1) The document provides an overview of computer organization topics including computer types, functional units, basic operational concepts, and performance.
2) It describes the main functional units of a computer including input, memory, ALU, output, and control units. Memory is used to store programs and data in primary and secondary storage.
3) The steps of instruction execution are outlined beginning with the program counter loading the address of the first instruction and ending with it being incremented to the next one. Functional units work together under the control of the central processing unit.
This document discusses different aspects of central processing unit (CPU) organization and instruction set architecture. It describes three main types of CPU organization: single register, general register, and stack. It also discusses different instruction formats including one, two, three-address formats. Additionally, it covers addressing modes such as register, direct, indirect, immediate, implied and their use in accessing operands. Finally, it briefly discusses components of a CPU like registers, ALU, control unit and their role in executing instructions.
The document discusses computer architecture and describes the basic components of a computer. It discusses the instruction cycle which involves fetching instructions from memory, decoding them, reading the effective address from memory, and executing the instruction. The basic computer has three types of instructions - memory reference, register reference, and input/output. Memory reference instructions refer to memory addresses and use direct or indirect addressing. Register reference instructions perform operations on registers. Input/output instructions are used for communication with external devices. The instruction cycle is then completed by fetching and executing the next instruction.
The document discusses the organization of computer systems and their components. It describes a computer system as having a central processing unit (CPU) that can execute instructions, input/output modules, and memory to store both instructions and data. The CPU contains an instruction interpreter and arithmetic logic unit. The system is programmable because any computation can be broken down into a sequence of simple instructions stored in memory and executed by the CPU. This is known as the von Neumann model. The document also discusses how instructions are fetched and executed in cycles, and how interrupts can alter the normal execution flow. It outlines different methods for interconnecting system components like I/O to CPU, I/O to memory, and I/O to a central switch
This document discusses the basic organization and design of computers. It covers topics such as architecture versus organization, functional units like the arithmetic logic unit and control unit, instruction formats, processor registers, stored program concepts, basic operational concepts like loading and storing data, memory access, and factors that impact performance such as pipelining and instruction set design. The document provides an overview of fundamental computer hardware components and operations.
This document discusses the architecture of processors. It describes how a CPU is composed of a control unit and arithmetic unit. The control unit retrieves and decodes instructions from main storage and sends signals to other units for execution. Instructions are represented in binary machine language and contain an operation code and addresses. Instruction formats include zero-address, single-address, two-address, and three-address formats depending on how many operands are specified. The instruction decoding process involves storing the instruction in a register, decoding the operation code, and retrieving or storing data at specified addresses.
The CPU contains an arithmetic logic unit and control unit that work together to execute instructions. The control unit directs the overall operation of the computer using control, address, and data buses. Registers in the CPU like the accumulator, instruction register, and program counter help store and access data and instructions during the fetch-decode-execute cycle where instructions are retrieved from memory, interpreted, and carried out before retrieving the next instruction.
The document discusses the basic functional units of a computer:
- The input unit accepts coded data from devices like keyboards.
- Memory stores programs and data, with primary storage operating at fast electronic speeds.
- The arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) performs operations on data brought in from memory.
- The output unit sends processed results outside the computer to devices like printers.
- The control unit coordinates the other functional units and sequencing of operations.
The document discusses algorithms and flowcharts. It defines an algorithm as a sequence of steps to solve a problem and lists their characteristics as having inputs, outputs, definiteness, and finiteness. Examples of algorithms are provided to find the sum of two numbers, convert between Celsius and Fahrenheit, and calculate the area and perimeter of shapes. Flowcharts are defined as using symbols to represent the sequence of operations to solve a problem. Advantages of both algorithms and flowcharts are given.
This document discusses different aspects of central processing unit (CPU) organization and instruction set architecture. It describes three main types of CPU organization: single register, general register, and stack. It also discusses different instruction formats including one, two, three-address formats. Additionally, it covers addressing modes such as register, direct, indirect, immediate, implied and their use in accessing operands. Finally, it briefly discusses components of a CPU like registers, ALU, control unit and their role in executing instructions.
The document discusses computer architecture and describes the basic components of a computer. It discusses the instruction cycle which involves fetching instructions from memory, decoding them, reading the effective address from memory, and executing the instruction. The basic computer has three types of instructions - memory reference, register reference, and input/output. Memory reference instructions refer to memory addresses and use direct or indirect addressing. Register reference instructions perform operations on registers. Input/output instructions are used for communication with external devices. The instruction cycle is then completed by fetching and executing the next instruction.
The document discusses the organization of computer systems and their components. It describes a computer system as having a central processing unit (CPU) that can execute instructions, input/output modules, and memory to store both instructions and data. The CPU contains an instruction interpreter and arithmetic logic unit. The system is programmable because any computation can be broken down into a sequence of simple instructions stored in memory and executed by the CPU. This is known as the von Neumann model. The document also discusses how instructions are fetched and executed in cycles, and how interrupts can alter the normal execution flow. It outlines different methods for interconnecting system components like I/O to CPU, I/O to memory, and I/O to a central switch
This document discusses the basic organization and design of computers. It covers topics such as architecture versus organization, functional units like the arithmetic logic unit and control unit, instruction formats, processor registers, stored program concepts, basic operational concepts like loading and storing data, memory access, and factors that impact performance such as pipelining and instruction set design. The document provides an overview of fundamental computer hardware components and operations.
This document discusses the architecture of processors. It describes how a CPU is composed of a control unit and arithmetic unit. The control unit retrieves and decodes instructions from main storage and sends signals to other units for execution. Instructions are represented in binary machine language and contain an operation code and addresses. Instruction formats include zero-address, single-address, two-address, and three-address formats depending on how many operands are specified. The instruction decoding process involves storing the instruction in a register, decoding the operation code, and retrieving or storing data at specified addresses.
The CPU contains an arithmetic logic unit and control unit that work together to execute instructions. The control unit directs the overall operation of the computer using control, address, and data buses. Registers in the CPU like the accumulator, instruction register, and program counter help store and access data and instructions during the fetch-decode-execute cycle where instructions are retrieved from memory, interpreted, and carried out before retrieving the next instruction.
The document discusses the basic functional units of a computer:
- The input unit accepts coded data from devices like keyboards.
- Memory stores programs and data, with primary storage operating at fast electronic speeds.
- The arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) performs operations on data brought in from memory.
- The output unit sends processed results outside the computer to devices like printers.
- The control unit coordinates the other functional units and sequencing of operations.
The document discusses algorithms and flowcharts. It defines an algorithm as a sequence of steps to solve a problem and lists their characteristics as having inputs, outputs, definiteness, and finiteness. Examples of algorithms are provided to find the sum of two numbers, convert between Celsius and Fahrenheit, and calculate the area and perimeter of shapes. Flowcharts are defined as using symbols to represent the sequence of operations to solve a problem. Advantages of both algorithms and flowcharts are given.
Unit 1 Computer organization and InstructionsBalaji Vignesh
The document discusses computer architecture and organization. It defines a computer as a programmable machine that can manipulate data according to instructions. It describes how calculations were originally done by human computers before electronic computers were developed. It discusses computer components, applications, and generations of computers. It outlines eight design ideas for computer architecture, including designing for Moore's Law, using abstraction, prioritizing common tasks, and incorporating parallelism, pipelining, prediction, memory hierarchy, and redundancy. Performance metrics like execution time and throughput are also covered.
The document discusses the five main units of computer hardware: input, storage, operation, control, and output. It describes each unit's function and role, which is analogous to parts of the human body. The storage unit is divided into main storage and auxiliary storage. The document also provides details on integrated circuits, semiconductor memory including RAM and ROM, and different types of RAM and ROM.
