The document discusses different types of loops and conditional statements in programming languages. It explains the if, if-else, and switch conditional statements, providing examples of each. It also covers different types of loops - while, do-while, for, and nested loops. Examples are given to illustrate the syntax and usage of each loop and conditional statement.
Presentation on C Switch Case StatementsDipesh Pandey
The document presents information on C switch case statements including:
- The switch statement allows choosing from multiple selections by passing control to one of the case statements based on the value of an expression.
- The syntax includes a switch expression, cases with condition blocks ending in break, and an optional default block.
- A flowchart illustrates the flow of a switch case statement.
- Break statements end processing of a case and branch to the end, while default executes if no case matches and can appear anywhere.
Operator & control statements in C are used to perform operations and control program flow. Arithmetic operators (+, -, *, /, %) are used for mathematical calculations on integers and floating-point numbers. Relational operators (<, <=, >, >=, ==, !=) compare two operands. Logical operators (&&, ||, !) combine conditions. Control statements like if-else, switch, while, for, break, continue and goto alter program execution based on conditions.
Operators take operands and perform computations. Operands and operators form expressions, which are evaluated based on operator precedence and context. Expressions can result in values or side effects. Statements specify actions and are usually executed sequentially. Operator precedence determines the order of operations in expressions and can affect results if not explicitly grouped with parentheses. Precedence levels conform to mathematical order with parentheses having highest precedence.
The document discusses the different types of operators in C programming language including arithmetic, assignment, relational, logical, bitwise, conditional (ternary), and increment/decrement operators. It provides examples of how each operator is used in C code and what operation they perform on variables and values.
C programs are composed of six types of tokens: keywords, identifiers, constants, strings, special symbols, and operators. Keywords are reserved words that serve as building blocks for statements and cannot be used as names. Identifiers name variables, functions, and arrays and must begin with a letter. Constants represent fixed values and come in numeric, character, and string forms. Special symbols include braces, parentheses, and brackets that indicate code blocks, function calls, and arrays. Operators perform arithmetic, assignment, comparison, logic, and other operations.
The document discusses the if-else conditional statement in C programming. It provides the syntax and examples of using if-else statements to execute code conditionally based on whether an expression is true or false. This includes if-then statements with and without else blocks, multiway if-else statements, nested if statements, and examples checking the equality of variables and ranges of values.
Operators and expressions in c languagetanmaymodi4
what is operator in c language
uses of operator in c language
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what is expressions in c language
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The document discusses different types of loops and conditional statements in programming languages. It explains the if, if-else, and switch conditional statements, providing examples of each. It also covers different types of loops - while, do-while, for, and nested loops. Examples are given to illustrate the syntax and usage of each loop and conditional statement.
Presentation on C Switch Case StatementsDipesh Pandey
The document presents information on C switch case statements including:
- The switch statement allows choosing from multiple selections by passing control to one of the case statements based on the value of an expression.
- The syntax includes a switch expression, cases with condition blocks ending in break, and an optional default block.
- A flowchart illustrates the flow of a switch case statement.
- Break statements end processing of a case and branch to the end, while default executes if no case matches and can appear anywhere.
Operator & control statements in C are used to perform operations and control program flow. Arithmetic operators (+, -, *, /, %) are used for mathematical calculations on integers and floating-point numbers. Relational operators (<, <=, >, >=, ==, !=) compare two operands. Logical operators (&&, ||, !) combine conditions. Control statements like if-else, switch, while, for, break, continue and goto alter program execution based on conditions.
Operators take operands and perform computations. Operands and operators form expressions, which are evaluated based on operator precedence and context. Expressions can result in values or side effects. Statements specify actions and are usually executed sequentially. Operator precedence determines the order of operations in expressions and can affect results if not explicitly grouped with parentheses. Precedence levels conform to mathematical order with parentheses having highest precedence.
The document discusses the different types of operators in C programming language including arithmetic, assignment, relational, logical, bitwise, conditional (ternary), and increment/decrement operators. It provides examples of how each operator is used in C code and what operation they perform on variables and values.
C programs are composed of six types of tokens: keywords, identifiers, constants, strings, special symbols, and operators. Keywords are reserved words that serve as building blocks for statements and cannot be used as names. Identifiers name variables, functions, and arrays and must begin with a letter. Constants represent fixed values and come in numeric, character, and string forms. Special symbols include braces, parentheses, and brackets that indicate code blocks, function calls, and arrays. Operators perform arithmetic, assignment, comparison, logic, and other operations.
