Bricks are one of the oldest and most widely used construction materials. They are durable, lightweight, fire resistant, and cheaper than stones to use for building. A good quality brick is made from a mixture of clay and sand that is molded, dried, and fired at a high temperature. This makes the brick hard and long-lasting. Bricks are commonly used to construct walls, bridges, floors, and other structural elements in buildings. They have advantages over other materials like stones in being easier to work with and transport. Proper analysis and processing of the clay mixture is important to produce high quality bricks with good compressive strength, low water absorption, and resistance to cracking.
Clay product By Nausad Ansari for studentsNausadAnsari4
Clay products like bricks are made from clay through processes of molding, drying, and firing. Bricks are commonly used construction materials due to their uniform size and shape which allows for efficient arrangements in buildings. To make bricks, clay is molded into rectangular blocks and then dried and fired at high temperatures to become hard and durable. Firing causes chemical reactions that form new crystalline compounds and results in strong, compact bricks suitable for use in construction.
types of Bricks details and manufacture.pptxalpnarohatgi1
There are several types of bricks:
- Wire cut bricks are made by slicing clay into brick-sized pieces using wires.
- Hand moulded bricks involve shaping prepared brick earth by hand.
- Bricks are classified into four classes based on properties like strength and water absorption. First class bricks are of the highest quality while fourth class are overburnt and brittle.
- Common types include modular bricks which have nominal dimensions that are multiples of tens, and non-modular bricks which have specified but not nominal dimensions.
Bricks are one of the oldest manufactured building materials. They are made by molding clay into blocks and drying and burning them. Bricks have several advantages such as variety of color/shape/texture, durability, strength, and availability. They are lighter than stones.
There are various tests conducted on bricks to check qualities like water absorption, crushing strength, hardness, presence of soluble salts, size, shape, soundness, and structure. Bricks are used widely in structural construction as well as decoratively. Good bricks are uniform in size/shape with sharp edges, give a clear ringing sound, and absorb less than 20% water. Various types of bricks include burnt bricks classified by quality, and special types like
This document provides an overview of various construction materials used in civil engineering projects. It discusses naturally available materials like stone, brick, lime, cement and timber. It describes the composition, types, properties and uses of each material. For stone, brick and lime, it specifically outlines the requirements and specifications of different varieties. The document serves as a reference for civil engineers to understand the nature and behavior of various materials used in building and infrastructure development.
Bricks are a common building material made from clay that is molded and fired. There are four main steps to manufacturing clay bricks: preparing the clay, molding the bricks, drying the molded bricks, and firing the dried bricks in a kiln. Firing hardens the bricks and burns off impurities. Good bricks are uniformly shaped, fire to a bright copper color without cracking, and can withstand weathering and structural loads. Bricks are classified based on their quality, with Class I being the highest quality for permanent structures. Timber comes from trees and can be used for building if processed correctly to prevent decay and fire. Trees are classified as exogenous or endogenous based on their growth pattern.
Diploma(civil) sem i boce_unit 1_civil engineering materials aRai University
The document provides information about various civil engineering materials including bricks, stones, cement, aggregates, timber and concrete. It discusses the manufacturing process of bricks and their various types. It also describes the characteristics, classification and common uses of building stones. Furthermore, it covers the ingredients, properties and uses of cement and aggregates. The document also provides details about the constituents, properties and advantages/disadvantages of concrete. Finally, it discusses the requirements and properties of good quality timber.
Diploma(civil) sem i boce_unit 1_civil engineering materials aRai University
The document discusses different types of building materials used in construction, including bricks and stones. It provides details on the manufacturing process and properties of bricks, as well as the various types of bricks used. The characteristics, classification, and common uses of building stones are also outlined. Bricks and stones are widely used construction materials due to their availability, durability, and load-bearing capacity. Proper selection depends on factors like material composition, strength, resistance to weathering, and placement in the structure.
Civil Engineering Materials Brick Field .pptalaminakhnd079
Bricks are artificial stones made from clay that harden when heated to high temperatures. The quality of bricks depends on the clay composition and manufacturing process. Good brick clay contains silica, alumina, iron oxide, magnesia, lime, and organic matter in specific percentages. The constituents impact properties like plasticity, density, color, shrinkage, and fusion. Bricks are tested based on hardness, strength, water absorption, and efflorescence. Standard bricks measure 9.5x4.5x2.75 inches and are classified by quality and use in construction.
Clay product By Nausad Ansari for studentsNausadAnsari4
Clay products like bricks are made from clay through processes of molding, drying, and firing. Bricks are commonly used construction materials due to their uniform size and shape which allows for efficient arrangements in buildings. To make bricks, clay is molded into rectangular blocks and then dried and fired at high temperatures to become hard and durable. Firing causes chemical reactions that form new crystalline compounds and results in strong, compact bricks suitable for use in construction.
types of Bricks details and manufacture.pptxalpnarohatgi1
There are several types of bricks:
- Wire cut bricks are made by slicing clay into brick-sized pieces using wires.
- Hand moulded bricks involve shaping prepared brick earth by hand.
- Bricks are classified into four classes based on properties like strength and water absorption. First class bricks are of the highest quality while fourth class are overburnt and brittle.
- Common types include modular bricks which have nominal dimensions that are multiples of tens, and non-modular bricks which have specified but not nominal dimensions.
Bricks are one of the oldest manufactured building materials. They are made by molding clay into blocks and drying and burning them. Bricks have several advantages such as variety of color/shape/texture, durability, strength, and availability. They are lighter than stones.
There are various tests conducted on bricks to check qualities like water absorption, crushing strength, hardness, presence of soluble salts, size, shape, soundness, and structure. Bricks are used widely in structural construction as well as decoratively. Good bricks are uniform in size/shape with sharp edges, give a clear ringing sound, and absorb less than 20% water. Various types of bricks include burnt bricks classified by quality, and special types like
This document provides an overview of various construction materials used in civil engineering projects. It discusses naturally available materials like stone, brick, lime, cement and timber. It describes the composition, types, properties and uses of each material. For stone, brick and lime, it specifically outlines the requirements and specifications of different varieties. The document serves as a reference for civil engineers to understand the nature and behavior of various materials used in building and infrastructure development.
Bricks are a common building material made from clay that is molded and fired. There are four main steps to manufacturing clay bricks: preparing the clay, molding the bricks, drying the molded bricks, and firing the dried bricks in a kiln. Firing hardens the bricks and burns off impurities. Good bricks are uniformly shaped, fire to a bright copper color without cracking, and can withstand weathering and structural loads. Bricks are classified based on their quality, with Class I being the highest quality for permanent structures. Timber comes from trees and can be used for building if processed correctly to prevent decay and fire. Trees are classified as exogenous or endogenous based on their growth pattern.
Diploma(civil) sem i boce_unit 1_civil engineering materials aRai University
The document provides information about various civil engineering materials including bricks, stones, cement, aggregates, timber and concrete. It discusses the manufacturing process of bricks and their various types. It also describes the characteristics, classification and common uses of building stones. Furthermore, it covers the ingredients, properties and uses of cement and aggregates. The document also provides details about the constituents, properties and advantages/disadvantages of concrete. Finally, it discusses the requirements and properties of good quality timber.
