, and interceptor systems. Soil salinity occurs when salt concentrations in the root zone inhibit plant growth. It can be caused by high water tables, arid climates with limited leaching, or poor quality
This document discusses water logging and its causes and effects. It defines water logging as when the productivity of agricultural land is affected by a high water table. Key points include:
- Water logging occurs when there is too much water in the root zone of plants, killing bacteria that produce nutrients and reducing crop yields.
- The depth of the water table affects different crops, such as wheat being affected at 0.9-1.2m and sugarcane at 0.3m.
- Causes of water logging include over irrigation, seepage from canals and reservoirs, inadequate drainage, obstruction of water flows, soil type, and excessive rainfall.
- Effects are difficult cultivation, growth of
This document discusses the forces acting on gravity dams and their environmental impacts. It outlines various forces like water pressure, weight of the dam, uplift pressure, earthquake pressure, and wave pressure. It also explains how these forces are calculated. Regarding failure, it notes dams can fail through overturning, sliding, compression, or tension. The document concludes by covering environmental impacts of dam construction like pollution, and impacts of reservoirs like habitat destruction and sedimentation.
The document presents 5 problems related to analyzing the stability of gravity dams and arch dams. Problem 1 involves analyzing the stability of a given gravity dam under various loading and stress conditions. Forces, moments, and stresses are calculated. Problem 2 similarly analyzes the stability of another gravity dam considering additional forces from ice loads and earthquakes. Problem 3 involves calculating the volume of a given arch dam. Problem 4 determines the optimum central angle of an arch dam for minimum volume. Problem 5 provides dimensions for an arch dam and requires calculating properties such as thickness at different depths and total dam volume. Solutions are provided for Problem 1.
This document lists and provides details on 10 major dams in Pakistan, including their location, construction timelines, dimensions, and costs. The largest dams are Mangla Dam and Tarbela Dam, both located on major rivers like the Jhelum and Indus, with heights over 140 meters and costs over $1 billion. The other dams range in height from 30 to 130 meters, were built between the 1960s and 2010s on various rivers across Pakistan, and cost between 100 million to over 18 billion Pakistani rupees.
1) The document discusses different types of canal outlets including non-modular and semi-modular outlets. Non-modular outlets include submerged pipe outlets where discharge depends on the head difference between the water course and parent channel.
2) Semi-modular outlets include pipe outlets discharging freely into the atmosphere, Kennedy's gauge outlets, and Crump's open flume outlets where discharge is affected by changes in the parent channel but not the water course.
3) Key characteristics of outlets discussed are flexibility, proportionality, sensitivity, efficiency, minimum modular head, and types include submerged pipe outlets, orifice semi-modules, and Crump's open flume outlets.
The document discusses diversion headworks, which divert water from a river into a canal. There are two types: storage headworks, which comprise a dam to store excess river water for later release; and diversion headworks, which directly divert water into the canal. Diversion headworks have several components, including a weir or barrage across the river to raise the water level, canal head regulators, and sluices. A weir is a solid obstruction across the river, while a barrage is a low weir with adjustable gates to control the water level.
1) The document provides data on water table depths and salinity levels across different regions of Pakistan from 2010-2004.
2) In June 2010, most of Punjab's area had a water table from 150-600cm while Sindh's was more varied from 0-600cm. By October 2010, more of Punjab and Sindh's area was under 90cm.
3) From 2001-2004, Punjab had the largest area of which 87% was non-saline, while Sindh's area was more split between non-saline (44%) and saline-sodic (20%).
1. Canal escapes are side channels that remove surplus water from irrigation channels to prevent damage from overtopping or leaks. They provide a safety valve and are essential for repair and maintenance.
2. There are three main types of escapes - surplus, tail, and scouring escapes - which serve different drainage purposes along canals.
3. Head and cross regulators are structures that control water flow between main canals and off-taking channels. Head regulators meter water entry while cross regulators feed off-taking canals and allow canal breaches to close downstream.