The document provides an overview of pipelining in computer processors. It discusses how pipelining can increase processor performance by overlapping the execution of multiple instructions. It describes the five stages of instruction execution in a MIPS processor: fetch, decode, execute, memory, and writeback. It also discusses three types of hazards that can occur in pipelining - structural hazards, data hazards, and control/branch hazards. For each hazard, it provides an example and discusses possible solutions like forwarding, stalling, and branch prediction.
The document summarizes the basic functional units and operations of a computer system. It describes how a computer contains a central processing unit (CPU) that includes an arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and control unit to execute instructions. A computer also has memory to store programs and data, and input/output (I/O) devices to accept and output information. The CPU fetches instructions from memory, retrieves operands from memory or registers, performs operations in the ALU, and stores results back to memory or registers. The control unit coordinates the flow of data and execution of instructions. Performance can be improved by increasing clock speed, reducing the number of steps per instruction through pipelining and superscalar techniques, and optimizing compilers
The document discusses the functions and components of operating systems. It can be summarized as:
1. Operating systems perform important functions like efficient resource management, concurrent job processing, multi-programming, reducing response times, and improving reliability.
2. Operating systems are composed of control programs, language processors, and service programs. The control program manages jobs, processes, memory, input/output and acts as the core of the operating system.
3. Key functions of operating systems include job management using job control languages, process management using states like ready, running and waiting, and interrupt handling using mechanisms like dispatching.
Topic 5 Digital Technique basic computer structureBai Haqi
This document provides an overview of basic computer structure and components. It discusses:
1. The main components of a computer including the CPU, memory, interface, and input/output.
2. Types of memory including ROM, RAM, static RAM, and dynamic RAM.
3. The operation of the bus system which connects the central components.
4. Single and multi-address instruction words.
5. Applications of computers in aircraft systems such as the flight management computer.
The document provides an overview of the key components of a computer system, including:
- Hardware components such as the central processing unit (CPU), memory, storage devices, and input/output devices.
- How digital information is represented using binary numbers and coding schemes like ASCII and floating point.
- How basic logic gates like AND, OR, and NOT are used to perform arithmetic and logic operations in digital circuits.
This document outlines the syllabus for a course on computer organization. It includes 5 modules that cover topics like basic computer structure, input/output organization, memory systems, arithmetic, and basic processing units. The course aims to explain computer organization and demonstrate how different subsystems like the processor, input/output, and memory function. Students will learn about hardwired and microprogrammed control as well as pipelining, embedded systems, and other computing architectures. Assessment includes assignments, a written exam consisting of questions from each module, and students must answer 1 question from each module.
This document discusses operating system I/O systems. It covers I/O hardware including devices, ports, buses and controllers. It describes how operating systems manage I/O through techniques like interrupts, DMA, blocking/non-blocking I/O, buffering and caching. The kernel I/O subsystem handles requests, scheduling, error handling and protection. Interfaces like STREAMS provide communication between processes and devices. I/O performance is important to overall system performance.
This document provides an overview of the syllabus for the course CS6303 - Computer Architecture. It covers the following key topics in 3 sentences or less:
- Components of a computer system including input, output, memory, datapath, and control. Instructions and their representation. Addressing modes for accessing operands.
- Eight major ideas in computer architecture: designing for Moore's law, using abstraction, optimizing common cases, performance via parallelism and pipelining, performance via prediction, hierarchy of memories, and dependability via redundancy.
- Evolution from uniprocessors to multiprocessors to address power constraints. Instruction formats, operations, logical and control operations, and different addressing modes for specifying operand locations
This document outlines the learning outcomes and content covered in a course on computer systems architecture. The three learning outcomes are: 1) demonstrate understanding of low-level computer components and their operation, 2) describe the functions and features of peripheral devices and interfaces, and 3) produce a computer system specification from a given brief. Key topics covered include the arithmetic logic unit, control unit, registers, buses, memory types, performance measurements, peripherals, interfaces, and assessments. Assessments will include short response questions to test understanding of components and open book specifications from given scenarios.
This document discusses the evolution of computer systems from early relay-based computers to modern parallel processing systems. It covers the progression from vacuum tubes to integrated circuits, increasing computer speeds and capabilities over generations. The key aspects covered are:
1. Computer components including the CPU, memory, and I/O have advanced significantly from early electromechanical to modern integrated systems.
2. Parallel processing has increased from basic multiprocessing to finer-grained instruction-level parallelism using pipelining and multiple functional units.
3. Uniprocessor computers exploit parallelism through techniques like overlapping I/O and CPU operations, hierarchical memory systems, and multiprogramming.
This document discusses various communication buses and protocols used for embedded networking. It describes serial communication protocols like RS-232, RS-485, CAN, I2C, SPI and parallel communication interfaces like parallel port, PCI, and SCSI. It provides details on the specifications, features, and applications of each protocol.
basic organization of computer
,
input unit
,
output unit
,
storage unit
,
arithmetic logic unit (alu)
,
computer codes
,
computer for organization
,
business communication
,
payroll system
,
management information system
03 top level view of computer function and interconnectionSher Shah Merkhel
The document summarizes key topics from Chapter 3 of William Stallings' Computer Organization and Architecture textbook, including:
- The components of a computer including the control unit, ALU, main memory, and I/O.
- How programs are executed through an instruction cycle of fetching and executing instructions.
- Mechanisms for flow control including interrupts, program counters, and jumps.
- How the different computer components are interconnected through buses for data, addresses, and control signals.
- Common bus architectures and how arbitration works to allow shared access to buses.
This document provides lecture notes on operating systems. It begins with an overview of operating systems, their goals and functions. It describes the components of a computer system including hardware, operating system, application programs and users. It then covers common operating system concepts such as processes, memory management, storage management, I/O subsystem and protection/security. The document also discusses distributed systems and operating system services provided to users and for efficient system operation.
The document discusses the basic functional units and operations of a computer system. It covers:
- The main functional units of a computer including the processor, memory, input/output devices, and their interconnections.
- How instructions and data are represented and handled in a computer using binary encoding.
- The roles of the main memory, arithmetic logic unit (ALU), control unit, and registers in storing and processing instructions and data.
- Basic concepts of computer operation including fetching instructions from memory, retrieving operands, executing operations in the ALU, and storing results.
This document discusses computer architecture and organization. It defines computer architecture as the attributes visible to the programmer and computer organization as the operational units and their interconnections. It then classifies computers based on size, cost, computational power, and application. The basic functional units of a computer are described as the input, output, memory, arithmetic logic unit, and control unit. Common computer components like the CPU, registers, and buses are also explained.
Computer organization and architecture are related but distinct fields. Computer organization deals with how hardware components are interconnected and work together to realize the specifications set by computer architecture. Computer architecture determines attributes like instruction sets, memory organization, and input/output mechanisms. Studying computer organization and architecture is important for understanding how computers work at both the hardware and software levels. It provides knowledge about system design, components, and performance.
Basic Structure of Computers: Functional Units, Basic Operational Concepts, B...Abhishekn84
An implementation for one bit of register Ri is shown in Figure. A two-input multiplexer is used to select the data applied to the input of an edge-triggered D flip-flop. When the control input Riin is equal to 1, the multiplexer selects the data on the bus. This data will be loaded into the flip-flop at the rising edge of the clock. When Riin is equal to 0, the multiplexer feeds back the value currently stored in the flip-flop To study these operations in detail, let us examine the internal organization of the processor. The main building blocks of a processor are interconnected in a variety of ways. A very simple organization is shown in above figure more complex structure that provides high performance will be presented at the end.
Figure shows an organization in which the arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) and all the registers are interconnected through a single common bus, which is internal to the processor. The data and address lines of the external memory bus are shown in figure connected to the internal processor bus via the memory data register, MDR, and the memory address register, MAR, respectively. Register MDR has two inputs and two outputs.
