this is the experiment of fluid mechanics .FLOW OVER A SHARP CRESTED WEIR.experiment of weir.from this experiment we can learn discharge over the sharp crested weir and etc.
The document discusses the hydraulic jump, which is the rise in water level caused by the transformation from unstable supercritical flow to stable subcritical flow. It causes energy loss due to turbulence and eddies. Applications include mixing chemicals, maintaining downstream water levels for irrigation, and removing air from pipes. The hydraulic jump typically occurs below structures like weirs, due to obstructions, or changes in channel slope. It dissipates surplus energy and creates disturbances like eddies and reverse flow that can remove pollution. The problem finds the depth of flow after a hydraulic jump in a 4m wide channel with a discharge of 16 m3/s, given an upstream depth of 0.5m.
Flow Over A Sharp Crested Weir ExperimentFarhan Sadek
This slide gives a short overview on the experiment mentioned above of Fluid Mechanics (sessional) course which is generally taught in Civil Engineering and Mechanical Engineering.
Contents:
- Introduction
- Theoretical Background
- Methods
- Result
- Application
- Conclusion & Discussion
1) The document presents the results of an unconsolidated undrained (UU) triaxial test conducted by a group of 6 students on remolded soil specimens.
2) The UU test involves applying confining pressure to an unsaturated soil sample and shearing it undrained to determine the shear strength parameters. 3 tests were conducted at different confining pressures.
3) The first two tests yielded undrained shear strengths of 45.9 psi and 42.35 psi, while the third test gave a higher value of 55.39 psi, which may not be valid due to partial saturation of that sample.
OPEN CHANNEL FLOW AND HYDRAULIC MACHINERY
Open channel flow: Types of flows – Type of channels – Velocity distribution – Energy and momentum correction factors – Chezy’s, Manning’s; and Bazin formula for uniform flow – Most Economical sections. Critical flow: Specific energy-critical depth – computation of critical depth – critical sub-critical – super critical flows
Non-uniform flows –Dynamic equation for G.V.F., Mild, Critical, Steep, horizontal and adverse slopes-surface profiles-direct step method- Rapidly varied flow, hydraulic jump, energy dissipation
This document provides information about weirs and Parshall flumes. It discusses different types of weirs including sharp-crested weirs like rectangular and V-notch weirs, as well as broad-crested weirs. Formulas are provided for calculating flow rates over these structures. The document also introduces the Parshall flume, which can be used as an alternative to weirs for measuring flow rates while reducing head losses and sediment accumulation. Key features of the Parshall flume design and measurement principles are described.
This chapter discusses hydraulic jumps, which occur when supercritical flow transforms to subcritical flow in open channels. It introduces the concept of specific energy and defines critical depth and velocity. The chapter also describes how to determine the depth of a direct or submerged hydraulic jump using formulas involving the Froude number. Finally, it classifies hydraulic jumps as direct or submerged depending on whether the tailwater depth is below or above the jump.
This document discusses specific energy in open channel flows. It defines specific energy as the total energy of a channel flow with respect to the channel bed. Specific energy is useful for analyzing critical flow conditions. For a given discharge, the variation of specific energy with depth forms a cubic parabola with two possible depths of flow (alternate depths). Critical flow occurs at the minimum specific energy where the two depths merge and the Froude number is 1. Equations are provided for calculating specific energy and critical flow properties in rectangular, triangular, and trapezoidal channel cross-sections. Examples demonstrate applying the equations to analyze specific energy, alternate depths, critical depth, and critical flow parameters.
A broad crested weir with a crest height of 0.3m is located in a channel. With a measured head of 0.6m above the crest, the problem asks to calculate the rate of discharge per unit width, accounting for velocity of approach. Broad crested weirs follow the relationship that discharge per unit width (q) is proportional to the head (H) raised to the power of 3/2. Using this relationship and the given values of 0.3m for crest height and 0.6m for head, the problem is solved through trial and error to find the value of q.
The document discusses the hydraulic jump, which is the rise in water level caused by the transformation from unstable supercritical flow to stable subcritical flow. It causes energy loss due to turbulence and eddies. Applications include mixing chemicals, maintaining downstream water levels for irrigation, and removing air from pipes. The hydraulic jump typically occurs below structures like weirs, due to obstructions, or changes in channel slope. It dissipates surplus energy and creates disturbances like eddies and reverse flow that can remove pollution. The problem finds the depth of flow after a hydraulic jump in a 4m wide channel with a discharge of 16 m3/s, given an upstream depth of 0.5m.
Flow Over A Sharp Crested Weir ExperimentFarhan Sadek
This slide gives a short overview on the experiment mentioned above of Fluid Mechanics (sessional) course which is generally taught in Civil Engineering and Mechanical Engineering.
Contents:
- Introduction
- Theoretical Background
- Methods
- Result
- Application
- Conclusion & Discussion
1) The document presents the results of an unconsolidated undrained (UU) triaxial test conducted by a group of 6 students on remolded soil specimens.
2) The UU test involves applying confining pressure to an unsaturated soil sample and shearing it undrained to determine the shear strength parameters. 3 tests were conducted at different confining pressures.
3) The first two tests yielded undrained shear strengths of 45.9 psi and 42.35 psi, while the third test gave a higher value of 55.39 psi, which may not be valid due to partial saturation of that sample.
OPEN CHANNEL FLOW AND HYDRAULIC MACHINERY
Open channel flow: Types of flows – Type of channels – Velocity distribution – Energy and momentum correction factors – Chezy’s, Manning’s; and Bazin formula for uniform flow – Most Economical sections. Critical flow: Specific energy-critical depth – computation of critical depth – critical sub-critical – super critical flows
Non-uniform flows –Dynamic equation for G.V.F., Mild, Critical, Steep, horizontal and adverse slopes-surface profiles-direct step method- Rapidly varied flow, hydraulic jump, energy dissipation
This document provides information about weirs and Parshall flumes. It discusses different types of weirs including sharp-crested weirs like rectangular and V-notch weirs, as well as broad-crested weirs. Formulas are provided for calculating flow rates over these structures. The document also introduces the Parshall flume, which can be used as an alternative to weirs for measuring flow rates while reducing head losses and sediment accumulation. Key features of the Parshall flume design and measurement principles are described.