Diploma(civil) sem i boce_unit 1_civil engineering materials aRai University
The document discusses different types of building materials used in construction, including bricks and stones. It provides details on the manufacturing process and properties of bricks, as well as the various types of bricks used. The characteristics, classification, and common uses of building stones are also outlined. Bricks and stones are widely used construction materials due to their availability, durability, and load-bearing capacity. Proper selection depends on factors like material composition, strength, resistance to weathering, and placement in the structure.
Civil Engineering Materials Brick Field .pptalaminakhnd079
Bricks are artificial stones made from clay that harden when heated to high temperatures. The quality of bricks depends on the clay composition and manufacturing process. Good brick clay contains silica, alumina, iron oxide, magnesia, lime, and organic matter in specific percentages. The constituents impact properties like plasticity, density, color, shrinkage, and fusion. Bricks are tested based on hardness, strength, water absorption, and efflorescence. Standard bricks measure 9.5x4.5x2.75 inches and are classified by quality and use in construction.
Clay and clay products are formed through the weathering and erosion of rocks. Clay is composed mainly of fine particles of hydrous aluminum silicates and other minerals. Bricks are a common clay product used in construction. Good brick earth contains 20-30% alumina, 35-50% silica, and 20-30% silt. Bricks are manufactured through molding, drying, and burning clay at high temperatures. Proper firing leads to high strength bricks with less than 20% water absorption. Common defects in bricks include over or under burning, black cores, and efflorescence.
This document discusses the process of manufacturing bricks. It begins by describing the composition of bricks, noting that good bricks should contain 20-30% alumina, 50-60% silica, and small amounts of lime, iron oxide, and magnesia. The document then outlines the key steps in brick manufacturing: preparation of clay, moulding, drying, and burning. For moulding, it describes hand and machine methods, and for burning it explains the three stages of dehydration, oxidation, and vitrification. The document provides details on each stage of the manufacturing process.
This document discusses the process of manufacturing bricks. It begins by describing the composition of bricks, noting that good bricks should contain 20-30% alumina, 50-60% silica, and small amounts of lime, iron oxide, and magnesia. The document then outlines the key steps in brick manufacturing: preparation of clay, moulding, drying, and burning. Moulding can be done by hand or machine, drying takes 3-10 days, and burning involves dehydration, oxidation and vitrification to harden the bricks. Proper composition and manufacturing process are necessary to produce durable bricks of consistent quality.
This document discusses fire bricks and sand lime bricks. It covers what they are, their ingredients, manufacturing processes, types/classifications, uses, and masonry/how to use them.
Fire bricks are made primarily to withstand high temperatures and contain silica, alumina, and other oxides. Their manufacturing process involves selection of materials, preparation, molding, drying, and firing. Sand lime bricks contain sand, lime, and water and are made through a similar process.
The document compares the ingredients and properties of fire bricks and sand lime bricks. It also discusses common defects in bricks and classifications based on quality.
Brick is a common building material made from clay, sand, and water. There are several types of bricks based on their manufacturing process, including pressed clay bricks which have indentations called frogs, and wire cut bricks which have holes. Bricks are classified based on their quality, such as first class bricks which are well-burnt and pass certain tests. They are used widely in construction for walls, pavements, and other applications. Properties like hardness, water absorption, and strength can vary between brick types and quality.
This document provides an overview of various construction materials used in civil engineering projects. It begins by discussing naturally available materials like stone, brick, lime, and timber. It then covers industrial materials like cement and metals. For each material, the document outlines the composition, requirements, types, properties and common uses. Stone is described in more detail, covering the different types of stone and their uses in hydraulic structures, retaining walls, and more. The document also provides a detailed breakdown of the production of bricks and their various classifications, as well as the properties and uses of lime, cement, and timber. It discusses the seasoning process for timber to reduce moisture content.
This document discusses clay products used in building construction. It describes how clay is formed and composed of minerals like kaolinite. Clay is classified based on its formation (residual or transported) and characteristics (china clay, fire clay, vitrified clay, brick clay). Brick clay is most commonly used to manufacture building bricks. The process of brick making involves selecting suitable clay, preparing and molding the clay into bricks, drying the bricks, firing them in kilns, and cooling the finished bricks. The ideal composition of brick clay includes 20-30% alumina, 50-60% silica, and 4-6% iron oxide and lime to provide strength and bind the bricks during firing.
Bricks are building materials traditionally made of clay but now made of various materials laid in mortar. They have been used in construction for thousands of years, with some of the earliest bricks dating to before 7500 BC. There are various types of bricks including fired bricks which are hardened in a kiln, non-fired "mud bricks," and engineered bricks designed for strength. Bricks are manufactured through processes involving preparing raw materials, molding, drying, and firing. Improved brick making technologies and kilns have increased efficiency and sustainability while reducing environmental impacts.
This document provides information on building materials including bricks, cement blocks, and cement. It discusses the properties and manufacturing process of bricks, noting that bricks are made from clay soil and providing details on preparation, moulding, drying, and burning. It also covers the constituents of good brick earth, standard sizes of bricks, and tests conducted on bricks to determine suitability. The document summarizes cement blocks and their properties and applications. Finally, it briefly outlines the composition and setting action of ordinary Portland cement (OPC), the most common type of cement.
Bricks are classified as either sun dried/katcha bricks or burnt/pacca bricks. Sun dried bricks are made through natural drying and used for temporary structures due to lack of durability when wet. Burnt bricks are fired, making them hard, strong, and durable for permanent construction. Burnt bricks are further classified into four classes based on their quality - first class bricks are well-burnt without cracks while overburnt/jhama bricks are misshapen and used for aggregates. A variety of tests are used to determine brick suitability for construction purposes.
Clay is a key ingredient in making structural clay products like bricks. It consists mainly of kaolinite along with other minerals. Good brick earth contains 20-30% alumina, 50-60% silica, and small amounts of lime, iron oxide, and magnesia. Harmful ingredients to avoid include alkalis, limestone, iron pyrites, pebbles, and organic matter. Bricks are manufactured by preparing the earth, moulding, drying, and burning in kilns. Common brick bonds used in construction include stretcher bond, header bond, English bond, and Flemish bond.
properties,Manufacturing, types and features of bricksZeeshan Afzal
Bricks
Definition of bricks
properties of bricks
types of bricks
features of bricks
How bricks are made
Preparation of brick earth
Moulding of bricks
Drying of bricks
Burning of bricks
PREPARATION OF BRICK EARTH
Removal of loose soil:
About 30 cm depth contains a lot of impurities
like organic matter and hence
it should be taken out and thrown away.
Digging, spreading and cleaning:
The earth is then dug out from the ground.
This earth is spread into heaps
about 50 to 150 cm height.
Weathering:
The earth is then exposed to atmosphere for softening.
The period may be Of
few weeks to a season.
Hand moulding
When moulding is done with hand it is called hand moulding.
A wooden rectangular mould made in the shape of a brick is normally used for this purpose.