Data may be loaded into MDR either from the memory bus or from the internal processor bus. The data stored in MDR may be placed on either bus. The input of MAR is connected to the internal bus, and its output is connected to the external bus. The control lines of the memory bus are connected to the instruction decoder and control logic block. This unit is responsible for issuing the signals that control the operation of all the units inside the processor and for interacting with the memory bus.
To study these operations in detail, let us examine the internal organization of the processor. The main building blocks of a processor are interconnected in a variety of ways. A very simple organization is shown in above figure more complex structure that provides high performance will be presented at the end.
Figure shows an organization in which the arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) and all the registers are interconnected through a single common bus, which is internal to the processor. The data and address lines of the external memory bus are shown in figure connected to the internal processor bus via the memory data register, MDR, and the memory address register, MAR, respectively. Register MDR has two inputs and two outputs.
Data may be loaded into MDR either from the memory bus or from the internal processor bus. The data stored in MDR may be placed on either bus. The input of MAR is connected to the internal bus, and its output is connected to the external bus. The control lines of the memory bus are connected to the instruction decoder and control logic block. This unit is responsible for issuing the signals that control the operation of all the units inside the processor and for interacting with the memory bus.To study these operations in detail, let us examine the internal organization of the
Introduction, Central Processing Unit (CPU) Memory, Communication between Various Units of a Computer System, The Instruction Format, Instruction Set, Processor Speed, Multiprocessor Systems.
The document discusses computer organization and architecture. It defines architecture as the instruction set, registers, and addressing modes visible to programmers, while organization refers to internal design details like caching and pipelining. It describes the basic functional units of a computer including I/O, memory, arithmetic logic, and control units. It explains the fetch-execute cycle and how instructions are stored and executed from memory. Pipelining and superscalar techniques are discussed to improve processor performance.
Unit 1 Computer organization and InstructionsBalaji Vignesh
The document discusses computer architecture and organization. It defines a computer as a programmable machine that can manipulate data according to instructions. It describes how calculations were originally done by human computers before electronic computers were developed. It discusses computer components, applications, and generations of computers. It outlines eight design ideas for computer architecture, including designing for Moore's Law, using abstraction, prioritizing common tasks, and incorporating parallelism, pipelining, prediction, memory hierarchy, and redundancy. Performance metrics like execution time and throughput are also covered.
The document discusses the five main units of computer hardware: input, storage, operation, control, and output. It describes each unit's function and role, which is analogous to parts of the human body. The storage unit is divided into main storage and auxiliary storage. The document also provides details on integrated circuits, semiconductor memory including RAM and ROM, and different types of RAM and ROM.
The document provides an overview of pipelining in computer processors. It discusses how pipelining can increase processor performance by overlapping the execution of multiple instructions. It describes the five stages of instruction execution in a MIPS processor: fetch, decode, execute, memory, and writeback. It also discusses three types of hazards that can occur in pipelining - structural hazards, data hazards, and control/branch hazards. For each hazard, it provides an example and discusses possible solutions like forwarding, stalling, and branch prediction.
The document summarizes the basic functional units and operations of a computer system. It describes how a computer contains a central processing unit (CPU) that includes an arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and control unit to execute instructions. A computer also has memory to store programs and data, and input/output (I/O) devices to accept and output information. The CPU fetches instructions from memory, retrieves operands from memory or registers, performs operations in the ALU, and stores results back to memory or registers. The control unit coordinates the flow of data and execution of instructions. Performance can be improved by increasing clock speed, reducing the number of steps per instruction through pipelining and superscalar techniques, and optimizing compilers
The document discusses the functions and components of operating systems. It can be summarized as:
1. Operating systems perform important functions like efficient resource management, concurrent job processing, multi-programming, reducing response times, and improving reliability.
2. Operating systems are composed of control programs, language processors, and service programs. The control program manages jobs, processes, memory, input/output and acts as the core of the operating system.
3. Key functions of operating systems include job management using job control languages, process management using states like ready, running and waiting, and interrupt handling using mechanisms like dispatching.
Topic 5 Digital Technique basic computer structureBai Haqi
This document provides an overview of basic computer structure and components. It discusses:
1. The main components of a computer including the CPU, memory, interface, and input/output.
2. Types of memory including ROM, RAM, static RAM, and dynamic RAM.
3. The operation of the bus system which connects the central components.
4. Single and multi-address instruction words.
5. Applications of computers in aircraft systems such as the flight management computer.
The document provides an overview of the key components of a computer system, including:
- Hardware components such as the central processing unit (CPU), memory, storage devices, and input/output devices.
- How digital information is represented using binary numbers and coding schemes like ASCII and floating point.
- How basic logic gates like AND, OR, and NOT are used to perform arithmetic and logic operations in digital circuits.
This document outlines the syllabus for a course on computer organization. It includes 5 modules that cover topics like basic computer structure, input/output organization, memory systems, arithmetic, and basic processing units. The course aims to explain computer organization and demonstrate how different subsystems like the processor, input/output, and memory function. Students will learn about hardwired and microprogrammed control as well as pipelining, embedded systems, and other computing architectures. Assessment includes assignments, a written exam consisting of questions from each module, and students must answer 1 question from each module.
This document discusses operating system I/O systems. It covers I/O hardware including devices, ports, buses and controllers. It describes how operating systems manage I/O through techniques like interrupts, DMA, blocking/non-blocking I/O, buffering and caching. The kernel I/O subsystem handles requests, scheduling, error handling and protection. Interfaces like STREAMS provide communication between processes and devices. I/O performance is important to overall system performance.
This document provides an overview of the syllabus for the course CS6303 - Computer Architecture. It covers the following key topics in 3 sentences or less:
- Components of a computer system including input, output, memory, datapath, and control. Instructions and their representation. Addressing modes for accessing operands.
- Eight major ideas in computer architecture: designing for Moore's law, using abstraction, optimizing common cases, performance via parallelism and pipelining, performance via prediction, hierarchy of memories, and dependability via redundancy.
- Evolution from uniprocessors to multiprocessors to address power constraints. Instruction formats, operations, logical and control operations, and different addressing modes for specifying operand locations
This document outlines the learning outcomes and content covered in a course on computer systems architecture. The three learning outcomes are: 1) demonstrate understanding of low-level computer components and their operation, 2) describe the functions and features of peripheral devices and interfaces, and 3) produce a computer system specification from a given brief. Key topics covered include the arithmetic logic unit, control unit, registers, buses, memory types, performance measurements, peripherals, interfaces, and assessments. Assessments will include short response questions to test understanding of components and open book specifications from given scenarios.
This document discusses the evolution of computer systems from early relay-based computers to modern parallel processing systems. It covers the progression from vacuum tubes to integrated circuits, increasing computer speeds and capabilities over generations. The key aspects covered are:
1. Computer components including the CPU, memory, and I/O have advanced significantly from early electromechanical to modern integrated systems.
2. Parallel processing has increased from basic multiprocessing to finer-grained instruction-level parallelism using pipelining and multiple functional units.
3. Uniprocessor computers exploit parallelism through techniques like overlapping I/O and CPU operations, hierarchical memory systems, and multiprogramming.
This document discusses various communication buses and protocols used for embedded networking. It describes serial communication protocols like RS-232, RS-485, CAN, I2C, SPI and parallel communication interfaces like parallel port, PCI, and SCSI. It provides details on the specifications, features, and applications of each protocol.
basic organization of computer
,
input unit
,
output unit
,
storage unit
,
arithmetic logic unit (alu)
,
computer codes
,
computer for organization
,
business communication
,
payroll system
,
management information system
03 top level view of computer function and interconnectionSher Shah Merkhel
The document summarizes key topics from Chapter 3 of William Stallings' Computer Organization and Architecture textbook, including:
- The components of a computer including the control unit, ALU, main memory, and I/O.
- How programs are executed through an instruction cycle of fetching and executing instructions.
- Mechanisms for flow control including interrupts, program counters, and jumps.