The document discusses the if-else conditional statement in C programming. It provides the syntax and examples of using if-else statements to execute code conditionally based on whether an expression is true or false. This includes if-then statements with and without else blocks, multiway if-else statements, nested if statements, and examples checking the equality of variables and ranges of values.
Operators and expressions in c languagetanmaymodi4
what is operator in c language
uses of operator in c language
syatax of operator in c language
program of operator in c language
what is expressions in c language
use of expressions in c language
syantax of expressions in c language
Operators in Java provide symbols that operate on arguments to produce results. The document discusses the different types of operators in Java including assignment, arithmetic, relational, logical, bitwise, and ternary operators. Examples are provided to demonstrate the usage of various operators like increment/decrement, arithmetic, relational, logical, bitwise, ternary, and instanceof operators in Java code.
Operators in Java include assignment, arithmetic, relational, logical, and other specialized operators. Assignment operators assign values to variables, arithmetic operators perform math operations, relational operators compare values, and logical operators combine conditional statements. There are unary, binary, and ternary operators that take one, two, or three operands respectively. Common operators include +, -, *, /, %, ++, --, =, ==, !=, <, >, <=, >=, &&, ||, and instanceof.
This document discusses functions in C++. It defines what a function is and explains that functions are the building blocks of C++ programs. Functions allow code to be reused, making programs easier to code, modify and maintain. The document covers function definitions, declarations, calls, parameters, return types, scope, and overloading. It also discusses local and global variables as well as pass by value and pass by reference.
This document provides information about loop statements in programming. It discusses the different parts of a loop, types of loops including while, for, and do-while loops. It also covers nested loops and jump statements like break and continue. Examples are given for each loop type. The document concludes with multiple choice and program-based questions as exercises.
Everything about OOPs (Object-oriented programming) in this slide we cover the all details about object-oriented programming using C++. we also discussed why C++ is called a subset of C.
The document discusses various data types in C++ including built-in, user-defined, and derived types. Structures and unions allow grouping of dissimilar element types. Classes define custom data types that can then be used to create objects. Enumerated types attach numeric values to named constants. Arrays define a collection of elements of the same type in sequence. Functions contain blocks of code to perform tasks. Pointers store memory addresses.
This document discusses different conditional structures in C++ including if, if-else, switch and goto statements. It provides the syntax and examples of each. The if statement executes code if a condition is true, if-else adds an else block for when the condition is false. Switch allows choosing between multiple options. Goto directly transfers control to a labeled line of code.
This document discusses various data types in C programming. It covers primary data types like int, char, float, and void. It also discusses derived data types such as arrays, pointers, enumerated data types, structures, and typedef. For each data type, it provides details on usage, memory size, value ranges, and examples.
C++ supports templates to implement generic programming. Templates allow generating a family of classes or functions to handle different data types. A class created from a class template is called a template class. The process of creating a template class is known as instantiation. Like other functions, template functions can be overloaded. Non-type parameters can also be used as arguments for templates.
The document discusses data type conversion in C++. It explains that data type conversion can be either implicit (automatic) or explicit (user-defined). Implicit conversion occurs automatically during operations with mixed data types, changing operands to the larger type. Explicit conversion requires a cast operator to manually change a value's type. Four main cast operators are discussed: dynamic_cast, static_cast, reinterpret_cast, and const_cast.
Operator overloading allows user-defined types in C++ to behave similarly to built-in types when operators are used on them. It allows operators to have special meanings depending on the context. Some key points made in the document include:
- Operator overloading enhances the extensibility of C++ by allowing user-defined types to work with operators like addition, subtraction, etc.
- Common operators that can be overloaded include arithmetic operators, increment/decrement, input/output, function call, and subscript operators.
- To overload an operator, a member or friend function is declared with the same name as the operator being overloaded. This function performs the desired operation on the class type.
-
The document discusses various aspects of structures in C programming language. It defines a structure as a collection of variables of different data types grouped together under a single name. Structures allow grouping of related data and can be very useful for representing records. The key points discussed include:
- Defining structures using struct keyword and accessing members using dot operator.
- Declaring structure variables and initializing structure members.
- Using arrays of structures to store multiple records.
- Nested structures to group related members together.
- Pointers to structures for dynamic memory allocation.
- Passing structures, structure pointers and arrays of structures to functions.
Command-line arguments are given after the name of the program in command-line shell of Operating Systems.
To pass command line arguments, we typically define main() with two arguments : first argument is the number of command line arguments and second is list of command-line arguments.