Machine moulding
The clay is placed in the machine, it comes out through the opening Under pressure.
It is cut to bricks by steel wires fixed into frames.
These bricks are also called wire cut bricks.
DRYING OF BRICKS
contain 7 to 30 percent moisture, depending upon the
forming method.
most of this water is evaporated in dryer chambers
temperatures about 100 ºF to 400 ºF (38 ºC to 204 ºC).
time, is between 24 to 48 hours.
Heat and humidity must be carefully regulated to avoid cracking in the brick.
BURNING OF BRICKS
INTERMITTENT KILN
Highly inefficient & labor-intensive.
Use coal + scavenged fuels
Most common, most primitive, most polluting
Temporary Structures
High Alumina BricksHigh alumina bricks from 50% up to 90% alumina
Various selected superior grade aggregates to meet the various service conditions of various types of furnaces like laddie, blast furnace, cement and sponge iron rotary kiln.
Concrete Bricks
These bricks have either pale green or gray color.
these are prepared from a small, dry aggregate concrete which is formed in steel molds by using vibration and compaction.
Fire Brick
A Fire brick is a block of ceramic material
used in masonry construction and sized to be layer with one hand using mortar.
bricks may be made from type of material .
these are built primarily to withstand high heat and also find applications in extreme mechanical, chemical, or thermal stresses.
the brick is widely used as refractory insulating bricks for maintaining insistent temperature.
Light Weight Hollow Blocks
This blocks are used in construction of houses in earthquake prone areas.
These bricks are made of fly ash, cement, lime, gypsum, stone dust etc.
available in different sizes.
hollow concrete blocks is used as substitute for conventional bricks or stones used in construction of buildings. and the blocks' importmant feature
A small hard block of backed clay that is used to build structure
such as houses and sometimes to make streets ,paths ,etc
Another definition
Molded rectangular block of clay backed by sun or in a kiln until hard and use as a buildings and paving material.
The document discusses bricks, including their composition, manufacturing process, types, and testing. It can be summarized as:
1. Bricks are made from clay and are manufactured through processes of preparation, molding, drying, and burning. This gives them strength and durability for construction uses.
2. Good brick composition includes appropriate amounts of clay, silt, and silica without harmful ingredients like lime. The manufacturing process involves shaping the clay and firing the bricks to high temperatures.
3. Bricks are tested for qualities like strength, water absorption, and efflorescence to ensure they meet standards for construction projects. Proper testing verifies the brick quality and suitability for different building applications.
1. Bricks are made from clay and are one of the oldest and most widely used building materials. They are inexpensive, durable, and easy to work with.
2. The document discusses the manufacturing process of bricks including preparing the brick earth by blending clay with additives, molding, drying, and burning the bricks.
3. Bricks are classified based on their quality, strength, size, method of manufacture, and degree of burning. Special types of bricks include perforated, hollow, circular, and paving bricks used for specific construction purposes.
1. The document provides information about bricks, including their composition, qualities, and history of use in construction.
2. Bricks are made from clay and are a commonly used building material because they are durable, strong, reliable, inexpensive, and readily available.
3. The document discusses the ideal composition of brick material and harmful ingredients to avoid, as well as qualities of good bricks such as being uniformly shaped, brightly colored, and giving a clear ringing sound when struck.
The document discusses various materials used in civil engineering construction projects such as bricks, stones, aggregates, cement, and concrete. It provides details on the manufacturing process and properties of bricks and describes the different types of bricks used. It also discusses the characteristics, classification, and uses of stones as a building material. The qualities, types, and uses of aggregates and cement are outlined. Concrete is introduced as a composite material made by mixing aggregates, sand, cement, and water.
This document discusses various hydraulic structures used to measure flow including weirs, venturi flumes, and modular venturi flumes. Weirs are overflow structures built across channels with the crest perpendicular to flow. Venturi flumes consist of converging and diverging sections to accelerate flow through a throat section, allowing discharge measurement. Modular venturi flumes have critical flow conditions at the throat, creating a standing wave downstream. Examples of calculating discharge using weir and venturi flume equations are also provided.
The document provides an introduction to watershed management concepts including stakeholders and decision making. It covers topics such as watershed systems, objectives of watershed management including soil, water and vegetation conservation. It discusses the components of watershed management including foundation practices, improved production practices, and benefits. It also covers strategies, the multi-disciplinary approach, stakeholder analysis including identification and development issues, and the USEPA approaches to stakeholder involvement.
Clay and clay products are formed through the weathering and erosion of rocks. Clay is composed mainly of fine particles of hydrous aluminum silicates and other minerals. Bricks are a common clay product used in construction. Good brick earth contains 20-30% alumina, 35-50% silica, and 20-30% silt. Bricks are manufactured through molding, drying, and burning clay at high temperatures. Proper firing leads to high strength bricks with less than 20% water absorption. Common defects in bricks include over or under burning, black cores, and efflorescence.
This document discusses the process of manufacturing bricks. It begins by describing the composition of bricks, noting that good bricks should contain 20-30% alumina, 50-60% silica, and small amounts of lime, iron oxide, and magnesia. The document then outlines the key steps in brick manufacturing: preparation of clay, moulding, drying, and burning. For moulding, it describes hand and machine methods, and for burning it explains the three stages of dehydration, oxidation, and vitrification. The document provides details on each stage of the manufacturing process.
This document discusses the process of manufacturing bricks. It begins by describing the composition of bricks, noting that good bricks should contain 20-30% alumina, 50-60% silica, and small amounts of lime, iron oxide, and magnesia. The document then outlines the key steps in brick manufacturing: preparation of clay, moulding, drying, and burning. Moulding can be done by hand or machine, drying takes 3-10 days, and burning involves dehydration, oxidation and vitrification to harden the bricks. Proper composition and manufacturing process are necessary to produce durable bricks of consistent quality.
This document discusses fire bricks and sand lime bricks. It covers what they are, their ingredients, manufacturing processes, types/classifications, uses, and masonry/how to use them.
Fire bricks are made primarily to withstand high temperatures and contain silica, alumina, and other oxides. Their manufacturing process involves selection of materials, preparation, molding, drying, and firing. Sand lime bricks contain sand, lime, and water and are made through a similar process.
The document compares the ingredients and properties of fire bricks and sand lime bricks. It also discusses common defects in bricks and classifications based on quality.
Brick is a common building material made from clay, sand, and water. There are several types of bricks based on their manufacturing process, including pressed clay bricks which have indentations called frogs, and wire cut bricks which have holes. Bricks are classified based on their quality, such as first class bricks which are well-burnt and pass certain tests. They are used widely in construction for walls, pavements, and other applications. Properties like hardness, water absorption, and strength can vary between brick types and quality.
This document provides an overview of various construction materials used in civil engineering projects. It begins by discussing naturally available materials like stone, brick, lime, and timber. It then covers industrial materials like cement and metals. For each material, the document outlines the composition, requirements, types, properties and common uses. Stone is described in more detail, covering the different types of stone and their uses in hydraulic structures, retaining walls, and more. The document also provides a detailed breakdown of the production of bricks and their various classifications, as well as the properties and uses of lime, cement, and timber. It discusses the seasoning process for timber to reduce moisture content.