This chapter discusses hydraulic jumps, which occur when supercritical flow transforms to subcritical flow in open channels. It introduces the concept of specific energy and defines critical depth and velocity. The chapter also describes how to determine the depth of a direct or submerged hydraulic jump using formulas involving the Froude number. Finally, it classifies hydraulic jumps as direct or submerged depending on whether the tailwater depth is below or above the jump.
This document discusses specific energy in open channel flows. It defines specific energy as the total energy of a channel flow with respect to the channel bed. Specific energy is useful for analyzing critical flow conditions. For a given discharge, the variation of specific energy with depth forms a cubic parabola with two possible depths of flow (alternate depths). Critical flow occurs at the minimum specific energy where the two depths merge and the Froude number is 1. Equations are provided for calculating specific energy and critical flow properties in rectangular, triangular, and trapezoidal channel cross-sections. Examples demonstrate applying the equations to analyze specific energy, alternate depths, critical depth, and critical flow parameters.
A broad crested weir with a crest height of 0.3m is located in a channel. With a measured head of 0.6m above the crest, the problem asks to calculate the rate of discharge per unit width, accounting for velocity of approach. Broad crested weirs follow the relationship that discharge per unit width (q) is proportional to the head (H) raised to the power of 3/2. Using this relationship and the given values of 0.3m for crest height and 0.6m for head, the problem is solved through trial and error to find the value of q.
The document provides 8 examples of calculating total stress, effective stress, and pore water pressure at different depths for various soil profiles. The examples solve for the stresses and pressures at specific points or depths by considering the layer thicknesses, soil unit weights, depth of water table, and degree of saturation. The effective stress is calculated by subtracting the pore water pressure from the total stress at each point.
Discharge Over a broad Crested Weir | Jameel AcademyJameel Academy
1) The document describes an experiment to measure discharge over a broad crested weir. Water was passed through an inlet tank and discharge tank containing a broad crested weir, and the height and volume of water were measured over time.
2) Using the measured heights and volumes, the actual discharge was calculated and compared to the theoretical discharge calculated using a formula. The ratio of actual to theoretical discharge, known as the coefficient of discharge (Cd), was also determined.
3) The results showed that the Cd increased with increasing water height, and a logarithmic equation was developed to relate Cd to water height. The purpose was to determine discharge over a weir and compare to theory.
The document describes an experiment to determine the aggregate impact value of a given specimen through a standardized test procedure. Three samples were tested by subjecting aggregates retained between 10mm and 12.5mm sieves to 15 blows from a falling hammer. The percentage of material passing a 2.36mm sieve was calculated to determine the aggregate impact value, with average values below 10 considered strong and above 35 too weak for construction. The tested samples had average impact values of 44.13%, indicating suitability for construction applications.
The document discusses open channel design for both rigid boundary and erodible channels. It describes the key steps in designing trapezoidal channels including determining depth, bed width, side slopes, and longitudinal slope. For rigid boundary channels, the most common design approach is to use Manning's equation to select dimensions that produce non-silting, non-scouring velocities. For erodible channels, two common methods are discussed: the permissible velocity method, which ensures the mean flow velocity is below erosion thresholds; and the tractive force method, which involves equating tractive forces to critical shear stresses of the channel material.
Class 7 Consolidation Test ( Geotechnical Engineering )Hossam Shafiq I
This document provides an overview of a geotechnical engineering laboratory class on conducting a consolidation test on cohesive soil. The consolidation test is used to determine key soil properties like preconsolidation stress, compression index, recompression index, and coefficient of consolidation. The procedure involves placing a saturated soil sample in a consolidometer, applying incremental loads, and measuring the change in height over time to generate consolidation curves. Students will perform the test, calculate soil properties from the results, and include 10 plots and calculations in a laboratory report.
This document discusses different types of notches and weirs used for measuring flow rates of liquids. It provides formulas to calculate discharge over rectangular, triangular, trapezoidal, broad crested, narrow crested, and submerged/drowned weirs. Key points include: discharge over a triangular notch or weir is given by Q=8/15Cd tan(θ/2)√2gH(5/2); a broad crested weir has a width at least twice the head and discharge is maximized at Qmax=1.705CdL√2gH(3/2); submerged weirs are divided into a free section and drowned section to calculate total discharge.
This document summarizes an experiment to investigate water flow under a sluice gate. The objectives are to observe flow patterns, determine the relationship between upstream head and flow rate, determine the discharge coefficient, and analyze results. The experiment uses a flow channel, sluice gate, depth gauges, restriction block, and stopwatch. Water depth and velocity are measured upstream and downstream of the gate at varying upstream depths to calculate flow rate based on equations derived from Bernoulli's principle. Observations are recorded and discharge coefficient is determined.
The document provides a summary of consolidation and 9 practice problems related to consolidation of soils. It begins with definitions of terms like settlement, change in void ratio, coefficient of consolidation. It then presents the practice problems related to calculation of void ratio, thickness change, coefficient of volume compressibility, time required for 50% consolidation based on coefficient of consolidation, estimation of settlement etc. It concludes with references for further reading on the topic of consolidation in geotechnical engineering.
This document provides a training package on hydrostatic forces on plane surfaces for students in the Environmental Engineering Department. It includes an overview of the topic, objectives, examples, and pre-test and post-test questions. The key ideas covered are how hydrostatic forces form a system of parallel forces on submerged surfaces, how to calculate the magnitude and location of these forces on vertical, inclined, and curved surfaces, and examples demonstrating these calculations.