The document discusses different types of arrays in C programming language. It defines an array as a fixed-size sequential collection of elements of the same data type. It describes one-dimensional, two-dimensional and multidimensional arrays. For one-dimensional arrays, it provides examples of declaration, initialization at compile-time and run-time. For two-dimensional arrays, it explains the memory layout and initialization syntax. It also lists some applications of arrays.
View study notes of Function overloading .you can also visit Tutorialfocus.net to get complete description step wise of the concerned topic.Other topics and notes of C++ are also explained.
It gives you the basic difference between among different types of loop...So here its my Presentation that help to clear all the confusions you faced while studying the LOOPS.
Functions allow programmers to break programs into smaller, reusable parts. There are two types of functions in C: library functions and user-defined functions. User-defined functions make programs easier to understand, debug, test and maintain. Functions are declared with a return type and can accept arguments. Functions can call other functions, allowing for modular and structured program design.
INTRODUCTION
COMPARISON BETWEEN NORMAL FUNCTION AND INLINE FUNCTION
PROS AND CONS
WHY WHEN AND HOW TO USED?
GENERAL STRUCTURE OF INLINE FUNCTION
EXAMPLE WITH PROGRAM CODE
The document discusses various elements of programming in C++ including literals, variables, types, expressions, statements, control flow constructs, functions, and libraries. It then focuses on different types of operators in C++ like arithmetic, relational, logical, and bitwise operators. It explains operator precedence and associativity rules for evaluating expressions. Special assignment operators, increment/decrement operators, and their differences are also covered.
Operators are elements in C# that are applied to operands in expressions or statements. Unary operators take one operand, like increment (++), while binary operators take two operands, such as arithmetic operators (+, -, *, /). The conditional operator (?:) is the sole ternary operator, taking three operands. Some common operators are assignment (=), arithmetic, comparison, conditional (&&, ||), ternary (?:), and null coalescing (??). Operator precedence and associativity determine the order of evaluation in expressions with multiple operators. Parentheses can be used to override precedence.
Operators in Java provide symbols that operate on arguments to produce results. The document discusses the different types of operators in Java including assignment, arithmetic, relational, logical, bitwise, and ternary operators. Examples are provided to demonstrate the usage of various operators like increment/decrement, arithmetic, relational, logical, bitwise, ternary, and instanceof operators in Java code.
Operators in Java include assignment, arithmetic, relational, logical, and other specialized operators. Assignment operators assign values to variables, arithmetic operators perform math operations, relational operators compare values, and logical operators combine conditional statements. There are unary, binary, and ternary operators that take one, two, or three operands respectively. Common operators include +, -, *, /, %, ++, --, =, ==, !=, <, >, <=, >=, &&, ||, and instanceof.
This document discusses functions in C++. It defines what a function is and explains that functions are the building blocks of C++ programs. Functions allow code to be reused, making programs easier to code, modify and maintain. The document covers function definitions, declarations, calls, parameters, return types, scope, and overloading. It also discusses local and global variables as well as pass by value and pass by reference.
This document provides information about loop statements in programming. It discusses the different parts of a loop, types of loops including while, for, and do-while loops. It also covers nested loops and jump statements like break and continue. Examples are given for each loop type. The document concludes with multiple choice and program-based questions as exercises.
Everything about OOPs (Object-oriented programming) in this slide we cover the all details about object-oriented programming using C++. we also discussed why C++ is called a subset of C.
The document discusses various data types in C++ including built-in, user-defined, and derived types. Structures and unions allow grouping of dissimilar element types. Classes define custom data types that can then be used to create objects. Enumerated types attach numeric values to named constants. Arrays define a collection of elements of the same type in sequence. Functions contain blocks of code to perform tasks. Pointers store memory addresses.
This document discusses different conditional structures in C++ including if, if-else, switch and goto statements. It provides the syntax and examples of each. The if statement executes code if a condition is true, if-else adds an else block for when the condition is false. Switch allows choosing between multiple options. Goto directly transfers control to a labeled line of code.
This document discusses various data types in C programming. It covers primary data types like int, char, float, and void. It also discusses derived data types such as arrays, pointers, enumerated data types, structures, and typedef. For each data type, it provides details on usage, memory size, value ranges, and examples.
C++ supports templates to implement generic programming. Templates allow generating a family of classes or functions to handle different data types. A class created from a class template is called a template class. The process of creating a template class is known as instantiation. Like other functions, template functions can be overloaded. Non-type parameters can also be used as arguments for templates.