This document lists and provides details on 10 major dams in Pakistan, including their location, construction timelines, dimensions, and costs. The largest dams are Mangla Dam and Tarbela Dam, both located on major rivers like the Jhelum and Indus, with heights over 140 meters and costs over $1 billion. The other dams range in height from 30 to 130 meters, were built between the 1960s and 2010s on various rivers across Pakistan, and cost between 100 million to over 18 billion Pakistani rupees.
The document discusses the design and construction of marginal embankments and guide banks for irrigation projects. It also discusses potential failure modes of weirs and barrages built on permeable foundations, including piping, undermining from subsurface flow, and scouring from surface flow. It describes Bligh's theory and Lane's weighted creep theory for designing impervious floors to prevent uplift and piping. Precautions that can be taken include increasing the impervious floor thickness, providing sheet piles, and using energy dissipation structures.
1. Waterlogging occurs when soil pores are saturated with water, either temporarily or permanently, restricting air circulation. This can be caused by natural factors like heavy rainfall or human activities like poor irrigation management.
2. Waterlogging has negative effects including lack of soil aeration, reduced crop yields, and creation of unhealthy environments that can spread disease. Specific soil types like vertisols and planosols are more prone to waterlogging issues.
3. Understanding the causes and effects of waterlogging is important to address drainage problems and improve agricultural productivity on lands affected by excess water.
Cross drainage works are hydraulic structures constructed where canals cross natural drainages like rivers or streams. There are three main types depending on the relative bed levels of the canal and drainage: 1) where the canal passes over the drainage, 2) where the drainage passes over the canal, and 3) where their levels intersect. Common structures include aqueducts, super passages, and level crossings. The type of structure constructed depends on factors like relative bed levels, foundation conditions, economics, and hydraulic design considerations. Their purpose is to allow both the canal and drainage waters to flow smoothly in their respective directions.
Dams provide many benefits like improving quality of life through irrigation, flood control, hydropower, and more. However, they can also negatively impact the environment and human populations. Key impacts include displacing many people worldwide and inadequate compensation, harming terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems by blocking animal migrations and altering natural river flows, and emitting greenhouse gases from reservoirs. While dams provide irrigation and hydropower, their construction often undercounts displaced people and fails to fully resettle them, compromising livelihoods. Cultural heritage sites can also be damaged or lost. Mitigation efforts are often insufficient to address these social and environmental impacts.
This document discusses Kennedy's theory of alluvial channel design and siltation. It provides two examples of applying Kennedy's theory to design irrigation channels given different parameters. It also lists some shortcomings of Kennedy's theory, including that it does not account for important factors like B/D ratio, silt grade, the relationship between flow velocity and slope, or the separation of silt concentration and bed load.
This document summarizes Lacey's regime theory for alluvial channel design. [1] Lacey proposed that silt is kept in suspension by vertical eddies generated along the wetted perimeter. [2] A channel is in "regime" if there is no silting or scouring. [3] Lacey defined three regime conditions - true, initial, and final - but acknowledged true regime can never be achieved in practice. The document then outlines Lacey's equations and design procedure for irrigation channels based on factors like discharge, silt factor, and side slopes.
Large dams are defined as over 15 meters tall, with over 57,000 worldwide. China has the most with over 23,000, followed by the US, India, Japan, and Brazil. While over 1000 dams were under construction in 1994, the rate of completion has declined from around 1000 per year from the 1950s to the 1970s to around 260 per year in the early 1990s. Large dams have faced significant opposition due to the huge numbers of people displaced, estimated between 40 to 80 million displaced globally, mostly in China and India, with many impoverished and suffering after being forced to relocate. Dams have also flooded over 400,000 square kilometers of land and over 13,500 people have been killed in
This document provides information about water resources in Pakistan. It states that Pakistan may run out of water by 2025 if actions are not taken due to increasing water stress. It notes that agriculture is the largest consumer of water resources in Pakistan, using over 90% of available water. However, only around 40% of irrigation water is used efficiently with the rest lost during conveyance and in fields. The document also provides details on irrigation systems and seasons in Pakistan.