- How the different computer components are interconnected through buses for data, addresses, and control signals.
- Common bus architectures and how arbitration works to allow shared access to buses.
This document provides lecture notes on operating systems. It begins with an overview of operating systems, their goals and functions. It describes the components of a computer system including hardware, operating system, application programs and users. It then covers common operating system concepts such as processes, memory management, storage management, I/O subsystem and protection/security. The document also discusses distributed systems and operating system services provided to users and for efficient system operation.
The document discusses the basic functional units and operations of a computer system. It covers:
- The main functional units of a computer including the processor, memory, input/output devices, and their interconnections.
- How instructions and data are represented and handled in a computer using binary encoding.
- The roles of the main memory, arithmetic logic unit (ALU), control unit, and registers in storing and processing instructions and data.
- Basic concepts of computer operation including fetching instructions from memory, retrieving operands, executing operations in the ALU, and storing results.
This document discusses computer architecture and organization. It defines computer architecture as the attributes visible to the programmer and computer organization as the operational units and their interconnections. It then classifies computers based on size, cost, computational power, and application. The basic functional units of a computer are described as the input, output, memory, arithmetic logic unit, and control unit. Common computer components like the CPU, registers, and buses are also explained.
Computer organization and architecture are related but distinct fields. Computer organization deals with how hardware components are interconnected and work together to realize the specifications set by computer architecture. Computer architecture determines attributes like instruction sets, memory organization, and input/output mechanisms. Studying computer organization and architecture is important for understanding how computers work at both the hardware and software levels. It provides knowledge about system design, components, and performance.
Basic Structure of Computers: Functional Units, Basic Operational Concepts, B...Abhishekn84
An implementation for one bit of register Ri is shown in Figure. A two-input multiplexer is used to select the data applied to the input of an edge-triggered D flip-flop. When the control input Riin is equal to 1, the multiplexer selects the data on the bus. This data will be loaded into the flip-flop at the rising edge of the clock. When Riin is equal to 0, the multiplexer feeds back the value currently stored in the flip-flop To study these operations in detail, let us examine the internal organization of the processor. The main building blocks of a processor are interconnected in a variety of ways. A very simple organization is shown in above figure more complex structure that provides high performance will be presented at the end.
Figure shows an organization in which the arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) and all the registers are interconnected through a single common bus, which is internal to the processor. The data and address lines of the external memory bus are shown in figure connected to the internal processor bus via the memory data register, MDR, and the memory address register, MAR, respectively. Register MDR has two inputs and two outputs.
Data may be loaded into MDR either from the memory bus or from the internal processor bus. The data stored in MDR may be placed on either bus. The input of MAR is connected to the internal bus, and its output is connected to the external bus. The control lines of the memory bus are connected to the instruction decoder and control logic block. This unit is responsible for issuing the signals that control the operation of all the units inside the processor and for interacting with the memory bus.
To study these operations in detail, let us examine the internal organization of the processor. The main building blocks of a processor are interconnected in a variety of ways. A very simple organization is shown in above figure more complex structure that provides high performance will be presented at the end.
Figure shows an organization in which the arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) and all the registers are interconnected through a single common bus, which is internal to the processor. The data and address lines of the external memory bus are shown in figure connected to the internal processor bus via the memory data register, MDR, and the memory address register, MAR, respectively. Register MDR has two inputs and two outputs.
Data may be loaded into MDR either from the memory bus or from the internal processor bus. The data stored in MDR may be placed on either bus. The input of MAR is connected to the internal bus, and its output is connected to the external bus. The control lines of the memory bus are connected to the instruction decoder and control logic block. This unit is responsible for issuing the signals that control the operation of all the units inside the processor and for interacting with the memory bus.To study these operations in detail, let us examine the internal organization of the
Introduction, Central Processing Unit (CPU) Memory, Communication between Various Units of a Computer System, The Instruction Format, Instruction Set, Processor Speed, Multiprocessor Systems.
The document discusses computer organization and architecture. It defines architecture as the instruction set, registers, and addressing modes visible to programmers, while organization refers to internal design details like caching and pipelining. It describes the basic functional units of a computer including I/O, memory, arithmetic logic, and control units. It explains the fetch-execute cycle and how instructions are stored and executed from memory. Pipelining and superscalar techniques are discussed to improve processor performance.
The document provides an overview of computer organization and architecture. It discusses that computer architecture focuses on the logical structure and behavior of a computer system, while computer organization deals with the physical implementation and operational attributes. The document also outlines the evolution of computers from early vacuum tube-based systems to modern multicore processors, noting increased processing speed, smaller component sizes, and larger memory capacities over time. It describes the classic Von Neumann architecture with separate memory and processing units, and how this basic structure is still prevalent in modern systems.
Computer Organization and Architechuture basicsLucky Sithole
This document provides an overview of basic computer organization and design. It discusses the differences between architecture and organization, the main functional units of a computer including the arithmetic logic unit and control unit. It also describes the instruction set, processor registers including the program counter and memory address register. The document outlines the basic operational concepts such as instruction format and memory access. It discusses performance factors like pipelining and superscalar operation. Finally, it compares CISC and RISC organizations and the role of compilers in improving performance.
An operating system controls application programs and acts as an interface between applications and hardware. It provides services like program development, execution and resource management. An OS allows for convenient, efficient and evolvable use of computer systems. It masks hardware details from users and programs. An OS manages resources like processors, memory, storage and I/O devices.
chapter 1 -Basic Structure of Computers.pptxjanani603976
The document describes the basic functional units and operations of a computer system. It discusses how computers handle instructions and data through components like the processor, memory unit, arithmetic logic unit, and control unit. Instructions are stored in memory and direct the flow of information within the computer. The core operations of a computer involve accepting programs and data as input, processing the information in the processor according to instructions, and outputting the results.
Registers are temporary storage areas within the CPU that can hold instructions and data during processing. They allow for faster access and transfer of information compared to main memory. An address identifies the location of data in memory. A bus is a communication pathway that allows different computer components to transfer data by carrying all communications over a single channel. There are internal and expansion buses. Registers include the memory data register, current instruction register, and program counter. They are faster than main memory and are used to store addresses, instructions, and data during processing. The speed of data transfer depends on factors like RAM size, CPU speed, register size, bus width and speed, and cache memory.
The document summarizes key concepts about computer organization and performance:
1. A typical computer instruction involves fetching an instruction from memory, reading operands from registers or memory, performing operations in the ALU, and writing results back to registers. The processor contains registers like the program counter, instruction register, and general purpose registers.
2. Performance is affected by the processor clock speed, instruction type, memory access time, and I/O devices. Key measures are elapsed time to execute a program and processor time spent actively executing instructions.
3. Multiple bus structures can improve concurrency but increase costs compared to single bus structures that are simpler but can become bottlenecks with many devices.
This document provides an overview of various computer devices and components. It discusses the central processing unit (CPU) which includes the arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and control unit (CU). It also describes different types of computer memory including primary memory like random access memory (RAM) and read-only memory (ROM), as well as secondary storage devices. Finally, it lists several common input/output and network devices.
Registers are temporary storage areas within the CPU that can hold instructions and data during processing. They allow for faster access and transfer of information compared to main memory. There are different types of registers that serve specific purposes, such as the program counter, accumulator, and memory address register. Buses are communication pathways that connect the CPU to other computer components like memory and expansion cards. The internal bus connects the CPU to RAM while the expansion bus allows additional devices to connect. Factors that influence data transfer speeds include RAM size, CPU speed and generation, register size, bus width and speed, and cache memory amount.
Registers are temporary storage areas within the CPU that can hold instructions and data during processing. They are faster than main memory. An address identifies the location of data in memory. A bus is a communication pathway that allows different computer components to transfer data. There are internal and expansion buses. Registers include the memory data register, current instruction register, and program counter. Booting loads an operating system from secondary storage into RAM to start a computer, while shutting down closes programs to turn off power in an orderly fashion.