The document discusses data type conversion in C++. It explains that data type conversion can be either implicit (automatic) or explicit (user-defined). Implicit conversion occurs automatically during operations with mixed data types, changing operands to the larger type. Explicit conversion requires a cast operator to manually change a value's type. Four main cast operators are discussed: dynamic_cast, static_cast, reinterpret_cast, and const_cast.
Operator overloading allows user-defined types in C++ to behave similarly to built-in types when operators are used on them. It allows operators to have special meanings depending on the context. Some key points made in the document include:
- Operator overloading enhances the extensibility of C++ by allowing user-defined types to work with operators like addition, subtraction, etc.
- Common operators that can be overloaded include arithmetic operators, increment/decrement, input/output, function call, and subscript operators.
- To overload an operator, a member or friend function is declared with the same name as the operator being overloaded. This function performs the desired operation on the class type.
-
The document discusses various aspects of structures in C programming language. It defines a structure as a collection of variables of different data types grouped together under a single name. Structures allow grouping of related data and can be very useful for representing records. The key points discussed include:
- Defining structures using struct keyword and accessing members using dot operator.
- Declaring structure variables and initializing structure members.
- Using arrays of structures to store multiple records.
- Nested structures to group related members together.
- Pointers to structures for dynamic memory allocation.
- Passing structures, structure pointers and arrays of structures to functions.
Command-line arguments are given after the name of the program in command-line shell of Operating Systems.
To pass command line arguments, we typically define main() with two arguments : first argument is the number of command line arguments and second is list of command-line arguments.
The document discusses different types of arrays in C programming language. It defines an array as a fixed-size sequential collection of elements of the same data type. It describes one-dimensional, two-dimensional and multidimensional arrays. For one-dimensional arrays, it provides examples of declaration, initialization at compile-time and run-time. For two-dimensional arrays, it explains the memory layout and initialization syntax. It also lists some applications of arrays.
View study notes of Function overloading .you can also visit Tutorialfocus.net to get complete description step wise of the concerned topic.Other topics and notes of C++ are also explained.
It gives you the basic difference between among different types of loop...So here its my Presentation that help to clear all the confusions you faced while studying the LOOPS.
Functions allow programmers to break programs into smaller, reusable parts. There are two types of functions in C: library functions and user-defined functions. User-defined functions make programs easier to understand, debug, test and maintain. Functions are declared with a return type and can accept arguments. Functions can call other functions, allowing for modular and structured program design.
INTRODUCTION
COMPARISON BETWEEN NORMAL FUNCTION AND INLINE FUNCTION
PROS AND CONS
WHY WHEN AND HOW TO USED?
GENERAL STRUCTURE OF INLINE FUNCTION
EXAMPLE WITH PROGRAM CODE
The document discusses various elements of programming in C++ including literals, variables, types, expressions, statements, control flow constructs, functions, and libraries. It then focuses on different types of operators in C++ like arithmetic, relational, logical, and bitwise operators. It explains operator precedence and associativity rules for evaluating expressions. Special assignment operators, increment/decrement operators, and their differences are also covered.
Operators are elements in C# that are applied to operands in expressions or statements. Unary operators take one operand, like increment (++), while binary operators take two operands, such as arithmetic operators (+, -, *, /). The conditional operator (?:) is the sole ternary operator, taking three operands. Some common operators are assignment (=), arithmetic, comparison, conditional (&&, ||), ternary (?:), and null coalescing (??). Operator precedence and associativity determine the order of evaluation in expressions with multiple operators. Parentheses can be used to override precedence.
This document discusses operators and expressions in C++. It begins by defining operators as symbols that represent operations and operands as the objects involved in those operations. It then covers various types of operators in C++ like arithmetic, relational, logical, and conditional operators. It provides examples of using each operator and notes order of precedence. The document also discusses expressions, noting they are combinations of operators, constants, and variables. It provides examples of integer, real, relational, and logical expressions. Finally, it discusses mathematical functions available in the C++ standard library header file math.h that can be used in arithmetic expressions.
This document provides an overview of loops and repetition in C programming. It discusses the concept of loops, pre-test and post-test loops, loop initialization and updating, event-controlled and counter-controlled loops. Specific loop constructs in C like while, do-while and for loops are covered. Examples of loop applications like summation, powers, finding minimum and maximum values are also listed. The document serves as an introduction to repetition and looping in C programming.