The document discusses water requirements for crops and irrigation concepts. It provides definitions for key terms like gross commanded area, culturable commanded area, crop period, base period, delta, duty of water, and irrigation requirements for various crops. It lists the average delta values for important crops in Pakistan and discusses factors like water depth, number of irrigations, and seed and yield quantities for different kharif and rabi season crops.
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2. Classification of Canals
Canal
❖ It is an artificial cross secrtion constructed on the ground to carry water to the
field either from a reservoir, tank or river.
2
3. Types of Canals
(BASED ON SOURCE OF SUPPLY)
Permanent or Perennial
Canal
Non-Perennial Canal
Inundation Canal
Those canals which get continuous supplies by
permanent source of supply like a river or reservoir are
called as permanent canals or perennial canals. These
irrigate the field throughout the year with equitable rate
of flow.
These are the canals which irrigate the field for only
one part of the year usually during summer season or at
the beginning and end of winter season, called as non-
perennial canals. These canals take-off from rivers
which do not have assured supply throughout the year.
Draws its supplies from a river only during the high stages of
the river. No regulator is provided at the head of such canal.
This draws lot of quantity of silt which is really beneficial for
the crops.
3
4. Types of Canals
(BASED ON FUNCTION)
• Carries water from its source to agricultural fields.
Irrigation Canal
• Used for transport of goods. Sometimes these are also
used for irrigation purposes.
Navigation Canal
• Used to carry water for generation of hydroelectricity.
Power Canal
• Feeds two or more canals.
Feeder Canal
Note: A canal can serve more than one purpose 4
5. Types of Canals
(BASED ON ALIGNMENT)
Watershed Canal or Ridge Canal
Contour Canal
Side Slope Canal
5
8. Watershed canal or Ridge canal (Contd.)
➢ The canal which is aligned along any natural watershed (ridge line) is called a
watershed canal, or a ridge canal.
➢ Aligning a canal (main canal or branch canal or distributary) on the ridge ensures
gravity irrigation on both sides of the canal.
➢ Thus between two major streams, there is the main watershed (ridge line), which
divides the drainage area of the two streams.
➢ Since the drainage flows away from the ridge, no drainage can cross a canal aligned on
the ridge. Thus, a canal aligned on the watershed saves the cost of construction of cross-
drainage works.
8
9. Contour Canal
A contour canal is an artificially-dug
navigable canal which closely follows the
contour line of the land it traverses in order
to avoid costly engineering works such as
boring a tunnel through higher ground,
building an embankment over lower
ground, or constructing a canal lock (or
series of locks) to change the level.
9
10. Contour Canal
➢ Watershed canal along the ridge line are not found economical in hill areas where the
river flows in the valley well below the watershed.
➢ In fact, the ridge line (watershed) may be hundred of meters above the river. It therefore
becomes virtually impossible to take the canal on top of such a higher ridge line.
➢ In such conditions, contour canals are usually constructed.
➢ A contour canal irrigates only on one side because the area on the other side is higher.
➢ As the drainage flow is always at right angles to the ground contour. Such a channel
would definitely have to cross natural drains and streams, necessitating construction of
cross drainage structures.
10
11. Side Slope Canal
A side slope canal is that which is aligned at
right angles to the contours; i.e. along the
side slopes.
Since such a canal runs parallel to the
natural drainage flow, it usually does not
intercept drainage channels, thus avoiding the
construction of cross-drainage structures.
It is a canal which is aligned roughly at right
angle to contours of the country but not on
watershed or valley.
11
12. Types of Canals
(BASED ON DISCHARGE)
Main Canal
Branch Canal
Major Distributary
Minor Distributary
Water Course
12
Source: Lecture Notes
Prof. Dr. M. R. Kabir
13. Types of Canals
(Based on lining provided or not)
• Bed and banks made up of natural soil.
• Water velocities higher than 0.7 m/s are not tolerable.
• High seepage and conveyance water losses.
• Profuse growth of aquatic weeds retards the flow
Unlined
Canal
• Lining of impervious material on its bed and banks to
prevent the seepage of water.