This document provides an overview of a computer organization course syllabus and lecture notes on basic computer structure and functionality. It discusses:
1) The main functional units of a computer including input, output, memory, arithmetic logic unit, and control unit.
2) Different types of computers based on size and purpose, such as personal computers, workstations, and supercomputers.
3) How instructions are fetched and executed in a basic computer, involving fetching from memory, decoding, performing operations, and storing results.
4) Concepts like bus structure, pipelining, and RISC/CISC instruction sets that impact computer performance.
The document provides an introduction to the course on computer organization and architecture. It discusses key concepts like:
- Where data is stored, processed, and displayed in a computer.
- Computer architecture deals with the functional behavior and design implementation of computer systems. Computer organization deals with the structural relationships and utilization within a computer system.
- The document outlines the syllabus which will cover topics like basic computer structure, memory systems, arithmetic and logical operations, and parallel processing techniques like pipelining and vector processing.
- Performance is a key measure of computers and depends on factors like hardware design, instruction set, and compiler optimizations. Processor clock rate and the basic performance equation are discussed as measures of a computer's
The document provides an overview of basic computer structure and components:
- Computers accept digitized input, process it according to stored instructions, and produce output. There are various types for different uses like personal, notebook, workstation, enterprise, and super computers.
- The five main functional units are the input, memory, arithmetic logic unit (ALU), output, and control unit. Memory stores programs and data in primary and secondary forms. The ALU performs calculations. The control unit coordinates all other units.
- An instruction is fetched from memory and executed by transferring data between memory and processor registers, with the ALU performing operations and memory/registers storing inputs, outputs, and results according to the
Computer organisation and architecture module 1abinrj123
The document discusses computer instructions and their formats. It explains that there are three main instruction formats: memory reference, register reference, and input/output. Memory reference instructions use bits to specify an address and addressing mode. Register reference instructions specify an operation on the AC register without an operand. Input/output instructions specify an I/O operation without a memory reference. The instruction set is complete if it includes arithmetic, data movement, program control, and I/O instructions.
The document discusses the basic structure and operational concepts of computers. It covers topics like functional units, bus structures, performance measurement using clock rate and the basic performance equation, pipelining to improve performance, and standard I/O interfaces like PCI, SCSI and USB. The key components discussed are the processor, memory, control unit, arithmetic logic unit, registers, and cache memory. Interrupts and direct memory access are also summarized.
SA_IT241_3
WHAT ARE THE SECURITY VIOLATION CATEGORIES?
1. Breach of confidentiality: unauthorized reading of data.
2. Breach of integrity: unauthorized modification of data.
3. Breach of availability: unauthorized destruction of data.
4. Theft of service: unauthorized use of resources.
5. Denial of Service(DOS): Prevention of legitimate use.
WHAT ARE THE SECURITY VIOLATION METHODS?
1. Masquerading (authentication breach): pretending to be an authorized user.
2. Replay Attack: Replaying the same message or adding a modification to it.
3. Man-in-the-middle attack: intruder sits in data flow, masquerading as sender to receiver and vice versa.
4. Session hijacking: intercepting a session which is already on going to by-pass authentication.
5. Privilege escalation: A really Common attack, access of resources that a user is not supposed to have.
WHAT ARE THE OTHER VARIATIONS OF HYPERVISORS?
1. Paravirtualization: guest OS is modified to work with VMM.
2. Programming-environment virtualization: VMMS do not virtualize hardware which creates optimized virtual system (Used by Oracle Java and Microsoft.Net).
3. Emulators: Allows applications written for one hardware to run on different hardware environments.
4. Application Containment: Not virtualization but, provides features like it by segregating application making them more secure and manageable.
Oracle Solaris Zones, BSD Jails, IBM AIX WPARs.
• Much variation is due to breadth, depth, and importance of virtualization.
WHAT ARE THE STEPS OF LIVE MIGRATION?
1. VMM start connection with the target VMM.
2. Target created a new guest (by creating a new VCPU).
3. VMM sends read-only files to target VMM.
4. VMM sends read-write files to target VMM.
5. Repeat 4 unit done as not all read-write data can be sent (could be a dirty read).
6. If step 4 and 5 becomes very short then, VMM freezes guest, send remaining stuff.
7. Target starts running the freezed guest.
WHAT ARE THE REASONS FOR DISTRIBUTED SYSTEMS?
1. Resource sharing
Sharing files, information, printing.
Using remote GPUs.
2. Computation speedup
dsitribute processing needed to multicomputers.
Load balancing: moving jobs to more lightly-laoded sites.
3. Reliability: detect and recover failurs.
WHAT ARE THE WIDELY USED ARCHITECTURES?
1. Client-server model.
2. Cluster-based model.
WHAT ARE THE CHALLENGES?
1. Naming and transparency.
2. Remote file access.
3. Caching and caching consistency.
WHAT WAS GFS WAS INFLUNECNED BY?
1. Hardware failure should be expected routinely.
2. Most files are changed by appending new data (rather than overwriting existing data).
3. Modularized software layer MapReduce sit on top of GFS to carry out large-scale parallel computations.
WHAT ARE THE ADVANTAGES OF DISK CACHES?
1. Reliable
2. Cached data kept on disk do not need to be fetched again while recovery.
ADVANTAGES OF MAIN MEMORY CACHES?
1. Can make workstations diskless.
2. Quicker data access.
3. Performance speed up in bigger memories.
4. Server c
Sri Guru Hargobind Ji - Bandi Chor Guru.pdfBalvir Singh
Sri Guru Hargobind Ji (19 June 1595 - 3 March 1644) is revered as the Sixth Nanak.
• On 25 May 1606 Guru Arjan nominated his son Sri Hargobind Ji as his successor. Shortly
afterwards, Guru Arjan was arrested, tortured and killed by order of the Mogul Emperor
Jahangir.
• Guru Hargobind's succession ceremony took place on 24 June 1606. He was barely
eleven years old when he became 6th Guru.
• As ordered by Guru Arjan Dev Ji, he put on two swords, one indicated his spiritual
authority (PIRI) and the other, his temporal authority (MIRI). He thus for the first time
initiated military tradition in the Sikh faith to resist religious persecution, protect
people’s freedom and independence to practice religion by choice. He transformed
Sikhs to be Saints and Soldier.
• He had a long tenure as Guru, lasting 37 years, 9 months and 3 days
We have designed & manufacture the Lubi Valves LBF series type of Butterfly Valves for General Utility Water applications as well as for HVAC applications.
Data Communication and Computer Networks Management System Project Report.pdfKamal Acharya
Networking is a telecommunications network that allows computers to exchange data. In
computer networks, networked computing devices pass data to each other along data
connections. Data is transferred in the form of packets. The connections between nodes are
established using either cable media or wireless media.
An In-Depth Exploration of Natural Language Processing: Evolution, Applicatio...DharmaBanothu
Natural language processing (NLP) has
recently garnered significant interest for the
computational representation and analysis of human
language. Its applications span multiple domains such
as machine translation, email spam detection,
information extraction, summarization, healthcare,
and question answering. This paper first delineates
four phases by examining various levels of NLP and
components of Natural Language Generation,
followed by a review of the history and progression of
NLP. Subsequently, we delve into the current state of
the art by presenting diverse NLP applications,
contemporary trends, and challenges. Finally, we
discuss some available datasets, models, and
evaluation metrics in NLP.
Online train ticket booking system project.pdfKamal Acharya
Rail transport is one of the important modes of transport in India. Now a days we
see that there are railways that are present for the long as well as short distance
travelling which makes the life of the people easier. When compared to other
means of transport, a railway is the cheapest means of transport. The maintenance
of the railway database also plays a major role in the smooth running of this
system. The Online Train Ticket Management System will help in reserving the
tickets of the railways to travel from a particular source to the destination.