This document discusses clay products used in building construction. It describes how clay is formed and composed of minerals like kaolinite. Clay is classified based on its formation (residual or transported) and characteristics (china clay, fire clay, vitrified clay, brick clay). Brick clay is most commonly used to manufacture building bricks. The process of brick making involves selecting suitable clay, preparing and molding the clay into bricks, drying the bricks, firing them in kilns, and cooling the finished bricks. The ideal composition of brick clay includes 20-30% alumina, 50-60% silica, and 4-6% iron oxide and lime to provide strength and bind the bricks during firing.
Bricks are building materials traditionally made of clay but now made of various materials laid in mortar. They have been used in construction for thousands of years, with some of the earliest bricks dating to before 7500 BC. There are various types of bricks including fired bricks which are hardened in a kiln, non-fired "mud bricks," and engineered bricks designed for strength. Bricks are manufactured through processes involving preparing raw materials, molding, drying, and firing. Improved brick making technologies and kilns have increased efficiency and sustainability while reducing environmental impacts.
This document provides information on building materials including bricks, cement blocks, and cement. It discusses the properties and manufacturing process of bricks, noting that bricks are made from clay soil and providing details on preparation, moulding, drying, and burning. It also covers the constituents of good brick earth, standard sizes of bricks, and tests conducted on bricks to determine suitability. The document summarizes cement blocks and their properties and applications. Finally, it briefly outlines the composition and setting action of ordinary Portland cement (OPC), the most common type of cement.
Bricks are classified as either sun dried/katcha bricks or burnt/pacca bricks. Sun dried bricks are made through natural drying and used for temporary structures due to lack of durability when wet. Burnt bricks are fired, making them hard, strong, and durable for permanent construction. Burnt bricks are further classified into four classes based on their quality - first class bricks are well-burnt without cracks while overburnt/jhama bricks are misshapen and used for aggregates. A variety of tests are used to determine brick suitability for construction purposes.
Clay is a key ingredient in making structural clay products like bricks. It consists mainly of kaolinite along with other minerals. Good brick earth contains 20-30% alumina, 50-60% silica, and small amounts of lime, iron oxide, and magnesia. Harmful ingredients to avoid include alkalis, limestone, iron pyrites, pebbles, and organic matter. Bricks are manufactured by preparing the earth, moulding, drying, and burning in kilns. Common brick bonds used in construction include stretcher bond, header bond, English bond, and Flemish bond.
properties,Manufacturing, types and features of bricksZeeshan Afzal
Bricks
Definition of bricks
properties of bricks
types of bricks
features of bricks
How bricks are made
Preparation of brick earth
Moulding of bricks
Drying of bricks
Burning of bricks
PREPARATION OF BRICK EARTH
Removal of loose soil:
About 30 cm depth contains a lot of impurities
like organic matter and hence
it should be taken out and thrown away.
Digging, spreading and cleaning:
The earth is then dug out from the ground.
This earth is spread into heaps
about 50 to 150 cm height.
Weathering:
The earth is then exposed to atmosphere for softening.
The period may be Of
few weeks to a season.
Hand moulding
When moulding is done with hand it is called hand moulding.
A wooden rectangular mould made in the shape of a brick is normally used for this purpose.
Machine moulding
The clay is placed in the machine, it comes out through the opening Under pressure.
It is cut to bricks by steel wires fixed into frames.
These bricks are also called wire cut bricks.
DRYING OF BRICKS
contain 7 to 30 percent moisture, depending upon the
forming method.
most of this water is evaporated in dryer chambers
temperatures about 100 ºF to 400 ºF (38 ºC to 204 ºC).
time, is between 24 to 48 hours.
Heat and humidity must be carefully regulated to avoid cracking in the brick.
BURNING OF BRICKS
INTERMITTENT KILN
Highly inefficient & labor-intensive.
Use coal + scavenged fuels
Most common, most primitive, most polluting
Temporary Structures
High Alumina BricksHigh alumina bricks from 50% up to 90% alumina
Various selected superior grade aggregates to meet the various service conditions of various types of furnaces like laddie, blast furnace, cement and sponge iron rotary kiln.
Concrete Bricks
These bricks have either pale green or gray color.
these are prepared from a small, dry aggregate concrete which is formed in steel molds by using vibration and compaction.
Fire Brick
A Fire brick is a block of ceramic material
used in masonry construction and sized to be layer with one hand using mortar.
bricks may be made from type of material .
these are built primarily to withstand high heat and also find applications in extreme mechanical, chemical, or thermal stresses.
the brick is widely used as refractory insulating bricks for maintaining insistent temperature.
Light Weight Hollow Blocks
This blocks are used in construction of houses in earthquake prone areas.
These bricks are made of fly ash, cement, lime, gypsum, stone dust etc.
available in different sizes.
hollow concrete blocks is used as substitute for conventional bricks or stones used in construction of buildings. and the blocks' importmant feature
A small hard block of backed clay that is used to build structure
such as houses and sometimes to make streets ,paths ,etc
Another definition
Molded rectangular block of clay backed by sun or in a kiln until hard and use as a buildings and paving material.
The document discusses bricks, including their composition, manufacturing process, types, and testing. It can be summarized as:
1. Bricks are made from clay and are manufactured through processes of preparation, molding, drying, and burning. This gives them strength and durability for construction uses.
2. Good brick composition includes appropriate amounts of clay, silt, and silica without harmful ingredients like lime. The manufacturing process involves shaping the clay and firing the bricks to high temperatures.
3. Bricks are tested for qualities like strength, water absorption, and efflorescence to ensure they meet standards for construction projects. Proper testing verifies the brick quality and suitability for different building applications.
1. Bricks are made from clay and are one of the oldest and most widely used building materials. They are inexpensive, durable, and easy to work with.
2. The document discusses the manufacturing process of bricks including preparing the brick earth by blending clay with additives, molding, drying, and burning the bricks.
3. Bricks are classified based on their quality, strength, size, method of manufacture, and degree of burning. Special types of bricks include perforated, hollow, circular, and paving bricks used for specific construction purposes.
1. The document provides information about bricks, including their composition, qualities, and history of use in construction.
2. Bricks are made from clay and are a commonly used building material because they are durable, strong, reliable, inexpensive, and readily available.
3. The document discusses the ideal composition of brick material and harmful ingredients to avoid, as well as qualities of good bricks such as being uniformly shaped, brightly colored, and giving a clear ringing sound when struck.
The document discusses various materials used in civil engineering construction projects such as bricks, stones, aggregates, cement, and concrete. It provides details on the manufacturing process and properties of bricks and describes the different types of bricks used. It also discusses the characteristics, classification, and uses of stones as a building material. The qualities, types, and uses of aggregates and cement are outlined. Concrete is introduced as a composite material made by mixing aggregates, sand, cement, and water.