• Different types of lining used e.g. concrete, brick or
burnt clay tile, boulder, etc.
Lined
Canal
13
16. Types of Canals
(Based on Financial output)
• Those canals which yield a net revenue to the nation
after full development of irrigation in the area.
• Profuse growth of aquatic weeds retards the flow
Productive
canals
• Those canals which apply water to a low income
community for irrigation purposes to protect community
from famine.
Protective
canals
16
17. Types of Irrigation Canals
17
In irrigation canal design two important factors has to be counted (i) quantity of silt carried by canal
and (ii) type of boundary of canal. There are three types of channel based on factors. They are (a)
Alluvial (b) Non-alluvial and (c) Rigid Boundary or Lined
(a) Alluvial channels: are those which are excavated in alluvial soil, and carry sufficient silt in water.
The boundary of such canal is of silt known as alluvium. The silt content in canal depend on the
velocity of flow. At high velocity more silt scouring at bottom of canal occurs, while at low velocity
minimum silt deposition occurs. To design a channel in such area a non silting nor scouring velocity
has to be adopted.
(b) Non alluvial channels: These channel are excavated in non alluvial soil like, rock, loam or clay.
Such channels usually have no silting problem as water flow with non silting velocity
(c) Rigid Boundary channels: Those channels which have sides and bottom of rigid materials. Lined
channels are rigid boundary channels.
18. Cross Section of Irrigation Canal
This section is partly in cutting and partly in filling and aims in balancing the quantity of
earth work in excavation with that in filling.
When the NSL is above the top of the bank, the entire canal section will have to be in
cutting, and it shall be called ‘canal in cutting’.
Similarly, when the NSL is lower than the bed level of the canal, the entire canal section
will have to be built in filling, and it is called ‘canal in filling’.
18
FSL= Full Supply Level
NSL=Natural Surface Level
19. Components of Cross- Section
Side slope
Berm
Freeboard
Bank
Service road
Back Berm or Counter Berm
Spoil Bank
Borrow Pit
19
20. Side Slope
The side slopes should be such that they are stable, depending upon the type of the soil.
A comparatively steeper slope can be provided in cutting rather than in filling, as the soil in
the former case shall be more stable.
20
Sr. No. Type of Soil Slope in Cutting Slope in Filling
1 Clayey Soil 1.5 : 1 2 : 1
2 Sandy Soil 3 : 1 4 : 1
3 Loamy Soil 1.5 : 1 2 : 1
4 Gravel Soil 0.75 : 1 1.25 : 1
5 Hard Rock 0.25 : 1 ----
6 Soft Rock 0.5 : 1 ----
21. Berm
Berm is the horizontal distance left at ground level between the toe of the bank and the
top edge of cutting.
21
Purposes of Berms
❖ They give additional strength to the banks and provide protection against erosion and breaches.
❖ They provide a scope for future widening of the canal.
22. Freeboard
❖ The margin between FSL and bank level is known as freeboard.
❖ The amount of freeboard depends upon the discharge of the channel.
❖ Recommended minimum freeboard = 0.5 m
22
23. Bank
The primary purpose of banks is to retain water.
This can be used as means of communication and as inspection paths.
23
24. Service Road
These are provided on canals for inspection purposes, and may simultaneously serve
as the means of communication in remote areas.
Dowla: As a measure of safety in driving, dowlas with side slopes of 1.5: 1 to 2:1, are provided
along the banks.
24
25. Back Berm or Counter Berm
Even after providing sufficient section for bank embankment, the saturation gradient line may
cut the downstream end of the bank.
In such a case, the saturation line can be kept covered at least by 0.5 m with the help of
counter berms as shown in figure below.
25
26. Spoil Bank
When the earthwork in excavation exceeds earthworks in filling, the extra earth has to be
disposed of economically.
Economical mode of its disposal may be collecting this soil on the edge of the bank
embankment itself.
26
27. Borrow Pit
When earthwork in filling exceeds the earthwork in excavation, the earth has to be
brought from somewhere.