Geotechnical Engineering-I [Lec #14: Lab Compaction of Soil]Muhammad Irfan
Class notes of Geotechnical Engineering course I used to teach at UET Lahore. Feel free to download the slide show.
Anyone looking to modify these files and use them for their own teaching purposes can contact me directly to get hold of editable version.
This document discusses permeability and seepage in soils. It begins with an overview of permeability, noting that it is a measure of how easily water can flow through soil. Darcy's law is then presented, which relates permeability to flow velocity. Several laboratory tests for measuring permeability are also described, including constant head, falling head, and determination from consolidation or capillary tests. Real-world applications where permeability is important are mentioned, such as seepage through dams or behind retaining walls.
The document summarizes an experiment on determining the state of open channel flow. It includes the background, objectives to determine flow state, critical depth, and Reynolds and Froude numbers. The experimental setup used a flume and point gauge to measure depth upstream and downstream of a weir. Flow was found to be subcritical transitional at section 1 and supercritical transitional at section 2, based on calculated Reynolds and Froude numbers. The critical depth was also calculated.
The document discusses laboratory soil compaction tests. It defines compaction as increasing the bulk density of soil by removing air through external compactive effort. An optimum water content exists where soil achieves maximum density. The document outlines standard and modified Proctor compaction tests and describes how to conduct the tests by compacting soil in layers using specified hammers and measuring dry density at different water contents. Compaction increases soil strength, stability and resistance to erosion while decreasing permeability and compressibility.
Determination of consolidation properties (like CV, CC, CS, t90, mv, av) of the given soil specimen (Dhanauri Clay) by conducting one-dimensional consolidation test using fixed ring type setup.
Learning Outcomes:-
1. From consolidation test, the following information can be determined:
a) Amount of settlement experienced by a soil-structure after load application
b) Rate of consolidation of soil under a normal load
c) Degree of consolidation at any time
d) Pressure void ratio relationship
e) Coefficient of consolidation at various successively increasing pressure
f) Permeability of soil at various stages of loading
g) Compression index of soil
2. The general procedure for laboratory evaluation of consolidation characteristics of soils involves a one-dimensional consolidation.
This is necessary because of:
• Difficulty of instrumentation for recording volume change and natural strains.
• Complexities in mathematical analysis of three-dimensional consolidation.
3. The underlying assumptions in the derivation of the mathematical equations are as follows:
• The clay layer is homogeneous.
• The clay layer is saturated, the compression of the soil layer is due to the change in volume only, which in turn, is due to the squeezing out of water from the void spaces.
• Darcy’s law is valid.
• Deformation of soil occurs only in the direction of the load application.
4. Effects of ring friction
• During loading reduce stress acted on the specimen, specimen compresses less.
• During rebound reduce the swelling tendency specimen swell less.
• Flatten the swelling curve at low stress level.
5. Resultant Cv decreases with increasing stress, implying its NC clay.
6. Sample was preserved in polybag to check loss of moisture content.
Determination of Field Density Using Sand Cone Method | Jameel AcademyJameel Academy
The document describes a soil mechanics lab report on determining field density using the sand cone method. The test procedure involves digging a hole, placing the excavated soil in an airtight bag, then using a sand cone apparatus to pour sand into the hole to determine the hole's volume. Calculations are shown to find the field dry unit weight, water content, and relative density compared to the maximum dry unit weight from a lab compaction test. The results found a field dry unit weight of 1.4149 g/cm3 and relative density of 72%, indicating the field compaction was not adequate for the project.
This document discusses controlling the location of hydraulic jumps in rectangular channels. It presents research on improving energy dissipator designs for dams and spillways. The study aims to produce a clear hydraulic jump at varying discharges. It outlines factors affecting jumps and presents mathematical models and physical experiments. The experiments show clear jumps forming for different discharges. Comparisons of experimental and simulation results show good correlation. The proposed stepped weir design is found to reliably locate the jump for all operating conditions. Unique advantages of the design include reducing chances of jump sweep out and not requiring additional appurtenances.
A group of 16 square piles extends 12 m into stiff clay soil, underlain by rock at 24 m depth. Pile dimensions are 0.3 m x 0.3 m. Undrained shear strength of clay increases linearly from 50 kPa at surface to 150 kPa at rock. Factor of safety for group capacity is 2.5. Determine group capacity and individual pile capacity.
The group capacity is calculated to be 1600 kN. The individual pile capacity is determined to be 100 kN. The factor of safety of 2.5 is then applied to determine the safe load capacity.
Pipe flow involves fluid completely filling a pipe, while open channel flow has a free surface. In pipe flow, pressure varies along the pipe but remains constant at the free surface in open channels. The main driving force is gravity in open channels and pressure gradient in pipes. Flow properties like cross-sectional area and velocity profile differ between the two flow types.
The document describes procedures for determining the liquid limit and plastic limit of soil samples. The liquid limit test involves adding water to soil and determining the moisture content at which a groove closes after 25 blows. The plastic limit is the moisture content at which a soil ball crumbles after rolling out to 3mm diameter. These limits are used to classify soils and predict properties like strength and compressibility. The plasticity index, defined as the liquid limit minus the plastic limit, provides further information on soil type and reactivity. Proper determination of the Atterberg limits is important for building foundations to ensure suitable shear strength and volume change with moisture fluctuations.
Discharge Under a Sluice Gate | Jameel AcademyJameel Academy
This document summarizes a student's laboratory experiment on measuring water discharge under a sluice gate. The student measured the discharge for different water volumes and times, and calculated the theoretical and actual discharges. The results were tabulated and showed that the actual discharge increased with increasing gate height. A logarithmic equation was also determined relating the actual discharge to the height difference in water before and after the gate. The purpose was to experimentally determine the actual discharge under a sluice gate and compare it to theoretical calculations.