Literature review for prompt engineering of ChatGPT.pptx
Co module 1 2019 20-converted
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MODULE 1
Basic Structure of Computers: Computer Types, Functional Units, Basic Operational
Concepts, Bus Structures, Software, Performance – Processor Clock, Basic Performance
Equation (upto 1.6.2 of Chap 1 of Text).
Machine Instructions and Programs: Numbers, Arithmetic Operations and Characters, IEEE
standard for Floating point Numbers, Memory Location and Addresses, Memory Operations,
Instructions and Instruction Sequencing (upto 2.4.6 of Chap 2 and 6.7.1 of Chap 6 of Text).
TYPES OF COMPUTERS
Desktop Computers
• These are most commonly used computers in home, schools and offices.
• This has
→ processing- & storage-units
→ video & audio output-units
→ Keyboard & mouse input-units.
Notebook Computers (Laptops)
• This is a compact version of a personal-computer (PC) made as a portable-unit.
Workstations
• These have more computational-power than PC.
Enterprise Systems (Mainframes)
• These are used for business data-processing.
• These have large computational-power and larger storage-capacity than workstations.
• These are referred to as
→ server at low-end and
→ Super-computers at high end.
Servers
• These have large database storage-units and can also execute requests from other computers.
• These are used in banks & educational institutions.
Super Computers
• These are used for very complex numerical-calculations.
• These are used in weather forecasting, aircraft design and military applications.
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FUNCTIONAL UNITS
• A computer consists of 5 functionally independent main parts: 1)input, 2)memory,3)arithmetic &
logic, 4)output and 5)control units.
Input Unit
• The computer accepts the information in the form of program & data through an input-device.
Eg: keyboard
• Whenever a key is pressed, the corresponding letter/digit is automatically translated into its
corresponding binary-code and transmitted over a cable to either the memory or the processor.
Memory Unit
• This unit is used to store programs & data.
• There are 2 classes of storage:
1) Primary-storage is a fast-memory that operates at electronic-speed. Programs must be stored in the
memory while they are being executed.
2) Secondary-storage is used when large amounts of data & many programs have to be stored. Eg:
magnetic disks and optical disks(CD-ROMs).
• The memory contains a large number of semiconductor storage cells(i.e. flip-flops), each capable of
storing one bit of information.
• The memory is organized so that the contents of one word can be stored or retrieved in one basic
operation
• Memory in which any location can be reached in a short and fixed amount of time after specifying
its address is called RAM (Random Access Memory).
ALU (Arithmetic & Logic Unit)
• This unit is used for performing arithmetic & logical operations.
• Any arithmetic operation is initiated by bringing the required operand into the processor (i.e.
registers), where the operation is performed by the ALU.
Output Unit
• This unit is used to send processed-results to the outside world.
Eg: printer, graphic displays etc.
Control Unit
• This unit is used for controlling the activities of the other units (such as memory, I/O device).
• This unit sends control-signals (read/write) to other units and senses their states.
• Data transfers between processor and memory are also controlled by the control-unit through
timing-signals.
• Timing-signals are signals that determine when a given action is to take place.
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Basic functional units of a computer
BASIC OPERATIONAL CONCEPTS
• The processor contains ALU, control-circuitry and many registers.
• The instruction-register(IR) holds the instruction that is currently being executed.
• The instruction is then passed to the control-unit, which generates the timing-signals that determine
when a given action is to take place
• The PC(Program Counter) contains the memory-address of the next-instruction to be fetched &
executed.
• During the execution of an instruction, the contents of PC are updated to point to next instruction.
• The processor also contains „n‟ general-purpose registers R0 through Rn-1.
• The MAR (Memory Address Register) holds the address of the memory-location to be accessed.
• The MDR (Memory Data Register) contains the data to be written into or read out of the addressed
location.
Following are the steps that take place to execute an instruction
• The address of first instruction(to be executed) gets loaded into PC.
• The contents of PC(i.e. address) are transferred to the MAR & control-unit issues Read signal to
memory.
• After certain amount of elapsed time, the first instruction is read out of memory and placed into
MDR.
• Next, the contents of MDR are transferred to IR. At this point, the instruction can be decoded &
executed.
• To fetch an operand, it's address is placed into MAR & control-unit issues Read signal. As a result,
the operand is transferred from memory into MDR, and then it is transferred from MDR to ALU.
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• Likewise required number of operands is fetched into processor.
• Finally, ALU performs the desired operation.
• If the result of this operation is to be stored in the memory, then the result is sent to the MDR.
• The address of the location where the result is to be stored is sent to the MAR and a Write cycle is
initiated.
• At some point during execution, contents of PC are incremented to point to next instruction in the
program. [The instruction is a combination of opcode and operand].
Connection Between the Processor and the Memory
BUS STRUCTURE
• A bus is a group of lines that serves as a connecting path for several devices.
There are many ways to connect different parts inside a computer together.
A group of lines that serves as a connecting path for several devices is called a bus.
Address/data/control
• Bus must have lines for data transfer, address & control purposes.
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• Because the bus can be used for only one transfer at a time, only 2 units can actively use the bus at
any given time.
• Bus control lines are used to arbitrate multiple requests for use of the bus.
• Main advantage of single bus: Low cost and flexibility for attaching peripheral devices.
• Systems that contain multiple buses achieve more concurrency in operations by allowing 2 or more
transfers to be carried out at the same time. Advantage: better performance. Disadvantage: increased
cost.
• The devices connected to a bus vary widely in their speed of operation. To synchronize their
operational speed, the approach is to include buffer registers with the devices to hold the information
during transfers.
Buffer registers prevent a high-speed processor from being locked to a slow I/O device during a
sequence of data transfers.
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Illustration of the steps taken by the CPU to execute an instruction that adds two numbers. The
instruction is: R = X + Y.
Software
❑ In order for a user to enter and run an application program, the computer must already contain
some system software in its memory
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❑ System software is a collection of programs that are executed as needed to perform functions
such as
◆ Receiving and interpreting user commands
◆ Running standard application programs such as word processors, etc, or games
◆ Managing the storage and retrieval of files in secondary storage devices
◆ Controlling I/O units to receive input information and produce output results
❑ Translating programs from source form prepared by the user into object form consisting of
machine instructions
❑ Linking and running user-written application programs with existing standard library routines,
such as numerical computation packages
❑ System software is thus responsible for the coordination of all activities in a computing system
Operating system
❑ system (OS)Operating
◆ This is a large program, or actually a collection of routines, that is used to control the sharing of
and interaction among various computer units as they perform application programs
❑ The OS routines perform the tasks required to assign computer resource to individual application
programs
◆ These tasks include assigning memory and magnetic disk space to program and data files,
moving data between memory and disk units, and handling I/O operations
❑ In the following, a system with one processor, one disk, and one printer is given to explain the
basics of OS
◆ Assume that part of the program’s task involves reading a data file from the disk into the
memory, performing some computation on the data, and printing the results
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User Program and OS Routine Sharing
Multiprogramming or Multitasking
Performance
❑ The speed with which a computer executes programs is affected by the design of its hardware
and its machine language instructions
❑ Because programs are usually written in a high-level language, performance is also affected by
the compiler that translates programs into machine languages
❑ For best performance, the following factors must be considered
Compiler, Instruction set, Hardware design
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Processor Clock
The clock speed or operating frequency usually measured in hertz is the fundamental rate in
cycles per second, at which a computer performs its most basic operations.
Processor circuits are controlled by a timing signal called a clock
Every computer has the “clock generator” to generate clock signals used
throughout the system. Timing in a computer system is critical, particularly
to synchronize the activities within the various chips. To do this, a crystal is used.