This document discusses various hydraulic structures used to measure flow including weirs, venturi flumes, and modular venturi flumes. Weirs are overflow structures built across channels with the crest perpendicular to flow. Venturi flumes consist of converging and diverging sections to accelerate flow through a throat section, allowing discharge measurement. Modular venturi flumes have critical flow conditions at the throat, creating a standing wave downstream. Examples of calculating discharge using weir and venturi flume equations are also provided.
The document provides an introduction to watershed management concepts including stakeholders and decision making. It covers topics such as watershed systems, objectives of watershed management including soil, water and vegetation conservation. It discusses the components of watershed management including foundation practices, improved production practices, and benefits. It also covers strategies, the multi-disciplinary approach, stakeholder analysis including identification and development issues, and the USEPA approaches to stakeholder involvement.
This document provides an overview of the scope and objectives of a course on watershed and its management using an integrated watershed approach. The course aims to discuss various technical, social, ecological and environmental aspects of watershed development and management. It will cover 10 modules over 40 lectures on topics like introduction to watershed concepts, sustainable watershed practices, integrated watershed management, watershed modeling, social aspects and more. The course is intended to be useful for students, teachers, NGOs and practitioners.
This document provides information about the Watershed Management course WMA 510 at the University of Agriculture Abeokuta. It includes details about the course coordinators, content, requirements, and reading list. The course aims to teach students about watershed management principles and practices through understanding watershed hydrology, human impacts on water resources, and strategies to address problems. Integrated watershed management approaches are emphasized, recognizing the links between land and water.
1) The document discusses fronts and mid-latitude cyclones, including the formation and characteristics of warm fronts, cold fronts, stationary fronts, and occluded fronts.
2) Mid-latitude cyclones form in zones along the polar front where there are strong temperature gradients and converging winds. They develop through the formation and movement of different air mass fronts.
3) The movement and interaction of fronts within mid-latitude cyclones is responsible for much of the day-to-day variability in weather conditions in mid-latitude regions like Northwest Europe.
This document discusses various thermal and radiation processes in the atmosphere. It begins by outlining the solar radiation budget at the Earth's surface and how energy is absorbed, reflected, and redistributed. It then covers adiabatic and non-adiabatic atmospheric processes, lapse rates, pressure-temperature relationships, and how thermal heating and cooling can drive local circulation patterns like sea breezes and thermal lows. The document concludes by examining the thermal wind concept and how temperature gradients relate to wind shear and jet streams.
Models provide a 4D framework for assimilating observations over time and smoothing measurements. Satellite data provides numerous measurements like visible imagery, infrared imagery, sea surface temperatures, and winds that increase understanding of atmospheric conditions, though some data represents vertical integrals or surface values that are difficult to locate precisely. Reanalysis allows improved modeling of past weather.
This document defines meteorological terms and describes the vertical structure of Earth's atmosphere. It discusses:
1. The layers of the atmosphere including the troposphere, stratosphere, and mesosphere. The troposphere is where weather occurs and has decreasing temperature with altitude.
2. The boundary layer, a sublayer of the troposphere directly influenced by surface friction and turbulence.
3. Temperature and pressure decrease logarithmically with altitude. Horizontal gradients are generally much smaller than vertical gradients.
4. Time is usually reported in UTC and units include Kelvin, Celsius, Fahrenheit for temperature and millibars, Pascals for pressure.
Tephigrams are thermodynamic diagrams that show the vertical structure of the atmosphere. They have the property that equal areas on the diagram represent equal amounts of energy. Tephigrams depict the temperature, dewpoint, potential temperature, and saturation mixing ratio to analyze atmospheric stability and potential for cloud formation and convection. Areas between environmental temperature curves and adiabatic lapse rates indicate the potential buoyant energy available for parcel lifting.
Worldwide weather observations are taken four times daily and include surface and upper air measurements. Surface observations include temperature, wind, and precipitation while upper air observations come from weather balloons. These observations along with remote sensing data from satellites, weather radar, and wind profilers are used to construct surface analysis charts and upper air soundings to analyze current weather conditions.
This document provides an introduction to a university course on meteorology and weather forecasting. It outlines the course content which includes 10 lectures on basic meteorology concepts and 8 workshops on hands-on forecasting exercises. It also lists core reading materials and meteorological resources available online. The document describes different methods of weather forecasting from simple persistence to modern numerical weather prediction models run on powerful computers.
This document discusses moist processes in meteorology. It explains that water vapor makes up most of the water in the atmosphere and exists primarily in the troposphere. Condensation occurs when air is cooled to below its dew point, through processes like lifting, mixing with cooler air masses, or contact cooling over surfaces. Lifting air parcels cools them through expansion, with the lifting condensation level being reached when the air reaches saturation. Further lifting causes additional condensation as more water vapor condenses out of the rising air parcel. This condensation releases latent heat, slowing the cooling rate compared to unsaturated air parcels. The document also describes how downslope winds like Föhn winds can warm as they descend,
This document discusses cloud classification and types. It begins by introducing the Latin terms used to classify clouds based on their altitude and characteristics: cirrus (high), cumulus (heap), stratus (layer), and nimbus (rain-bearing). Clouds are then classified into high-level (above 6,000m), medium-level (2,000-6,000m), and low-level (below 2,000m) clouds. Various cloud types are defined within each level based on their appearance, including cirrus, altostratus, stratocumulus, cumulus, and nimbostratus clouds. The formation of precipitation within clouds and clouds' effects on radiation and vertical air transport are also summarized
- Air masses originate in high-pressure regions with uniform surface conditions and develop distinct thermal and moisture properties.
- As air masses move towards low pressure regions, they are modified by changes in surface properties like heating/cooling and by adding or removing moisture through processes like evaporation and precipitation.
- Air masses are classified and named based on their region of origin and associated surface type, and bring general weather conditions to areas over which they pass.
The document discusses atmospheric motions driven by pressure gradients and the Coriolis effect. It explains that horizontal pressure gradients create a pressure force that drives winds towards lower pressure. The Coriolis force deflects the winds right in the Northern Hemisphere. When the pressure and Coriolis forces balance, the result is geostrophic wind parallel to isobars. Near the Earth's surface, friction reduces wind speed and causes the wind direction to spiral inward in an Ekman spiral. The global circulation patterns arise from convection and solar heating interacting with the Coriolis effect to form six counter-rotating cells in each hemisphere.
This document outlines a lecture on town planning given by Engr. Ali Raza Khalid. It includes definitions of town planning, the history and objectives of town planning such as health, convenience and beauty. Principles of town planning like zoning, green belts, housing and transportation facilities are discussed. The necessity of town planning to avoid problems towns face without planning like lack of amenities and traffic congestion is also covered.
The document discusses the benefits of exercise for mental health. Regular physical activity can help reduce anxiety and depression and improve mood and cognitive function. Exercise causes chemical changes in the brain that may help protect against mental illness and improve symptoms for those who already suffer from conditions like anxiety and depression.
This book can be used to teach basic statistics for the 1st year college students and can also be used for O level and A level students and for also engineering students.
1. The document outlines the terms of reference for focus groups at the National University of Computer & Emerging Sciences Lahore Department of Civil Engineering.