The document discusses various operators in C# programming including unary, binary, and ternary operators. It explains operators such as increment, decrement, bitwise inversion, logical, assignment, comparison, arithmetic, and more. Examples are provided to demonstrate how each operator works. The document also covers operator precedence and escape sequences.
The document discusses various operators in C# programming including unary, binary, and ternary operators. It explains operators such as increment, comparison, bitwise, logical, assignment, and escape sequence operators. It also covers Math class methods for common mathematical operations.
Operators in C++ represent specific tasks or operations that are applied to operands. There are several types of operators including arithmetic, relational, logical, increment/decrement, and conditional operators. Arithmetic operators perform basic math operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division on operands. Relational operators compare operands and return true or false based on the comparison. Logical operators combine relational expressions and include logical AND, logical OR, and logical NOT. The increment/decrement operators increment or decrement operands by 1. The conditional operator returns one of two results based on a condition. Precedence rules determine the order in which operations are performed.
The document discusses various C# operators including unary operators, binary operators, and ternary operators. It provides examples and explanations of increment/decrement, bitwise, logical, comparison, and assignment operators. It also covers operator precedence and uses the Math class for common mathematical functions.
Operators take operands and perform computations. Operands and operators form expressions, which are evaluated based on operator precedence and context. Expressions can result in values or side effects. Statements specify actions and are usually executed sequentially. Operator precedence determines the order of operations in expressions and can affect results if not explicitly grouped with parentheses. Precedence levels conform to mathematical order with parentheses having highest precedence.
Operators are symbols that are used to perform operations in C programs. There are different types of operators including arithmetic, relational, logical, bitwise, and assignment. Arithmetic operators are used for math operations like addition and multiplication. Relational operators compare values. Logical operators combine conditional statements. Assignment operators assign values to variables. Bitwise operators work at the bit level of data. Operator precedence and associativity determine the order of evaluation in expressions.
The document discusses various operators in C++ including arithmetic, relational, logical, bitwise, assignment, increment/decrement and type casting operators. It provides examples of using each operator and explains their functionality and precedence order when used in expressions. The highest precedence level is for operators within scopes like ::, while assignment operators have the lowest precedence level.
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Relational and logical Operators - Condition Operators, Operator Precedence - Expressions with pre / post increment operator - Expression with conditional and assignment operators - If statement in expression - L value and R value in expression -
Control Statements – if and else - else if and nested if, switch case - Iterations, Conditional and Unconditional branching
For loop - while loop - do while, goto, break, continue
Array Basic and Types - Array Initialization and Declaration - Initialization: one Dimensional Array - Accessing, Indexing one Dimensional Array Operations - One Dimensional Array operations - Array Programs – 1D
The document discusses the basics of C++ programming including:
- Source code is written in a high-level language and saved with file extensions like .cpp.
- The compiler converts source code into machine-readable object code. It checks for syntax errors and translates the program.
- The linker combines object code with library files to create an executable file with a .exe extension that can be run by the operating system.
The document discusses various operators in Python including arithmetic, comparison, bitwise, logical, and membership operators. It provides examples of using each operator and explains their functionality. The key types of operators covered are arithmetic (e.g. +, -, *, /), comparison (e.g. ==, !=, >, <), bitwise (e.g. &, |, ^), logical (e.g. and, or, not), and membership (e.g. in, not in) operators. It also discusses operator precedence and provides examples of expressions using different operators.
This document provides an overview of constructors and destructors in C++. It defines that a constructor is a member function that initializes an object when it is created, has the same name as the class, and does not have a return type. A destructor is called when an object ends its lifespan and frees any resources. An example program is given that defines a class with a constructor that sets a data member to 10 and a destructor that prints a message. The document also covers topics like classes, objects, operators, and type conversion in C++.
Operators In Java Part - 8
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C++ provides operators for composing arithmetic, relational, logical, bitwise, and conditional expressions. It also provides operators which produce useful side-effects, such as assignment, increment, and decrement. We will look at each category of operators in turn. We will also discuss the precedence rules which govern the order of operator evaluation in a multi-operator expression.
Java provides a rich set of operators that are divided into arithmetic, relational, bitwise, logical, and assignment operators. These operators allow mathematical and logical manipulation of variables and values in Java programs. The document then proceeds to describe each type of operator in detail providing examples of their usage.
Java provides a rich set of operators that are divided into arithmetic, relational, bitwise, logical, and assignment operators. These operators allow mathematical and logical manipulation of variables and values in Java programs. The document then proceeds to describe each type of operator in detail providing examples of their usage.