This document describes an experiment to determine the discharge and coefficient of discharge for a suppressed rectangular weir. The objective is to measure the discharge coefficient 'Cd' for the suppressed rectangular weir model installed in a hydraulic tilting flume. Five different flow rates will be used to measure the water surface elevation above the weir crest. Observations such as flow rate, water surface elevation, and weir dimensions will be recorded. The data will then be used to calculate theoretical discharge and measured discharge to find the coefficient of discharge. Results will be analyzed by plotting flow rate versus water surface elevation on a log-log scale and checking if the average Cd value is within the recommended range.
This experiment measures the coefficients of discharge (CD), velocity (CV), and contraction (CC) for water flowing through orifices. Students will collect flow rate data for two orifice plates across a range of water heights and use this to calculate the coefficients. Graphs will then compare how the coefficients vary with orifice size. The relationships provide insight into flow properties and validate theoretical models.
The document provides 8 examples of calculating total stress, effective stress, and pore water pressure at different depths for various soil profiles. The examples solve for the stresses and pressures at specific points or depths by considering the layer thicknesses, soil unit weights, depth of water table, and degree of saturation. The effective stress is calculated by subtracting the pore water pressure from the total stress at each point.
Discharge Over a broad Crested Weir | Jameel AcademyJameel Academy
1) The document describes an experiment to measure discharge over a broad crested weir. Water was passed through an inlet tank and discharge tank containing a broad crested weir, and the height and volume of water were measured over time.
2) Using the measured heights and volumes, the actual discharge was calculated and compared to the theoretical discharge calculated using a formula. The ratio of actual to theoretical discharge, known as the coefficient of discharge (Cd), was also determined.
3) The results showed that the Cd increased with increasing water height, and a logarithmic equation was developed to relate Cd to water height. The purpose was to determine discharge over a weir and compare to theory.
The document describes an experiment to determine the aggregate impact value of a given specimen through a standardized test procedure. Three samples were tested by subjecting aggregates retained between 10mm and 12.5mm sieves to 15 blows from a falling hammer. The percentage of material passing a 2.36mm sieve was calculated to determine the aggregate impact value, with average values below 10 considered strong and above 35 too weak for construction. The tested samples had average impact values of 44.13%, indicating suitability for construction applications.
The document discusses open channel design for both rigid boundary and erodible channels. It describes the key steps in designing trapezoidal channels including determining depth, bed width, side slopes, and longitudinal slope. For rigid boundary channels, the most common design approach is to use Manning's equation to select dimensions that produce non-silting, non-scouring velocities. For erodible channels, two common methods are discussed: the permissible velocity method, which ensures the mean flow velocity is below erosion thresholds; and the tractive force method, which involves equating tractive forces to critical shear stresses of the channel material.
Class 7 Consolidation Test ( Geotechnical Engineering )Hossam Shafiq I
This document provides an overview of a geotechnical engineering laboratory class on conducting a consolidation test on cohesive soil. The consolidation test is used to determine key soil properties like preconsolidation stress, compression index, recompression index, and coefficient of consolidation. The procedure involves placing a saturated soil sample in a consolidometer, applying incremental loads, and measuring the change in height over time to generate consolidation curves. Students will perform the test, calculate soil properties from the results, and include 10 plots and calculations in a laboratory report.
This document discusses different types of notches and weirs used for measuring flow rates of liquids. It provides formulas to calculate discharge over rectangular, triangular, trapezoidal, broad crested, narrow crested, and submerged/drowned weirs. Key points include: discharge over a triangular notch or weir is given by Q=8/15Cd tan(θ/2)√2gH(5/2); a broad crested weir has a width at least twice the head and discharge is maximized at Qmax=1.705CdL√2gH(3/2); submerged weirs are divided into a free section and drowned section to calculate total discharge.
This document summarizes an experiment to investigate water flow under a sluice gate. The objectives are to observe flow patterns, determine the relationship between upstream head and flow rate, determine the discharge coefficient, and analyze results. The experiment uses a flow channel, sluice gate, depth gauges, restriction block, and stopwatch. Water depth and velocity are measured upstream and downstream of the gate at varying upstream depths to calculate flow rate based on equations derived from Bernoulli's principle. Observations are recorded and discharge coefficient is determined.
The document provides a summary of consolidation and 9 practice problems related to consolidation of soils. It begins with definitions of terms like settlement, change in void ratio, coefficient of consolidation. It then presents the practice problems related to calculation of void ratio, thickness change, coefficient of volume compressibility, time required for 50% consolidation based on coefficient of consolidation, estimation of settlement etc. It concludes with references for further reading on the topic of consolidation in geotechnical engineering.
This document provides a training package on hydrostatic forces on plane surfaces for students in the Environmental Engineering Department. It includes an overview of the topic, objectives, examples, and pre-test and post-test questions. The key ideas covered are how hydrostatic forces form a system of parallel forces on submerged surfaces, how to calculate the magnitude and location of these forces on vertical, inclined, and curved surfaces, and examples demonstrating these calculations.
Geotechnical Engineering-I [Lec #14: Lab Compaction of Soil]Muhammad Irfan
Class notes of Geotechnical Engineering course I used to teach at UET Lahore. Feel free to download the slide show.
Anyone looking to modify these files and use them for their own teaching purposes can contact me directly to get hold of editable version.
This document discusses permeability and seepage in soils. It begins with an overview of permeability, noting that it is a measure of how easily water can flow through soil. Darcy's law is then presented, which relates permeability to flow velocity. Several laboratory tests for measuring permeability are also described, including constant head, falling head, and determination from consolidation or capillary tests. Real-world applications where permeability is important are mentioned, such as seepage through dams or behind retaining walls.