2. The focus groups are responsible for arranging meetings with course coordinators, approving course syllabi, reviewing exam materials, ensuring complete course files, and suggesting agenda items to the department quality enhancement cell.
3. The document assigns specific civil engineering courses to three focus groups: structural engineering and construction management, water resources and environmental engineering, and geotechnical and transportation engineering.
Covid Management System Project Report.pdfKamal Acharya
CoVID-19 sprang up in Wuhan China in November 2019 and was declared a pandemic by the in January 2020 World Health Organization (WHO). Like the Spanish flu of 1918 that claimed millions of lives, the COVID-19 has caused the demise of thousands with China, Italy, Spain, USA and India having the highest statistics on infection and mortality rates. Regardless of existing sophisticated technologies and medical science, the spread has continued to surge high. With this COVID-19 Management System, organizations can respond virtually to the COVID-19 pandemic and protect, educate and care for citizens in the community in a quick and effective manner. This comprehensive solution not only helps in containing the virus but also proactively empowers both citizens and care providers to minimize the spread of the virus through targeted strategies and education.
Data Communication and Computer Networks Management System Project Report.pdfKamal Acharya
Networking is a telecommunications network that allows computers to exchange data. In
computer networks, networked computing devices pass data to each other along data
connections. Data is transferred in the form of packets. The connections between nodes are
established using either cable media or wireless media.
3. BRICKS :
• One of the oldest construction material
• Most popular and leading construction
material
REASON:
• Low cost
• Durable
• Light weight
• Easy to work with
ADVANTAGES OVER STONES:
• Light weight
• Uniform shape and size
• Moulded to required size
• Easy laying
• Cheaper
• Fire resistance
• Thinner sections
• Less mortar for bonding
• Easy transportation
• Produced in large quantities
• A brick is an artificial kind of stone made of clay whose chief characteristics are a
plasticity when wet and stone like hardness after being heated to high temperature.
4. Factors that affect the quality of Bricks:
• Chemical properties of the clay used for preparation of the clay
• Process of drying
• Different degrees of burning
Constituents of Brick clay and their functions:
• A good brick-clay should be such a mixture of pure clay and sand that when prepared with water, it can easily be
moulded and dried without cracking or warping.
Chemical analysis of a good brick-clay should give the following percentage of chemical composition:
Silica 55%
Alumina 30%
Iron oxide 8%
Magnesia 5 %
Lime 1 %
Organic matters 1%
---------------
100%
5.
6. • Bricks dated 10,000 years old were found in the Middle East.
• The first sun-dried bricks were made in Mesopotamia (what is now Iraq), in the ancient city of Ur in about 4000 BC
7. 1.Bricks are extensively used as BUILDING blocks
2.First class Bricks are used in ARCHITECTURAL compositions and face work of a structure.
3.Fire Bricks are used for lining of evens , furnaces , chimneys etc.
4.Bricks are used for sewer lining.
5.Bricks are also used for foot-paths and paving
6.The first class and second class bricks are widely used for all sorts of sound work i.e. buildings, roads,
dams , bridge piers, tunnels, pitching works etc.
7.The third class bricks are used for temporary buildings.
8.The fourth class bricks are used as road metal and as ballast which is used in foundations, floors, roofs
etc.
Uses of Bricks
• Walls, Bridges, Dams and Culverts Pavements, Kerbs Partitions and roads
• Fire bricks used for fire resisting structures
• Ornamental works
• Perforated and hollow bricks for heat insulation
• Compound walls, Columns, Stairs and Arches
• Broken pieces for weathering courses
8. Advantages of bricks :
* Brick will not burn, buckle or melt.
* Brick will not rot and allow Termites to invade.
* Brick will not rust and corrode.
* Brick will not dent.
* Brick will not fade from the Sun's UV Rays.
* Brick will not be damaged by high winds, rain or hail.
* Brick will not require constant maintenance.
* Brick will not devalue.
* Brick will not limit your personal expression.
* Brick will not limit your design options.
9. MANUFACTURE OF BRICKS:
• Preparation
• Moulding
• Drying
• Burning
PREPARATION:
• Upper layer removed ( free from vegetation, gravel and lime)
• Clay exposed to atmosphere in wet condition
• Clay mixed with ingredients to become homogeneous and attain uniform colour
• Clay mix kneaded for moulding
MOULDING:
• Steel or wooden moulds Open both at top and bottom
• Prepared according to size of brick
• Clay mix filled in the mould, levelled and excess qty. is removed.
• Mould is lifted up and the procedure is repeated.
10. USES:
• Walls, Bridges, Dams and Culverts Pavements, Kerbs Partitions and roads
• Fire bricks used for fire resisting structures
• Ornamental works
• Perforated and hollow bricks for heat insulation
• Compound walls, Columns, Stairs and Arches
• Broken pieces for weathering courses
DRYING:
Moulded bricks are stacked in layers
Dried for about 6 weeks (depending on weather condition)
BURNING:
• Clamps (or) Kilns are used to burn
• Stacked and burnt at about 8000 C using coal, firewood etc.
• Burning imparts strength and hardness
• It should be properly burnt
• Over-burnt leads to brittleness
• Under-burnt leads to softness and hence less load carrying capacity
11. CLASSIFICATION:
BASED ON THE MANUFACTURING PROCESS
FIRST CLASS BRICKS
SECOND CLASS BRICKS
THIRD CLASS BRICKS
FOURTH CLASS BRICKS
FIRST CLASS BRICKS:
• Smooth and rectangular
• Parallel, sharp and straight edges
• Thoroughly burnt with deep red colour
• Uniform texture
• Water absorption 12% to 15% of its dry weight when immersed in cold water for 24 hrs
• Mettallic (or) Ringing sound by striking
• Crushing strength not less than 10.5 N/mm2
SIZE AND WEIGHT:
• 19 cm x 9 cm x 9 cm
• 20 cm x 10 cm x 10 cm (including mortar)
• 3 to 3.5 kg
12. SECOND CLASS BRICKS:
• Small cracks are allowed
• Water absorption 16% to 20%
• Crushing strength not less than 7 N/mm2
• USES: all masonry works
THIRD CLASS BRICKS:
• Under burnt
• Soft and light
• Dull sound
• Water absorption is 25%
• USES: Temporary structures
FOURTH CLASS BRICKS:
• Over burnt
• Bad shape and size
• brittle
13. QUALITY OF GOOD BRICKS:
• Shape and size: Uniform with straight edges
• Colour: Deep RED
• Texture and Compactness: No fissures and holes
• Hardness and Soundness : No finger nail impression
• Compressive strength: [ 10.5 N/mm2]
• Water absorption: [ Not more than 20%]
Density: [ 17 to 19 kN/m3 ]
Shear strength: 5 To 7 N/mm2
Fire Resistance: High
Soluble salts: Free
Breakage: When dropped from 1m height it should not break.
14. TESTS ON BRICKS:
1. COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
• Both faces made smooth
• Immersed in water for 24 hrs for three days
• The specimen is then placed between the plates of the compression testing machine
• Load is applied axially at a uniform rate 14 N/mm2and maximum load at which the specimen fails
is noted for determination of compressive strength not less than 3.5 N/mm2
• Again immersed in clean water for 3 days
• Tested in compression testing machine.