Operators are symbols that tell the compiler to perform mathematical or logical manipulations on operands. This document discusses the different types of operators in C language, including arithmetic, relational, logical, assignment, increment/decrement, conditional, and bitwise operators. It also covers operator precedence and type conversions.
Similar to Expression and Operartor In C Programming (20)
This document discusses various computer arithmetic operations including addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division for signed magnitude and two's complement data representations. It describes the Booth multiplication algorithm, array multipliers for performing multiplication using combinational circuits, and the division algorithm. It also covers detecting divide overflow conditions.
The document provides an introduction to computer security including:
- The basic components of security such as confidentiality, integrity, and availability.
- Common security threats like snooping, modification, and denial of service attacks.
- Issues with security including operational challenges and human factors.
- An overview of security policies, access control models, and security models like Bell-LaPadula and Biba.
Cookies and sessions allow servers to remember information about users across multiple web pages. Cookies are small files stored on a user's computer that identify users and can store data to be accessed on subsequent page requests. Sessions use cookies to identify users and store temporary data on the server side to be accessed across multiple pages in one application, such as usernames or preferences. Both cookies and sessions must be started before any page output to ensure headers are sent before the page body.
This document discusses different aspects of functions in programming including declaring and calling functions, passing arguments to functions, and returning values from functions. It also covers variable scope. Some key points covered are declaring functions with and without arguments, specifying default values, returning single values or arrays from functions, and understanding variable scope and how it relates to the global and $GLOBALS keywords and array.
This document discusses various aspects of working with web forms in PHP, including:
1) Useful server variables for forms like QUERY_STRING and SERVER_NAME.
2) Accessing form parameters submitted to the server.
3) Processing forms with functions, including validating form data with techniques like checking for required fields and valid email addresses.
4) Displaying default values or error messages for form fields.
5) Stripping HTML tags from form inputs and encoding special characters for safe display.
The document provides examples of implementing each of these techniques.
The document discusses various programming concepts related to decision making and repetition in code including understanding true and false values, using if/elseif/else statements, equality and relational operators, logical operators, and using while and for loops to repeat code. Specific topics covered include evaluating booleans, making single and multi-line if statements, comparing different data types, negation, and printing select menus with loops.
This document discusses working with arrays in PHP. It covers array basics like creating and accessing arrays, looping through arrays with foreach and for loops, modifying arrays by adding/removing elements and sorting arrays. It also discusses multidimensional arrays, how to create them and access elements within them.
This document discusses text and numbers in programming. It covers defining and manipulating text strings using single or double quotes. Escape characters can be used inside strings. Text can be validated and formatted using various string functions like trim(), strlen(), strtoupper(), substr(), and str_replace(). Numbers can be integers or floats. Variables hold data and can be operated on with arithmetic and assignment operators like +, -, *, /, %, and .=. Variables can also be incremented, decremented, and placed inside strings.
This document provides an introduction and overview of PHP for beginners. It discusses PHP's use for building websites, how PHP code is run on web servers and accessed through browsers. It then highlights some key advantages of PHP like being free, cross-platform, and widely used. It demonstrates a basic "Hello World" PHP program and shows how to output HTML forms and formatted numbers. Finally, it outlines some basic rules of PHP programs regarding tags, syntax, whitespace, comments, and case sensitivity.
The document discusses capacity planning for a data warehouse environment. It notes that capacity planning is important given the large volumes of data and processing in a data warehouse. It describes factors that make capacity planning unique for a data warehouse, such as variable workloads and larger data volumes than operational systems. The document provides guidance on estimating disk storage needs, classifying and estimating processing workloads, creating workload profiles, identifying peak capacity needs, and selecting hardware capacity to meet needs.
Data warehousing involves assembling and managing data from various sources to provide an integrated view of enterprise information. A data warehouse contains consolidated, historical data used to support management decision making. It differs from operational databases by containing aggregated, non-volatile data optimized for queries rather than updates. The extract, transform, load (ETL) process migrates data from source systems to the warehouse, transforming it as needed. Process managers oversee loading, maintaining, and querying the warehouse data.
Search engines allow users to search the vast collection of documents on the web. They consist of crawlers that fetch web pages, indexers that analyze page content and links, and interfaces that allow users to enter queries. Crawlers add pages to an index by following links, and indexers create inverted indexes to map words to pages. When a query is searched, results are retrieved from the index and ranked based on relevance. PageRank is a key algorithm that ranks pages higher that receive more links from other highly ranked pages. While it effectively searches the large, diverse and dynamic web, search poses challenges in understanding ambiguous queries over an evolving collection.