The document summarizes an experiment on determining the state of open channel flow. It includes the background, objectives to determine flow state, critical depth, and Reynolds and Froude numbers. The experimental setup used a flume and point gauge to measure depth upstream and downstream of a weir. Flow was found to be subcritical transitional at section 1 and supercritical transitional at section 2, based on calculated Reynolds and Froude numbers. The critical depth was also calculated.
The document discusses laboratory soil compaction tests. It defines compaction as increasing the bulk density of soil by removing air through external compactive effort. An optimum water content exists where soil achieves maximum density. The document outlines standard and modified Proctor compaction tests and describes how to conduct the tests by compacting soil in layers using specified hammers and measuring dry density at different water contents. Compaction increases soil strength, stability and resistance to erosion while decreasing permeability and compressibility.
Determination of consolidation properties (like CV, CC, CS, t90, mv, av) of the given soil specimen (Dhanauri Clay) by conducting one-dimensional consolidation test using fixed ring type setup.
Learning Outcomes:-
1. From consolidation test, the following information can be determined:
a) Amount of settlement experienced by a soil-structure after load application
b) Rate of consolidation of soil under a normal load
c) Degree of consolidation at any time
d) Pressure void ratio relationship
e) Coefficient of consolidation at various successively increasing pressure
f) Permeability of soil at various stages of loading
g) Compression index of soil
2. The general procedure for laboratory evaluation of consolidation characteristics of soils involves a one-dimensional consolidation.
This is necessary because of:
• Difficulty of instrumentation for recording volume change and natural strains.
• Complexities in mathematical analysis of three-dimensional consolidation.
3. The underlying assumptions in the derivation of the mathematical equations are as follows:
• The clay layer is homogeneous.
• The clay layer is saturated, the compression of the soil layer is due to the change in volume only, which in turn, is due to the squeezing out of water from the void spaces.
• Darcy’s law is valid.
• Deformation of soil occurs only in the direction of the load application.
4. Effects of ring friction
• During loading reduce stress acted on the specimen, specimen compresses less.
• During rebound reduce the swelling tendency specimen swell less.
• Flatten the swelling curve at low stress level.
5. Resultant Cv decreases with increasing stress, implying its NC clay.
6. Sample was preserved in polybag to check loss of moisture content.
Determination of Field Density Using Sand Cone Method | Jameel AcademyJameel Academy
The document describes a soil mechanics lab report on determining field density using the sand cone method. The test procedure involves digging a hole, placing the excavated soil in an airtight bag, then using a sand cone apparatus to pour sand into the hole to determine the hole's volume. Calculations are shown to find the field dry unit weight, water content, and relative density compared to the maximum dry unit weight from a lab compaction test. The results found a field dry unit weight of 1.4149 g/cm3 and relative density of 72%, indicating the field compaction was not adequate for the project.
This document discusses controlling the location of hydraulic jumps in rectangular channels. It presents research on improving energy dissipator designs for dams and spillways. The study aims to produce a clear hydraulic jump at varying discharges. It outlines factors affecting jumps and presents mathematical models and physical experiments. The experiments show clear jumps forming for different discharges. Comparisons of experimental and simulation results show good correlation. The proposed stepped weir design is found to reliably locate the jump for all operating conditions. Unique advantages of the design include reducing chances of jump sweep out and not requiring additional appurtenances.
A group of 16 square piles extends 12 m into stiff clay soil, underlain by rock at 24 m depth. Pile dimensions are 0.3 m x 0.3 m. Undrained shear strength of clay increases linearly from 50 kPa at surface to 150 kPa at rock. Factor of safety for group capacity is 2.5. Determine group capacity and individual pile capacity.
The group capacity is calculated to be 1600 kN. The individual pile capacity is determined to be 100 kN. The factor of safety of 2.5 is then applied to determine the safe load capacity.
Pipe flow involves fluid completely filling a pipe, while open channel flow has a free surface. In pipe flow, pressure varies along the pipe but remains constant at the free surface in open channels. The main driving force is gravity in open channels and pressure gradient in pipes. Flow properties like cross-sectional area and velocity profile differ between the two flow types.
The document describes procedures for determining the liquid limit and plastic limit of soil samples. The liquid limit test involves adding water to soil and determining the moisture content at which a groove closes after 25 blows. The plastic limit is the moisture content at which a soil ball crumbles after rolling out to 3mm diameter. These limits are used to classify soils and predict properties like strength and compressibility. The plasticity index, defined as the liquid limit minus the plastic limit, provides further information on soil type and reactivity. Proper determination of the Atterberg limits is important for building foundations to ensure suitable shear strength and volume change with moisture fluctuations.
Discharge Under a Sluice Gate | Jameel AcademyJameel Academy
This document summarizes a student's laboratory experiment on measuring water discharge under a sluice gate. The student measured the discharge for different water volumes and times, and calculated the theoretical and actual discharges. The results were tabulated and showed that the actual discharge increased with increasing gate height. A logarithmic equation was also determined relating the actual discharge to the height difference in water before and after the gate. The purpose was to experimentally determine the actual discharge under a sluice gate and compare it to theoretical calculations.
This document describes an experiment to determine the discharge and coefficient of discharge for a suppressed rectangular weir. The objective is to measure the discharge coefficient 'Cd' for the suppressed rectangular weir model installed in a hydraulic tilting flume. Five different flow rates will be used to measure the water surface elevation above the weir crest. Observations such as flow rate, water surface elevation, and weir dimensions will be recorded. The data will then be used to calculate theoretical discharge and measured discharge to find the coefficient of discharge. Results will be analyzed by plotting flow rate versus water surface elevation on a log-log scale and checking if the average Cd value is within the recommended range.
This experiment measures the coefficients of discharge (CD), velocity (CV), and contraction (CC) for water flowing through orifices. Students will collect flow rate data for two orifice plates across a range of water heights and use this to calculate the coefficients. Graphs will then compare how the coefficients vary with orifice size. The relationships provide insight into flow properties and validate theoretical models.