• Compressive strength = Load at failure/ Area of the cross section of the brick
15. 2.WATER ABSORPTION TEST:
• Dry brick weighed (W1)
• Immersed in water for 24 hrs
• Again weighed (W2)
• Percentage of water absorption = ([W2 – W1]/ W1 )X 100
3.EFFLORESCENCE TEST:
• Bricks placed in water of 2.5 cm depth till water is absorbed or evaporated
• After drying again placed in water
• Examined for efflorescence
• Efflorescence is classified as follows:
• Nil 0%
• Slight 10%
• Moderate 10 to 50%
• Heavy more than 50%
16.
17. Composition Following are the constituents of good brick
earth.
Alumina
• A good brick earth should contain 20 to 30 percent of alumina.
• If alumina is present in excess, raw bricks shrink and warp
during drying and burning.
Silica
• A good brick earth should contain about 50 to 60 percent of
silica.
• Silica exists in clay either as free or combined form.
• It thus imparts uniform shape to the bricks.
Oxide of iron
• A small quantity of oxide of Iron -- 5 to 6 percent is
desirable in good brick to imparts red colour to bricks.
• Excess of oxide of iron makes the bricks dark blue or
blackish.
Magnesia
• A small quantity of magnesia in brick earth imparts
yellow tint to bricks
• decreases shrinkage.
• excess of magnesia leads to the decay of bricks.
The ingredients like, lime, alkalies, pebbles, organic
matter should not present in good brick earth
• Silica exists in all clays in a state of chemical combination with
alumina forming silicate of alumina and some times exists in a
free state when it is called sand. The presence of sand
prevents cracking, shrinking and warping. The higher the
proportion of sand, the more shapely and uniform in texture
shall be the brick. But too much of sand makes the brick brittle
and weak.
• This is the principal constituent of brick clay. It imparts
plasticity to clay which is very essential for the purpose of
moulding. It also imparts density..
• The presence of iron oxide in clay enhances the
impermeable and durable qualities. Iron and lime in
small quantities give creamy color to bricks. The color
of bricks is very much dependent upon the contents of
iron and the color ranges from light yellow to orange
and red.
18. Lime
• A small quantity in finely powdered state prevents shrinkage of raw bricks.
• Excess of lime causes the brick to melt and hence, its shape is lost due to the splitting of brick
• It reduces shrinkage of bricks during drying and enables the silica to melt in burning and thus binds the particles of brick
together. In excess, however, it will cause the brick to fuse too readily and the shape will be lost.
Alkalies and Organic matter:
• A small quantity of organic matter will assist burning bricks. Excess is bad, because if it is not completely burnt, the
bricks will be porous.
• Small quantity of alkalies will lower the fusion point of clay.
19. Harmful constituents of Brick-clay
Iron Pyrites: (FeS2)
Presence of pyrites causes crystallization and disintegration of bricks on burning.
Alkalies:
They are mainly the chlorides and sulphates of calcium, magnesium, sodium and potassium. They produce a dark
greenish hue on the surface of bricks on drying. They cause the bricks to fuse, twist and warp during burning. Alkalies in
bricks absorb moisture from atmosphere and on drying cause efflorescence.
Efflorescence – If soluble salts are present in bricks they absorb moisture from atmosphere and go into solution which
appears on the surface in the form of whitish substance as the moisture dries out and the salt crystallize.
Stone particles:
Small particles of stones do not allow the clay to be mixed thoroughly and uniformly. These are harmful to the
uniformity of brick texture. These make bricks porous and weak.
Vegetation and Organic matter:
They make the bricks porous and weak because vegetations and organic matter get burnt during the burning of bricks
leaving small pores in them.
Lime:
If Lime present in excess amount causes the brick to fuse too readily and the shape is lost. Lime in the form of limestone
and kankar nodules is very harmful and cause serious troubles to bricks such as it causes the bricks to split and crumble
to pieces and deteriorates the quality of a good brick.
20. Carbonaceous Materials in the form of bituminous matter or carbon greatly affects the colour of raw clay. Unless
proper precaution is taken to effect complete removal of such matter by oxidation, the brick is likely to have a black
core
Sulphur is usually found in clay as the sulphate of calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium or iron, or as iron sulphide.
Generally, the proportion is small. If, however, there is carbon in the clay and insufficient time is given during burning
for proper oxidation of carbon and sulphur, the latter will cause the formation of a spongy, swollen structure in the
brick and the brick will be decolored by white blotches.
Water A large proportion of free water generally causes clay to shrink considerably during drying, whereas combined
water causes shrinkage during burning. The use of water containing small quantities of magnesium or calcium
carbonates, together with a sulphurous fuel often causes similar effects as those by sulphur.
21. Manufacture of bricks:
The manufacturing of brick,
the following operations are
involved
• Site selection
• Preparation of brick
earth
• Moulding of brick
• Drying of bricks
Selection of site
• Must have suitable clay In sufficient quantity
• Location---water table should be atleast 1m below kiln floor
Preparation of clay :-
The preparation of clay involvesfollowing operations
Unsoiling
Top layer of 20cm depth is removed as it contain impurities-organic matter, roots.
Digging
Clay is dug out from ground and spread on level ground about 60cm to 120cm heaps.
Cleaning
Stones, pebbles, vegetable matter etc removed and converted into powder form.
• Unsoiling
• Digging
• Cleaning
• Weathering
• Grinding
• Blending
• Tempering
22.
23.
24.
25.
26. Weathering
Clay is exposed to atmosphere from few weeks to full season.
Grinding
hard clay with lumps are crushed in clay crushing rollers
Blending
Clay is made loose and any ingradient to be added to it is spread out at top and turning it up and down in vertical
direction
Tempering
Clay is brought to a proper degree of hardness,
then water is added to clay and
whole mass is kneaded or pressed under the feet of men or cattle for large scale,
done in pug mill
33. Moulding of bricks Hand or machine Mould- Rectangular boxes open at bottom Wood or steel
Hand moulding
• Ground is levelled
• Sprinkle fine sand
• Dip mould in water and place on ground
• Lumps of clay are dashed in to it
• Pressed and filled----fill corners
• Surplus clay removed by using a stricker
• Mould is lifted up
• Raw brick remains
Machine moulding
When, -large scale production- Clay is hard
Plastic clay machine---wire cut bricks
Dry clay machine---powdered clay filled in moulds ---pour water----pressed----results in hard, well shaped
34.
35.
36.
37. Burning
The burning of clay may be divided into three main stages.
Dehydration (400-650°C) This is also known as water smoking stage.During dehydration, (1) the water which has been
retained in the pores of the clay after drying is driven off and the clay loses its plasticity, (2) some of the carbonaceous
matter is burnt, (3) a portion of sulphur is distilled from pyrites, (4) hydrous minerals like ferric hydroxide are dehydrated,
and (5) 'the carbonate minerals are more or less decarbonated. Too rapid heating causes cracking or bursting of the bricks.