Web mining involves applying data mining techniques to discover useful information from web data. There are three types of web mining: web content mining analyzes data within web pages, web structure mining examines the hyperlink structure between pages, and web usage mining involves analyzing server logs to discover patterns in user behavior and interactions with websites. Web mining has applications in website design, web traffic analysis, e-commerce personalization, and security/crime investigation.
Information privacy and data mining
The document discusses information privacy and data mining. It defines information privacy as an individual's ability to control how information about them is shared. It outlines the basic OECD principles for protecting information privacy, including collection limitation, purpose specification, use limitation, security safeguards, and accountability. It describes common uses of data mining like fraud prevention but also potential misuses that can violate privacy. The document also discusses the primary aims of data mining applications and five pitfalls like unintentional mistakes, intentional abuse, and mission creep.
The document discusses cluster analysis, which groups data objects into clusters so that objects within a cluster are similar but dissimilar to objects in other clusters. It describes key characteristics of clustering, including that it is unsupervised learning and the clusters are determined algorithmically rather than by humans. Various clustering algorithms are covered, including partitioning, hierarchical, density-based, and grid-based methods. Applications of clustering discussed include business intelligence, image recognition, web search, outlier detection, and biology. Requirements for effective clustering in data mining are also outlined.
Association analysis is a technique used to uncover relationships between items in transactional data. It involves finding frequent itemsets whose occurrence exceeds a minimum support threshold, and then generating association rules from these itemsets that satisfy minimum confidence. The Apriori algorithm is commonly used for this task, as it leverages the Apriori property to prune the search space - if an itemset is infrequent, its supersets cannot be frequent. It performs multiple database scans to iteratively grow frequent itemsets and extract high confidence rules.
Classification techniques in data miningKamal Acharya
The document discusses classification algorithms in machine learning. It provides an overview of various classification algorithms including decision tree classifiers, rule-based classifiers, nearest neighbor classifiers, Bayesian classifiers, and artificial neural network classifiers. It then describes the supervised learning process for classification, which involves using a training set to construct a classification model and then applying the model to a test set to classify new data. Finally, it provides a detailed example of how a decision tree classifier is constructed from a training dataset and how it can be used to classify data in the test set.
This document outlines a chapter on data preprocessing that discusses data types, attributes, and preprocessing tasks. It begins by defining data and attributes, then describes different types of attributes like nominal, binary, ordinal, and numeric attributes. It also discusses different types of datasets like records, documents, transactions, and graphs. The major section on data preprocessing outlines why it is important and describes tasks like data cleaning, integration, transformation, reduction, and discretization to prepare dirty or unstructured data for analysis.
Introduction to Data Mining and Data WarehousingKamal Acharya
This document provides details about a course on data mining and data warehousing. The course objectives are to understand the foundational principles and techniques of data mining and data warehousing. The course description covers topics like data preprocessing, classification, association analysis, cluster analysis, and data warehouses. The course is divided into 10 units that cover concepts and algorithms for data mining techniques. Practical exercises are included to apply techniques to real-world data problems.
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2. Elements of a program
Literals fixed data written into a program
Variables & constants placeholders (in memory)
for pieces of data
Types sets of possible values for data
Expressions combinations of operands (such as
variables or even "smaller" expressions) and
operators. They compute new values from old ones.
Assignments used to store values into variables
Statements "instructions". In C, any expression
followed by a semicolon is a statement
Compiled By: Kamal Acharya
3. Elements of a program
Control-flow constructs constructs that allow
statements or groups of statements to be executed
only when certain conditions hold or to be
executed more than once.
Functions named blocks of statements that
perform a well-defined operation.
Libraries collections of functions.
Compiled By: Kamal Acharya
4. Statement
Statements are elements in a program which
(usually) ended up with semi-colon (;)
e.g. below is a variables declaration statement
int a, b, c;
• Preprocessor directives (i.e. #include and define)
are not statements. They don’t use semi-colon
Compiled By: Kamal Acharya
5. An expression statement is a statement that results a value
Some examples of expression Value
• Literal expression
e.g. 2, “A+”, ‘B’
The literal itself
• Variable expression
e.g. Variable1
• arithmetic expression
e.g. 2 + 3 -1
The content of the variable
The result of the operation
Compiled By: Kamal Acharya
6. Operators
Operators can be classified according to
the type of their operands and of their output
Arithmetic
Relational
Logical
Bitwise
the number of their operands
Unary (one operand)
Binary (two operands)
Compiled By: Kamal Acharya
9. Ternary Expression
(a>2) ? 1: 0
Operator
First operand
is a condition
Second operand
is a value
Third operand
is another value
Compiled By: Kamal Acharya
10. Arithmetic operators
They operate on numbers and the result is a
number.