The clock defines regular time intervals, called clock cycles
To execute a machine instruction, the processor divides the action to be performed into a
sequence of basic steps, such that each step can be completed in one clock cycle
❑ Let the length P of one clock cycle, its inverse is the clock rate, R=1/P
❑ Basic performance equation
T – processor time required to execute a program that has been prepared in high-level language
N – number of actual machine language instructions needed to complete the execution (note:
loop)
S – average number of basic steps needed to execute one machine instruction. Each step
completes in one clock cycle
R – clock rate
Note: these are not independent to each other
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T=(NxS)/R
where T is the processor time required to execute a program, N is the number of instruction
executions, and S is the average number of basic steps needed to execute one machine instruction
1.
2. A program contains 1000 instructions. Out of that 25% instructions requires 4 clock
cycles,40% instructions requires 5 clock cycles and remaining require 3 clock cycles for
execution. Find the total time required to execute the program running in a 1 GHz machine.
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Machine Instructions and Programs
Three major representations of Signed Integer
1. Sign and magnitude
2. One’s complement
3. Two’s complement
Decimal Number Representation or Base 10
In Decimal or Base 10 System, digits used are:
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Representing 537 (Five hindered and thirty Seven)
Binary Number Representation or Base 2
Binary Digit or Bit is the smallest unit of computation on most digital computers
Bit has two states
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◼ 0 represents zero voltage (0v) or ground
◼ 1 represents positive voltage (+5v)
Power
of 2
Calculation Value
2
0
1 1
2
1
2 2
Dec
imal
Binary
0 00
2
1
* 0 + 2
0
* 0 = 2*0 +1*0 = 0+0=0
1 01
2
1
* 0 + 2
0
* 1 = 2*0 +1*1 =0+1= 1
2 10 2
1
* 1 + 2
0
* 0 = 2*1 +1*0 = 2+0=2
3 11 2
1
* 1 + 2
0
* 1 = 2*1 +1*1 = 2+1=3
Example: 3-bit binary numbers
Decimal Binary
0 000 Power of 2 Calculation Value
1 001 2
0
1
2 010 2
1
2 2
3 011 2
2
2 * 2 4
4 100
5 101
6 110
7 111
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Representation of a Binary Number
Converting from decimal to binary (base 10 to base 2) will also produce a weighted binary
number with the right-hand most bit being the Least Significant Bit or LSB, and the left-hand
most bit being the Most Significant Bitor MSB, and we can represent this as
Convert binary to decimal by finding the decimal equivalent of the binary array of
digits 1011001012 and expanding the binary digits into a series with a base of 2giving an
equivalent of 35710 in decimal or denary.
(256) + (64) + (32) + (4) + (1) = 35710
Question: Represent the following Decimal number in 7-bit binary numbers
Decimal
7-bit Binary
Number
5 0000101
14 0001110
26 0011010
53 0110101
What is the biggest decimal number that you can represent in binary using 8-bit ?
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255 (i.e., 28
-1=256-1=255)
How many different decimal number that you can represent in binary using 8-bit ?
0 to 255 i.e., 256 decimal numbers
Signed Binary Number Representation
We can use a single bit to identify the sign of a signed binary number as being positive or
negative in value. So to represent a positive binary number (+n) and a negative (-n)
binary number, we can use them with the addition of a sign.
For signed binary numbers the most significant bit (MSB) is used as the sign bit. If the
sign bit is “0”, this means the number is positive in value. If the sign bit is “1”, then the
number is negative in value. The remaining bits in the number are used to represent the
magnitude of the binary number in the usual unsigned binary number format way.
Then we can see that the Sign-and-Magnitude (SM) notation stores positive and negative
values by dividing the “n” total bits into two parts: 1 bit for the sign and n–1 bits for the
value which is a pure binary number. For example, the decimal number 53 can be
expressed as an 8-bit signed binary number as follows:
1’s (One’s) complement
number representation
If all bits in a
byte are inverted by
changing each 1 to 0 and
each 0 to 1, we have
formed the one’s complement of the number.
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Two’s Complement
The two’s complement is a method for representing positive and negative integer values in
binary. The useful part of two’s complement is that it automatically includes the sign bit.
Rule: To form the two’s complement, add 1 to the one’s complement.
Step 1: Begin with the original binary value
10011001 Original binary number
Step 2: Find the one's complement
01100110 One's complement
Step 3: Add 1 to the one's complement
01100110 One's complement
+ 1 Add 1
-----------
01100111 <--- Two's complement
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The two’s complement is a method for representing positive and negative integer values in
binary. The useful part of two’s complement is that it automatically includes the sign bit.
Rule: To form the two’s complement, add 1 to the one’s complement
Binary Sign-Magnitude, One’s Complement representation and Two’s Complement
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Conversion of Negative Numbers to Two’s Complement
These examples show conversion of a decimal number to 4-bit twos complement.
The bit size is always important with twos complement, since you must be able to tell
where the sign bit is.
The steps are simple.
◼ First, you convert the magnitude of the number to binary, and pad to the word size
(4 bits).
◼ If the original number was positive, you are done.
◼ Otherwise, you must negate the binary number by inverting the bits and adding 1.
These examples show conversion of a decimal number to 4-bit twos complement.
The bit size is always important with twos complement, since you must be able to tell
where the sign bit is.
The steps are simple.
◼ First, you convert the magnitude of the number to binary, and pad to the word size
(4 bits).
◼ If the original number was positive, you are done.
◼ Otherwise, you must negate the binary number by inverting the bits and adding 1.
Convert -6 to an 4-bit, twos complement binary number.
◼ Convert the magnitude, 6 to binary. So 610 = 1102.
◼ Pad to 8 bits: 0110
◼ Negate the number by inverting the bits and adding 1.
0110
Negate 1001
Add 1 1
--------
1010 Two’s complement of -6
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These examples show conversion of a decimal number to 8-bit twos complement.
The bit size is always important with twos complement, since you must be able to tell
where the sign bit is.
The steps are simple.
◼ First, you convert the magnitude of the number to binary, and pad to the word size
(8 bits).
◼ If the original number was positive, you are done.
◼ Otherwise, you must negate the binary number by inverting the bits and adding 1.
Convert -72 to an 8-bit, twos complement binary number.
◼ Convert the magnitude, 72 to binary. So 7210 = 10010002.
◼ Pad to 8 bits: 01001000
◼ Negate the number by inverting the bits and adding 1.
Using 7 bits to represent each number, write the representations of 23 and -23 in signed
magnitude and 2's complement integers
Under Signed Number Representation: Number of bits used for representation is
important because
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Problem with arithmetic
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Arithmetic under Two’s Complement
Subtraction by 2’s Complement
The operation is carried out by means of the following steps: (i) At first, 2’s complement of the
subtrahend is found.(ii) Then it is added to the minuend.(iii) If the final carry over of the sum is
1, it is dropped and the result is positive.(iv) If there is no carry over, the two’s complement of
the sum will be the result and it is negative
Convert the following pairs of decimal numbers to 5-bit 2’s-complement numbers, then add
them.
a. -5 and 7 b. -3 and -8
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Arithmetic Overflow:
In 2's complement number representation system, n bits can represent values in the range
(-2n-1
) to (+2n-1
– 1).
When the result of an arithmetic operation is outside the representable range, an
arithmetic overflow has occurred.
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Repeat for subtraction operation, where the second number of each pair to be
subtracted from first number. State whether or not overflow occurs in each case
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Memory Locations and Addresses
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Computer Organisation 18EC35 K Ramamani, HOD in E&CE
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Two ways of Byte address assignment across words
Big-endian and little-endian are terms that describe the order in which a sequence
of bytes are stored in computer memory.
Big-endian is an order in which the "big end" (most significant value in the sequence) is
stored first (at the lowest storage address).
Little-endian is an order in which the "little end" (least significant value in the sequence)
is stored first.