Characteristics of sharp weirs and the hydraulic jumpDickens Mimisa
This document summarizes experiments conducted on sharp crested weirs and the hydraulic jump. It includes an experiment on a V-notch weir that measured discharge rates and calculated coefficients. Graphs were plotted showing relationships between head and discharge. The experiment also examined a broad crested weir, measuring effects of width and step height on discharge coefficients. Procedures, results, and conclusions are discussed to analyze weir properties and flow characteristics.
Experiment No.5 Flow Over Weirs in a Flume-ROSAROS.pdfKentRosaros1
The document describes an experiment to determine the characteristics of flow over two types of weirs - a sharp-crested weir and a trapezoidal weir. It outlines the objectives, materials, theory, procedure, data collection, and computations for the experiment. Flow rates were measured over each weir type at different water levels. Discharge coefficients were then calculated and averaged for each weir based on the experimental data.
This document provides an overview of topics to be covered in a 3-week professional engineering exam review session on hydrology and hydraulics. It will cover key aspects of hydrology including the hydrologic cycle, precipitation, runoff analysis using the Curve Number method, and peak discharge calculations. Hydraulics topics will include flow through common structures like weirs, orifices, and pipes. Example problems will be worked through for each major topic to illustrate concepts and calculations. Attendees are advised to review references and practice additional example problems.
1
KNE351 Fluid Mechanics 1
Laboratory Notes
Broad-Crested Weir
This booklet contains instructions and notes for the experiment listed above.
Additional material relating to laboratory work will be delivered during the
course. The expectations regarding lab work and reporting are described in a
separate document,‘KNE351. FLUIDMECHANICS: Laboratory Method and
Reporting’, which will also be circulated at the beginning of the course. It is
expected that all students study these notes and complete the pre-lab component
prior to the laboratory session. An overview of the laboratory equipment will
be provided at the beginning of each session.
A D Henderson
2
1. Learning Objectives
1. Observe and understand the behaviour of a real fluid flowing over a broad-crested weir,
2. Model this behaviour employing the Continuity and Bernoulli (Energy) Principles to
predict the flow rate from depth measurements.
3. Evaluate these predictions by comparing with measured values and use Specific Energy
to explain the changing nature of the flow over the weir.
2. Introduction
The theory of non-uniform flow in channels is covered by the course text, by many other fluid
mechanics texts, and by several web sites.
The specific energy, E, is the energy at a channel cross-section referred to the base of the
channel (in contrast to the Bernoulli equation, which is referred to a fixed horizontal datum).
The expression given for E is actually an approximation valid for small bed slopes. You've
measured the flume slope, and should examine this approximation in your report. A hydrostatic
pressure distribution is assumed, and you should also examine the validity of this assumption. If
the streamlines are not parallel, then the accelerative forces will modify the pressure - depth
relationship.
In general, two conjugate flows depths satisfy the specific energy equation for a given value of
the specific energy. The greater depth is associated with subcritical flow, and the shallower
depth with supercritical flow. At the critical depth the conjugate depths are equal, and the
discharge for the given specific energy is a maximum.
Broad crested weirs are used as a method of flow measurement in open channel flows. If the
weir is sufficiently high and long, the free surface will drop to critical depth. If the height of
the upstream flow is measured, then the flow rate can be determined.
3
3. Apparatus
• Water flume comprising of pump, control valve, venturi and v-notch flow meters,
downstream control gate.
• depth gauges
• 2 vertical water manometers
• 2 total head tubes
4. Preparation
Examine and sketch the layout of the channel and associated flow measuring equipment.
Measure the channel width and note significant geometrical parameters of the nozzle venturi
meter and V-notch weir. Note the directions of readings of all measuring scales.
a. Measure the channel, weir dimensions, a.
Structures placed in channels can control or measure water flow. Common structures include weirs and orifices. Weirs have a crest over which water flows. As head increases, flow increases dramatically for weirs. Sharp-crested weirs come in triangular, rectangular, and trapezoidal shapes. Broad-crested weirs support flow longitudinally. Orifices are openings where flow occurs. At low heads, orifices can act as weirs. Pipes also control flow as head loss from entrance, bends, and friction must be considered. Multiple flow regimes like weir, orifice, and full pipe flow apply for drop inlet spillways depending on head. Rockfill outlets provide energy dissipation
Restricting Hydraulic Jump Location Inside Stilling Basin for Maximum Energy ...IRJET Journal
This document presents a study on restricting the location of hydraulic jumps inside stilling basins for maximum energy dissipation. It discusses how 20% of dam failures are due to poor energy dissipation arrangements. The position of hydraulic jumps can vary with fluctuating discharges, reducing energy dissipation. To address this, the study proposes using a stepped weir at the end of the apron to control the jump location. A mathematical method is developed to design stepped weir geometries that form the desired post-jump depth for various discharges. Computational fluid dynamics simulations show that for different discharges, the designed stepped weirs restricted jumps to the desired location near the gate opening. The study concludes that stepped weirs can effectively dissip
This document is a laboratory report for experiments conducted on a V-notch weir. The experiments were aimed at determining the relationship between discharge and head above the notch, comparing actual and theoretical discharge values, and calibrating the V-notch weir. Data was collected from measurements of head and discharge at various flow stages. Results showed the actual discharge was smaller than theoretical due to head losses, and a coefficient of discharge was derived to relate the two discharge values for calibration of the V-notch. Sources of experimental error and accuracy were also discussed.
This document provides guidance on deck drainage design for bridges. It discusses analyzing runoff and calculating gutter flow rates. It also examines the capacity of various deck drainage features like grate inlets, sheet flow, gutters, scuppers, and drain pipes. Equations are presented to calculate flow for these drainage elements based on factors like cross slope, depth, and clear opening area. Design recommendations include avoiding sheet flow across decks and ensuring drainage features can accommodate expected flow loads.