The type of the result depends on the types of the
operands.
If the types of the operands differ (e.g. an integer
added to a floating point number), one is
"promoted" to other.
The "smaller" type is promoted to the "larger" one.
char int float double
Compiled By: Kamal Acharya
11. Example of promotion:
The result of the following “double division” is 2.5
5 / 2.0
Before the division process, 5 is promoted from integer 5
to float 5.0
The result of the following “integer division” is 2
5 / 2
There is no promotion occurred. Both operands are the
same type.
Compiled By: Kamal Acharya
12. Arithmetic operators: +, *
+ is the addition operator
* is the multiplication operator
They are both binary
Compiled By: Kamal Acharya
13. Arithmetic operator:
This operator has two meanings:
subtraction operator (binary)
negation operator (unary)
e.g. 31 - 2
e.g. -10
Compiled By: Kamal Acharya
14. Arithmetic operator: /
The result of integer division is an integer:
e.g. 5 / 2 is 2, not 2.5
Compiled By: Kamal Acharya
15. Arithmetic operator: %
The modulus (remainder) operator.
It computes the remainder after the first operand
is divided by the second
It is useful for making cycles of numbers:
For an int variable x :
if x is: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ...
(x%4) is: 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 0 1 ...
e.g. 5 % 2 is 1, 6 % 2 is 0
Compiled By: Kamal Acharya
18. Relational operators
These perform comparisons and the result is what is
called a boolean: a value TRUE or FALSE
FALSE is represented by 0; anything else is TRUE
The relational operators are:
< (less than)
<= (less than or equal to)
> (greater than)
>= (greater than or equal to)
== (equal to)
!= (not equal to)
Compiled By: Kamal Acharya
20. Logical operators
(also called Boolean operators)
These have Boolean operands and the result is also
a Boolean.
The basic Boolean operators are:
&& (logical AND)
|| (logical OR)
! (logical NOT) -- unary
Compiled By: Kamal Acharya
22. Assignment operator: =
Binary operator used to assign a value to a variable.
Compiled By: Kamal Acharya
23. Special assignment operators
write a += b; instead of a = a + b;
write a -= b; instead of a = a - b;
write a *= b; instead of a = a * b;
write a /= b; instead of a = a / b;
write a %= b; instead of a = a % b;
Compiled By: Kamal Acharya
24. Special assignment operators
Increment, decrement operators: ++, --
Instead of a = a + 1 you can write a++ or ++a
Instead of a = a - 1 you can write a-- or --a
What is the difference?
num = 10;
ans = num++;
num = 10;
ans = ++num;
First increment num,
then assign num to ans.
In the end,
num is 11
ans is 11
First assign num to ans,
then increment num.
In the end,
num is 11
ans is 10
post-increment pre-increment
Compiled By: Kamal Acharya
27. Precedence & associativity
How would you evaluate the expression
17 - 8 * 2 ?
Is it 17 - (8 * 2)
or (17 - 8) * 2 ?
These two forms give different results.
We need rules!
Compiled By: Kamal Acharya
28. Precedence & associativity
When two operators compete for the same operand
(e.g. in 17 - 8 * 2 the operators - and * compete for
8) the rules of precedence specify which operator
wins.
The operator with the higher precedence wins
If both competing operators have the same
precedence, then the rules of associativity
determine the winner.
Compiled By: Kamal Acharya
32. Precedence & associativity
Examples:
X =17 - 2 * 8 Ans: X=17-(2*8) , X=1
Y = 17 - 2 - 8 Ans: Y = (17-2)-8, Y=7
Z = 10 + 9 * ((8 + 7) % 6) + 5 * 4 % 3 *2 + 1 ?
Not sure? Confused? then use parentheses in your code!
Compiled By: Kamal Acharya
33. Sizeof() Operator
C provides a unary operator named sizeof to find
number of bytes needed to store an object.
An expression of the form sizeof(object) returns an
integer value that represents the number of bytes
needed to store that object in memory.
printf(“%d”,sizeof(int)); /* prints 2 */
printf(“%d”,sizeof(char)); /* prints 1 */
printf(“%d”,sizeof(float)); /* prints 4 */
Compiled By: Kamal Acharya
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