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Computer Organisation 18EC35 K Ramamani, HOD in E&CE
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B
ig-
Endia
n and
Little-
Endia
n
Assign
ments
Hexadecimal numbers: A group of 4 bits can take any value between 0 (0000 binary) and 15
(1111 binary). In hexadecimal, we replace each group of 4 bits with a single digit to represent
the value 0 to 15. Since we only have digits 0 to 9, we use letters A to E to represent values 10 to
15. Here is a table of binary, denary and hex values:
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Memory Word Alignment
Words are said to be Aligned in memory if they begin at a byte-address that is a multiple
of number of bytes in a word.
For example,
◼ If the word length is 16 (2 Bytes), aligned words begin at byte addresses 0, 2, 4,....
◼ If the word length is 32 (4 Bytes), aligned words begin at byte addresses 0, 4, 8,....
Words are said to have Unaligned Addresses, if they begin at an arbitrary byte-address
Memory Operations
INSTRUCTIONS and INSTRUCTION SEQUENCING
Instruction: A computer must have instruction capable of performing the following
operations. They are:
Data transfer between memory and processor register (Ex.: MOV, LOAD, STOREPUSH,
POP )
Arithmetic and logical operations on data (Ex.: ABB, SUB, DIV, MUL)
Program sequencing and control (Ex.: LOOP, CALL,RET)
I/O transfer (Ex. IN, OUT).
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Computer Organisation 18EC35 K Ramamani, HOD in E&CE
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Register Transfer Notation:
The possible locations that may be involved during data transfer are
1. Memory Location
2. Processor register
3. Registers in I/O sub-system.
Assembly Language Notation
To represent machine instructions and programs, assembly language format is used
Instruction Set Categories
Instruction Set Categories based on the Operands explicitly specified in the instruction
1. Three-address or 3-Operand instructions
2. Two-address or 2-Operand instructions
3. One-address or 1-Operand instructions
4. Zero-address or 0-Operand instructions
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Computer Organisation 18EC35 K Ramamani, HOD in E&CE
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Three-address or 3-Operand instructions
Two-address or 2-Operand instructions
Two-address or 2-Operand instructions
Using Two-address instructions, write complete set of instructions to perform
C=A+B
i.e., C <- [A]+[B] Meaning: Add the contents of the memory location A and B ; And Store the
result in memory location C
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Computer Organisation 18EC35 K Ramamani, HOD in E&CE
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ANSWER
We will use MOVE instruction
MOVE B, C //C <- [B] Move the contents of memory location B to Memory
//Location C
ADD A, C //Add the contents of Memory location A with C. And store the result
//in the memory location C
One-address or 1-Operand instructions
Only one Operand will be specified in the instructions.
Accumulator Register will be used as second Operand
General Format:
Operation Source/Destination Operand
Example: ADD A
Acc <- [Acc]+[A] Meaning : Add the contents of accumulator with the memory location
A ; And Store the result in the accumulator register
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Computer Organisation 18EC35 K Ramamani, HOD in E&CE
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Write a program to evaluate the arithmetic expression
RESULT=A*B + C*D in a single accumulator processor. Assume the processor has load, store,
multiply and add instructions and that all values fit in the accumulator. Do not modify the values
of A, B, C, D, E, F or G.
Use a temporary location RESULT to store the intermediate results if necessary.
Note:
Load A ;will load accumulator with the contents of the memory location A
Store A ;will store the contents of the accumulator into memory location A
Add A ;will add contents of accumulator with memory location A and
; store the result into accumulator
.
Zero-address or 0-Operand instructions
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Problems
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INSTRUCTIONS AND INSTRUCTION SEQUENCING
Four types of operations
1. Data transfer between memory and processor registers.
2. Arithmetic & logic operations on data
3. Program sequencing & control
4. I/O transfers.
1) Register transfer notations(RTN)
R3<–[R1]+[R2]
• Right hand side of RTN-denotes a value.
• Left hand side of RTN-name of a location.
2) Assembly language notations(ALN)
Add R1, R2, R3
• Adding contents of R1, R2 & place sum in R3.
3) Basic instruction types-4 types
• Three address instructions– Add A,B,C
A, B-source operands
C-destination operands
• Two address instructions-Add A,B
B <–[A] + [B]
• One address instructions –Add A
Add contents of A to accumulator & store sum back to accumulator.
• Zero address instructions
Instruction store operands in a structure called push down stack.
4) Instruction execution & straight line sequencing
• The processor control circuits use information in PC to fetch & execute instructions one at
a time in order of increasing address.
• This is called straight line sequencing.
• Executing an instruction-2 phase procedures.
• 1st
phase–“instruction fetch”-instruction is fetched from memory location whose address
is in PC.
• This instruction is placed in instruction register in processor
• 2nd
phase-“instruction execute”-instruction in IR is examined to determine which
operation to be performed.
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5) Branching
• Branch-type of instruction loads a new value into program counter.
• So processor fetches & executes instruction at this new address called “branch target”
• Conditional branch-causes a branch if a specified condition is satisfied.
• E.g. Branch>0 LOOP –conditional branch instruction .it executes only if it satisfies
condition.
6) Condition codes
• Recording required information in individual bits called “condition code flags”.
• These flags are grouped together in a special processor register called “condition code
register” or “status register”
• Individual condition code flags-1 or 0.
• 4 commonly used flags.
1) N (negative)-set to 1 if result is –ve or else 0.
2) Z (zero)-set to 1 if result is 0, or else 0 .
3) V (overflow)-set to 1if arithmetic overflow occurs or else 0.
4) C(carry)-set to 1 if carry out results from operation or else 0
Instruction Execution: There are 2 phases for executing an instruction. They are, • Instruction Fetch •
Instruction Execution Instruction Fetch: The instruction is fetched from the memory location whose
address is in PC. This is then placed in IR. Instruction Execution: Instruction in IR is examined and
decoded to determine which operation is to be performed. Program execution Steps: To begin executing a
program, the address of first instruction must be placed in PC. The processor control circuits use the
information in the PC to fetch & execute instructions one at a time in the order of increasing order. This is
called Straight line sequencing. During the execution of each instruction, the PC is incremented by 4 to
point to the address of next instruction.
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Using loop to add ‘n’ numbers:
• Number of entries in the list „nıis stored in memory location M. Register R1 is used as a
counter to determine the number of times the loop is executed. • Content location M are loaded
into register R1 at the beginning of the program. • It starts at location Loop and ends at the
instruction, Branch>0.During each pass, the address of the next list entry is determined and the
entry is fetched and added to R0. • Decrement R1; It reduces the contents of R1 by 1 each time
through the loop. • Branch >0 Loop; A conditional branch instruction causes a branch only if a
specified condition is satisfied.
Floating-Point Representation
Floating-point representation is similar in concept to scientific notation. Logically, afloating-
point number consists of: A signed (meaning positive or negative) digit string of a given length
in a given base (or radix). This digit string is referred to as the significand, mantissa, or
coefficient.
for floating-point representation
Numbers written in scientific notation have three components: Floating-point numbers
allow an arbitrary number of decimal places to the right of the decimal point.
◼ For example: 0.5 0.25 = 0.125
They are often expressed in scientific notation.
◼ For example:
0.125 = 1.25 10-1
5,000,000 = 5.0 106
Computers use a form of scientific notation
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Computer representation of a floating-point number consists of three fixed-size fields:
This is the standard arrangement of these fields
Single Precision
Single-precision floating-point format is a computer number format, usually occupying 32 bits
in computer memory; it represents a wide dynamic range of numeric values by using
a floating radix point. ... One of the first programming languages to provide single- and double-
precision floating-point data types was Fortran.
Double Precision
Double-precision floating-point format is a computer number format, usually occupying 64 bits in
computer memory; it represents a wide dynamic range of numeric values by using a floating radix point.
38. Bahubali College of Engineering, Shravanabelagola
Computer Organisation 18EC35 K Ramamani, HOD in E&CE
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