On the other hand, if alkali is contained in the clay or sulphur is present in large amount in the coal, too slow heating of
clay produces a scum on the surface of the bricks.
Oxidation Period (650-900° C) During the oxidation period, (1) remainder of carbon is eliminated and, (2) the ferrous iron
is oxidized to the ferric form. The removal of sulphur is completed only after the carbon has been eliminated. Sulphur on
account of its affinity for oxygen, also holds back the oxidation of iron.
Consequently, in order to avoid black or spongy cores, oxidation must proceed at such a rate which will allow these
changes to occur before the heat becomes sufficient to soften the clay and close its pore. Sand is often added to the raw
clay to produce a more open structure and thus provide escape of gases generated in burning.
Vitrification — To convert the mass into glass like substance — the temperature ranges from 900-1100°C for low melting
clay and 1000- 1250°C for high melting clay. Great care is required in cooling the bricks below the cherry red heat in order
to avoid checking and cracking. Vitrification period may further be divided into (a) incipient vitrification, at which the clay
has softened sufficiently to cause adherence but not enough to close the pores or cause loss of space — on cooling the
material cannot be scratched by the knife; (b) complete vitrification, more or less well-marked
38. by maximum shrinkage; (c) viscous vitrification, produced by a further increase in temperature which results in a soft
molten mass, a gradual loss in shape, and a glassy structure after cooling. Generally, clay products are vitrified to the
point of viscosity. However, paving bricks are burnt to the stage of complete vitrification to achieve maximum hardness
as well as toughness.
Burning of bricks is done in a clamp or kiln. A clamp is a temporary structure whereas kiln is a permanent one.
Burning in Clamp or Pazawah A typical clamp is shown in Fig. The bricks and fuel are placed in alternate layers. The
amount of fuel is reduced successively in the top layers. Each brick tier consists of 4-5 layers of bricks. Some
space is left between bricks for free circulation of hot gasses. After 30 per cent loading of the clamp, the fuel in the lowest
layer is fired and the remaining loading of bricks and fuel is carried out hurriedly. The top and sides of the clamp are
plastered with mud. Then a coat of cowdung is given, which prevents the escape of heat. The production of bricks is 2-3
lacs and the process is completed in six months. This process yields about 60 per cent first class bricks.
39.
40. Intermittent Kiln The example of this type of an over ground, rectangular kiln is shown in Fig. After loading the kiln, it is
fired, cooled and unloaded and then the next loading is done. Since the walls and sides get cooled during reloading and
are to be heated again during next firing, there is wastage of fuel.
If the process of burning bricks is discontinuous, the kiln is known as intermittent kiln
41. Continuous Kiln : Hoffman's kiln and Bull's trench kiln . In a continuous kiln, bricks are stacked in various chambers wherein
the bricks undergo different treatments at the same time. When the bricks in one of the chambers is fired, the bricks in the
next set of chambers are dried and preheated while bricks in the other set of chambers are loaded and in the last are
cooled.
The kiln used for burning bricks may be underground, e.g. Bull’s trench kiln or overground, e.g. Hoffman's kiln. These
may be rectangular, circular or oval in shape. When the process of burning bricks is continuous, the kiln is known as
continuous kiln, e.g. Bull's trench and Hoffman's kilns.
Hoffman's Continuous Kiln
47. Drying:
• The damp bricks, if burnt, are likely to be cracked and distorted. Hence moulded bricks are dried
• Bricks are laid along and across the stock in alternate layers.
• 5-7 % moisture content
• Mostly natural or artificial drying
Burning: to impart hardness, strength and makes them dense and durable.
• Burning --- clamps or in kilns.
• Clamps are temporary structures and to manufacture bricks on small scale.
• Kilns are permanent structures and they are adopted to manufacture bricks on a large scale.
Clamp
• Temporary structures
• Stacked in layers with gaps for firewood
• 6-8 weeks
• Strong tough bricks
• Quality not uniform
• No skilled labour
Kilns
• Masonry structures ----permanent
• Continuous
• Uniform quality
• Need skilled labour
48. Qualities of Good Brick
• bright homogeneous and compact structure free from voids should not absorb water more than 20 percent by
weight for first class bricks
• 22 percent by weight for second class bricks when soaked in coldwater for a period of 24 hours
• Bricks should be uniform in color, size and shape.
• They should be sound, hard, well burnt and compact.
• They should be free from cracks and other flaws such as air bubbles, stone nodules, holes, grit of lime etc.
• The compressive strength of bricks should be in the range of 5000 to 8000 psi.
• The percentage of soluble salts (sulphates of calcium, magnesium, sodium and potassium) should not exceed 2.5% in
burnt bricks, because the presence of excess soluble salt causes efflorescence.
• They should be neither over burnt nor under burnt.
• Their weight should be generally 6 lbs per brick and the weight per cu ft should not be less than 125 lbs.
• They should have low thermal conductivity as it is desirable that the buildings built of them should be cool in
summer and warm in winter.
• They should be non-inflammable and incombustible.
• Bricks should not change in volume when wetted.
49. Field tests of bricks: To determine the quality of good bricks:
• Take a brick and try to make mark on the surface by nail. If you can make it, it is not a good brick. If not, it is very
hard and compact.
• Take a brick and strike it with a hammer, if it gives clear ringing or metallic sound, it is a good brick.
• Take two bricks and form a tee (T) and drop from a height of 6ft on a more or less solid surface. If they break, they
are not good bricks. If they remain unbroken, they are good bricks
Size of Bricks:
According to P.W.D specification the standard size of bricks in our country is 9.0” X 4.5” X 3”. This size is most
economical.
50. Tests on bricks
A brick is generally subjected to following tests to find out its suitability of the construction work.
• Compressive strength
• Absorption
• Hardness
• Presence soluble salts
• Shape and size
• Soundness
• Structure
A good should not absorb not more than 20 percent of weight of dry brick
Absorption
Oven dried for 270 C for 24 hrs
A good should not absorb not more than 20 percent of weight of dry brick
%water absorption = ((w2-w1)/w1) X 100
Hardness
Scratch with finger nail -- No impression is left on the surface the brick is treated to be sufficiently hard
51. Presence of soluble salts (efflorescence)
The bricks should not show any grey or white deposits after immersed in water for 24 hours (HW)
Shape and size
It should be standard size and shape with sharp edges
Soundness
The brick should give clear ringing sound struck each other
Structure
The structure should be homogeneous, compact and free from any defects
52.
53. A pugmill or pug mill is a machine in which clay or other materials are mixed into a plastic state. Industrial
applications are found in pottery, bricks, cement and some parts of the concrete and asphalt mixing processes.
A pugmill may be a fast continuous mixer
54.
55. Drawings of the intermittent and continuous ovens. The arrows indicate the flow of brick loads and gas flow.
(a) Open kiln without fixed walls (rectangular), (b) open kiln with fixed walls, (c) open kiln without fixed walls
(cylindrical), (d) down-draught, (e) MK, (f) dome, (g) Hoffman, (h) Bull's Trench, (i) Cedan, (j) multi-chambers,
(k) zigzag, (l) mobile-modular, (m) vertical shaft and (n) tunnel.