Estimate coefficient of discharge for rectangular and V notches weirsNabeel Afzal
This document summarizes an experiment to estimate the coefficient of discharge for rectangular and V-notch weirs. The apparatus used includes a hydraulic bench, rectangular notch, V-notch, and stopwatch. The procedure involves measuring the notch dimensions, setting up the apparatus, taking head and flow rate measurements, and calculating the theoretical and actual discharge and coefficient of discharge. Observations were then recorded for different heads for both the rectangular and V-notch weirs.
The document discusses the Hardy Cross Method for analyzing water distribution systems to determine pressures and flows. It involves the following steps:
1. Assume pipe diameters and initial flows such that the sum of inflows equals outflows at junctions.
2. Calculate head losses in each pipe using the Hazen-Williams equation.
3. Calculate flow corrections using an equation that sets the sum of head losses around loops to zero.
4. Repeat using corrected flows until flow corrections become small.
An example problem applies the method to determine suitable pipe diameters for a branching system given pressure requirements at nodes.
This document discusses various methods for achieving constant flow control without electricity. These include using floats to maintain a constant water level and thus constant head, overflow tanks, Marriot bottles, and float valves. It also examines using orifices and analyzing flow through an orifice using the orifice equation. Minor losses are introduced and compared to the vena contracta coefficient in orifice flow. Designing a drain system and options for varying flow such as changing head or flow resistance are also summarized.
CH2 Hydraulics and hydrology of HP.pptxDawit Girma
This document provides an overview of hydraulic theory and hydrologic analysis concepts relevant to hydropower engineering. It discusses the energy-work approach to calculating power from falling water and defines key terms like effective head and discharge. Flow duration analysis methods like the rank-ordered and class-interval techniques are described for developing flow duration curves from stream gauge data. Methods for extrapolating this data to ungauged sites are also covered. Other hydrologic topics discussed include tailwater relationships, area-capacity curves, reservoir rule curves, and considerations like evaporation losses and spillway design floods.
This document provides sample problems for computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations in Abaqus/CFD, including:
1. Oscillatory laminar plane Poiseuille flow in a channel to validate velocity profiles against an analytical solution.
2. Shear-driven cavity flows of different shapes to compare velocity profiles to literature results.
3. Buoyancy-driven flows in square and cubical cavities with differential heating to validate temperature and velocity fields.
4. Turbulent flow in a rectangular channel using the Spalart-Allmaras turbulence model validated against DNS and experiments.
5. Unsteady laminar flow over a circular cylinder to simulate vortex shedding and
Through the lack of technical instruments for construction and measurement. A small attempt was made by the team to demonstrate the working of Parshall Flume and Discharge measuring Accessories with support for Dr.-Ing Ramesh Kumar Maskey, Kathmandu University (KU) as part of our hydro-power project.
- An orifice meter consists of a flat plate with a concentric circular orifice inserted in a pipe to measure fluid flow. It operates on the venturi meter principle.
- Flow is calculated using the orifice diameter, upstream and downstream pressures, and discharge coefficients which account for losses.
- Orifice meters are cheaper than venturi meters but have higher head losses due to eddies. They are commonly used to measure liquid flow.
The document discusses key concepts related to fluid flow discharge including flow through orifices and mouthpieces, Torricelli's theorem, theories of small and large orifice discharge, notches and weirs, and the power of a fluid stream. Examples are provided to demonstrate calculating discharge from an orifice, theoretical discharge through a sluice gate, and estimating electric power output from a hydroelectric plant based on water flow rate and losses.
This document provides instructions for conducting an experiment to determine the jet diameter and coefficient of discharge of an orifice. It describes the necessary apparatus, including an orifice discharge setup, collecting tank fitted with a piezometer, stopwatch and meter scale. Formulas are given for calculating the radius of the jet, jet contraction coefficient, velocity coefficient, and discharge coefficient based on measurements taken. The procedure explains how to adjust the orifice setup and take measurements using a micrometer to determine the jet radius.
A high-Speed Communication System is based on the Design of a Bi-NoC Router, ...DharmaBanothu
The Network on Chip (NoC) has emerged as an effective
solution for intercommunication infrastructure within System on
Chip (SoC) designs, overcoming the limitations of traditional
methods that face significant bottlenecks. However, the complexity
of NoC design presents numerous challenges related to
performance metrics such as scalability, latency, power
consumption, and signal integrity. This project addresses the
issues within the router's memory unit and proposes an enhanced
memory structure. To achieve efficient data transfer, FIFO buffers
are implemented in distributed RAM and virtual channels for
FPGA-based NoC. The project introduces advanced FIFO-based
memory units within the NoC router, assessing their performance
in a Bi-directional NoC (Bi-NoC) configuration. The primary
objective is to reduce the router's workload while enhancing the
FIFO internal structure. To further improve data transfer speed,
a Bi-NoC with a self-configurable intercommunication channel is
suggested. Simulation and synthesis results demonstrate
guaranteed throughput, predictable latency, and equitable
network access, showing significant improvement over previous
designs
An In-Depth Exploration of Natural Language Processing: Evolution, Applicatio...DharmaBanothu
Natural language processing (NLP) has
recently garnered significant interest for the
computational representation and analysis of human
language. Its applications span multiple domains such
as machine translation, email spam detection,
information extraction, summarization, healthcare,
and question answering. This paper first delineates
four phases by examining various levels of NLP and
components of Natural Language Generation,
followed by a review of the history and progression of
NLP. Subsequently, we delve into the current state of
the art by presenting diverse NLP applications,
contemporary trends, and challenges. Finally, we
discuss some available datasets, models, and
evaluation metrics in NLP.
We have designed & manufacture the Lubi Valves LBF series type of Butterfly Valves for General Utility Water applications as well as for HVAC applications.