The pits, which are dug for bringing earth, are known as borrow pits.
If such pits are excavated outside the channel, they are known as external borrow pits, and if
they are excavated somewhere within the channel, they are known as internal borrow pits.
Internal borrow pits are more preferred than external one.
27
The inside borrow pit may be located at the center of
canal.
The idea behind this is that the borrow pits will act as
water pockets where the silt will be deposited and
ultimately the canal bed will get levelled up.
28. Balancing Depth
28
A canal section will be economical when earth work involved at a particular section has an
equal amount of cut and fill. Usually a canal section has a part in cutting and part in filling as
shown in fig.
If the amount of cut is equal to the amount of fill, it has to be paid for once only.
Definition
For a given C/S there is always only one depth of cutting for which the cutting and filling
will be equal. The depth is known as balancing depth.
29. If h = vertical height of top of bank
from the bed of canal.
b = bed width of the channel.
t = top width of the canal bank.
n:1 = side slope of bank in filling.
z:1 = side slope of canal in cutting.
d = full supply depth of canal.
y = depth of cutting.
Area of the cut = by + zy2 = y(b + zy)
Area of fill = 2[(h – y)t + n(h-y)2]
Balancing Depth
Equating the area of cut and fill:
y(b + z y) = 2[(h – y)t + n(h-y)2 ]
b y+ zy2 = 2th + 2nh2 – 2nhy – 2ty – 2nhy + 2ny2
y2 (2n – z) – (b + 4nh + 2t)y + 2h(t + nh) =0
From this equation the balancing depth of the canal
may be determined.
A canal is usually constructed with side slope of 1:1 in
cutting and a slope 1.5:1 in filling.
Putting n = 1.5 and z =1 in above equation.
We get;
y2 – (b/2 + 3h + t)y + h (t + 3/2 h)=0
30. Example
Calculate the balancing depth for a channel section having a bed width equal to 18 m and side
slopes of 1:1 in cutting and 2:1 in filling. The bank embankments are kept 3.0 m higher than the
ground level (berm level) and crest width of banks is kept as 2.0 m.
Solution: Let d be the balancing depth, i.e. the depth for which excavation and filling becomes
equal.
30
31. Example (Contd.)
Area of cutting = (18 + d) d m2
Area of filling = 2(2+14)/2×3 = 48 m2
Equating cutting and filling, we get
(18 + d) d = 48
or, d2 + 18d – 48 = 0
or, d = 2.35 m (neglecting –ve sign), Balancing depth = 2.35 m
31
32. Canal Lining and its Advantages
➢ It is the treatment given to the canal bed and banks to make the canal section impervious.
➢ Water Conservation: Lining a canal results in reduction in water losses, as water losses in
unlined irrigation canals can be high.
➢ No seepage of water into adjacent land or roads: If canal banks are highly permeable, the
seepage of water will cause very wet or waterlogged conditions, or even standing water on
adjacent fields or roads. Lining of such a canal can solve this problem.
➢ Reduced canal dimensions: The resistance to flow of a lined canal is less than that of an
unlined canal, and thus the flow velocity will be higher in the lined canal . Therefore, with the
higher velocity, the canal cross-section for a lined canal can be smaller than that of an unlined
canal.
➢ Reduced maintenance: Maintenance costs for the following issues are eliminated using lining
of canals.
❖ Periodical removal of silt deposited on the beds and sides of canals.
❖ Removal of weeds and water canals.
❖ Minor repairs like plugging of cracks, uneven settlements of banks, etc. 32
33. Types of lining
Hard Surface Lining
Cast Insitu Cement
Concrete Lining
Shotcrete or Plastic
Lining
Cement Concrete Tile
Lining or Brick Lining
Asphaltic Concrete
Lining
Boulder Lining
Earth Type Lining
Compacted Earth
Lining
Soil Cement Lining
33
39. Disadvantages
Higher initial investment
Repair is costly
Shifting of outlet is costly because it involve dismantling and relaying of lining.
Longer construction period
Sophisticated construction equipment and labor is needed.
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