Online train ticket booking system project.pdfKamal Acharya
Rail transport is one of the important modes of transport in India. Now a days we
see that there are railways that are present for the long as well as short distance
travelling which makes the life of the people easier. When compared to other
means of transport, a railway is the cheapest means of transport. The maintenance
of the railway database also plays a major role in the smooth running of this
system. The Online Train Ticket Management System will help in reserving the
tickets of the railways to travel from a particular source to the destination.
Particle Swarm Optimization–Long Short-Term Memory based Channel Estimation w...IJCNCJournal
Paper Title
Particle Swarm Optimization–Long Short-Term Memory based Channel Estimation with Hybrid Beam Forming Power Transfer in WSN-IoT Applications
Authors
Reginald Jude Sixtus J and Tamilarasi Muthu, Puducherry Technological University, India
Abstract
Non-Orthogonal Multiple Access (NOMA) helps to overcome various difficulties in future technology wireless communications. NOMA, when utilized with millimeter wave multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) systems, channel estimation becomes extremely difficult. For reaping the benefits of the NOMA and mm-Wave combination, effective channel estimation is required. In this paper, we propose an enhanced particle swarm optimization based long short-term memory estimator network (PSOLSTMEstNet), which is a neural network model that can be employed to forecast the bandwidth required in the mm-Wave MIMO network. The prime advantage of the LSTM is that it has the capability of dynamically adapting to the functioning pattern of fluctuating channel state. The LSTM stage with adaptive coding and modulation enhances the BER.PSO algorithm is employed to optimize input weights of LSTM network. The modified algorithm splits the power by channel condition of every single user. Participants will be first sorted into distinct groups depending upon respective channel conditions, using a hybrid beamforming approach. The network characteristics are fine-estimated using PSO-LSTMEstNet after a rough approximation of channels parameters derived from the received data.
Keywords
Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR), Bit Error Rate (BER), mm-Wave, MIMO, NOMA, deep learning, optimization.
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4. Introduction
A weir with a sharp upstream
corner or edge such that the
water springs clear of the crest
is a sharp-crested weir. It is
commonly used in large scale
situations. For small scale
applications, weirs are often
referred to as notches and
invariably are sharp edged.
5. THEORY
In a sharp-crested weir, the thickness of the weir
is kept less than half of the height of water on
the weir, i.e; b<H/2
where,
b=Thickness of the weir.
H=Height of water above the crest of the weir.
The discharge equation for a sharp-crested weir,
remains the same as that of rectangular weir &
rectangular notch, i.e;
Q =
𝟐
𝟑
𝐂 𝐝 × 𝐛 𝟐𝐠 × 𝐇
𝟑
𝟐
where,
𝑪 𝒅=Co-efficient of discharge.
6. PROCEDURE
At first, the
pump was
started & to get
the uniform flow
4-5 minutes
were needed.
Then the bench was
adjusted regulating
the valve to give the
first required head
level of approximately
10mm.
The pressure
head was
observed
after that.
Depth of water
level was fixed.
Time was
counted through
a stop watch till
water reaches the
required level.
Collected data
was used to
plot graphs.
7. CALCULATION
Depth of water, dw = (110-30)mm=8cm
Volume of water = (45×30.5×8) cm3
= 10980 cm3
Time to fill, T= 18.1 sec
Actual Discharge, Qa =
𝐕𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞
𝐓𝐢𝐦𝐞
=
𝟏𝟎𝟗𝟖𝟎
𝟏𝟖.𝟏
cm3/sec
= 606.63 cm3/sec
Pressure head, H = (37-10)mm = 27mm
= 2.7 cm
Thickness of the weir, b = 7.5 cm
Theoretical Discharge,
𝐐𝐭 =
𝟐
𝟑
× 𝒃 𝟐𝒈 × 𝑯
𝟑
𝟐
=
𝟐
𝟑
× 𝟕. 𝟓 × 𝟐 × 𝟗𝟖𝟏 (𝟐. 𝟕)
𝟑
𝟐 cm3/sec
= 982.57 cm3/sec
𝐂𝐨𝐞𝐟𝐟𝐢𝐜𝐢𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐜𝐡𝐚𝐫𝐠𝐞, 𝐂 𝐝=
𝐐 𝐚
𝐐 𝐭
=
𝟔𝟎𝟔.𝟔𝟑
𝟗𝟖𝟐.𝟓𝟕
= 𝟎. 𝟔𝟐
8. RESULT
The co-efficient of discharge from graph, Cd = 0.62
The co-efficient of discharge from calculation, Cd = 0.61
The exponent of H = 1.45
y = 0.618x
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
Qa(ActualDischargeincm3/sec)
Qt (Theoretical Discharge in cm3/sec
Qa Vs Qt Graph
10
100
1000
1 10 100
Qa(ActualDischargeincm3/sec) Pressure Head,H(cm)
Qa Vs H Graph
9. DISCUSSION
The experiment has been done very carefully. We have found the
Cd 0.62 and the exponent of H 1.45 where the standard value of
these are 0.65 and 1.50 respectively. Though maximum
precautions were maintained, some errors have been occurred.
The meniscus reading was not found accurately as it was not hold
in a stable position. There was some shakings and vibrations which
might have affected the value. The apparatus is old, so there may
have some mechanical errors and the fluid flow was not fully
uniform. Also there was some inaccuracy in recording time in the
stopwatch (human error) and plotting the points in the log paper
was also not hundred percent accurate. All these factors together
contributed to the error for which the ideal value could not be
found rather a value quite near to the ideal value was calculated.
10. APPLICATION
The data gained from flow rate calculations over a
rectangular sharp-crested weir can be used in a number of
ways:
Flood control and general water management policies are
often designed on the basis of such data.
The data can be used to determine if a hydroelectric
project would be possible or profitable.
It can also be useful for environmental impact studies,
specifically in determining how the weir would affect the
ecosystem of a stream or river.
Irrigation is also benefited from this kind of data.