This document describes the properties of bricks, including their physical, mechanical, and thermal characteristics. It discusses the shape, size, color, density, compressive strength, insulation properties, durability, and frost resistance of standard bricks. It also outlines various tests conducted on bricks, such as those measuring compressive strength and water absorption. Additionally, it defines the qualities of good bricks and provides a classification system for bricks based on their characteristics and intended uses. Special types of bricks are also outlined, including those with modified shapes, perforations, and alternative compositions like sand lime bricks and refractory fire bricks.
This document defines bricks and their constituents and manufacturing process. It provides the following key details:
- Bricks are clay constructions of uniform size and shape, traditionally 23cm x 11.4cm x 7.6cm or modular 19cm x 9cm x 9cm.
- Good bricks contain 50-60% silica, 20-30% alumina, up to 5% lime, and 5-6% iron oxide.
- Bricks are manufactured through processes of preparation, molding, drying for 7-14 days, and burning at 750-1000°C using clamp or kiln methods.
- Various bonds including English, Flemish, stretcher and header are used in brickwork construction
This document provides information on the manufacturing process of tiles. It discusses the four main stages: preparation of clay, moulding, drying, and burning.
For the preparation of clay, suitable clay is extracted, crushed, and mixed into a homogeneous mixture using a pug mill. There are three main moulding methods: wooden pattern, potter's wheel, and machine moulding. Tiles are then dried under a shed to protect from weather.
Burning is the final and most important stage. Tiles are stacked in kilns and fired at increasing temperatures over 72 hours to vitrify the tiles. Proper temperature control is crucial. The document also discusses various tile types like floor, roof
The document discusses different types of mortar used in construction. It defines mortar as a mixture of a binding material, fine aggregate, and water. Common binding materials include cement and lime. Mortars are classified by their binding material, such as cement mortar, lime mortar, and mud mortar. Specialty mortars include fire resistant mortar, lightweight mortar, and chemical resistant mortar which are formulated for specific applications. The document outlines the proper mixing and application of different mortars.
Brick masonry involves laying bricks together using mortar. Bricks are laid in various bond patterns with headers and stretchers. English bond and Flemish bond are common, strong bonds. Brick masonry walls are durable and fire resistant due to the thermal mass of bricks. Proper bonding, jointing, and avoiding continuous vertical joints are important for strength. Bricks are classified based on quality and used for different purposes depending on loads and importance of structure.
This document discusses the process of manufacturing bricks. It begins by describing the composition of bricks, noting that good bricks should contain 20-30% alumina, 50-60% silica, and small amounts of lime, iron oxide, and magnesia. The document then outlines the key steps in brick manufacturing: preparation of clay, moulding, drying, and burning. For moulding, it describes hand and machine methods, and for burning it explains the three stages of dehydration, oxidation, and vitrification. The document provides details on each stage of the manufacturing process.
High density concrete, high strength concrete and high performance concrete.shebina a
The document discusses high density concrete, its components, types of aggregates used, admixtures, applications, advantages and disadvantages. High density concrete has a density over 2600 kg/m3 and offers greater strength than regular concrete. Its main components are cement, water, aggregates and admixtures. Natural aggregates come from iron ores while man-made aggregates include iron shots, chilcon and synthetic aggregates. Admixtures like water reducers are used to increase workability and reduce cement and water requirements. High density concrete has applications in radiation shielding, precast blocks, bridges and more due to its high strength and durability.
Concrete is a composite material made by binding aggregates with a cement paste. It comes in various types depending on the binding material (cement or lime) and purpose (plain, reinforced, pre-stressed). Good concrete has strength, durability, density, water tightness, workability and resistance to wear and tear. Proper mixing, placing, compaction and curing are required to develop these qualities in concrete.
This document defines bricks and their constituents and manufacturing process. It provides the following key details:
- Bricks are clay constructions of uniform size and shape, traditionally 23cm x 11.4cm x 7.6cm or modular 19cm x 9cm x 9cm.
- Good bricks contain 50-60% silica, 20-30% alumina, up to 5% lime, and 5-6% iron oxide.
- Bricks are manufactured through processes of preparation, molding, drying for 7-14 days, and burning at 750-1000°C using clamp or kiln methods.
- Various bonds including English, Flemish, stretcher and header are used in brickwork construction
This document provides information on the manufacturing process of tiles. It discusses the four main stages: preparation of clay, moulding, drying, and burning.
For the preparation of clay, suitable clay is extracted, crushed, and mixed into a homogeneous mixture using a pug mill. There are three main moulding methods: wooden pattern, potter's wheel, and machine moulding. Tiles are then dried under a shed to protect from weather.
Burning is the final and most important stage. Tiles are stacked in kilns and fired at increasing temperatures over 72 hours to vitrify the tiles. Proper temperature control is crucial. The document also discusses various tile types like floor, roof
The document discusses different types of mortar used in construction. It defines mortar as a mixture of a binding material, fine aggregate, and water. Common binding materials include cement and lime. Mortars are classified by their binding material, such as cement mortar, lime mortar, and mud mortar. Specialty mortars include fire resistant mortar, lightweight mortar, and chemical resistant mortar which are formulated for specific applications. The document outlines the proper mixing and application of different mortars.
Brick masonry involves laying bricks together using mortar. Bricks are laid in various bond patterns with headers and stretchers. English bond and Flemish bond are common, strong bonds. Brick masonry walls are durable and fire resistant due to the thermal mass of bricks. Proper bonding, jointing, and avoiding continuous vertical joints are important for strength. Bricks are classified based on quality and used for different purposes depending on loads and importance of structure.
This document discusses the process of manufacturing bricks. It begins by describing the composition of bricks, noting that good bricks should contain 20-30% alumina, 50-60% silica, and small amounts of lime, iron oxide, and magnesia. The document then outlines the key steps in brick manufacturing: preparation of clay, moulding, drying, and burning. For moulding, it describes hand and machine methods, and for burning it explains the three stages of dehydration, oxidation, and vitrification. The document provides details on each stage of the manufacturing process.
High density concrete, high strength concrete and high performance concrete.shebina a
The document discusses high density concrete, its components, types of aggregates used, admixtures, applications, advantages and disadvantages. High density concrete has a density over 2600 kg/m3 and offers greater strength than regular concrete. Its main components are cement, water, aggregates and admixtures. Natural aggregates come from iron ores while man-made aggregates include iron shots, chilcon and synthetic aggregates. Admixtures like water reducers are used to increase workability and reduce cement and water requirements. High density concrete has applications in radiation shielding, precast blocks, bridges and more due to its high strength and durability.
Concrete is a composite material made by binding aggregates with a cement paste. It comes in various types depending on the binding material (cement or lime) and purpose (plain, reinforced, pre-stressed). Good concrete has strength, durability, density, water tightness, workability and resistance to wear and tear. Proper mixing, placing, compaction and curing are required to develop these qualities in concrete.
Sand is a naturally occurring granular material composed of finely divided rock and mineral particles.
the most common constituent of sand is silica (silicon dioxide, or SiO2), usually in the form of quartz.
Chapter 10 wall finishes ( plastering,pointing & painting)KHUSHBU SHAH
This document discusses various aspects of wall finishes, specifically plastering, pointing, and painting. It begins by defining plastering as a process of obtaining a smooth surface on rough walls, roofs, columns, and ceilings. It then discusses the different types of mortars used for plastering, including lime, cement, and lime cement mortars. The document also covers methods of plastering such as multi-coat plastering and describes common plaster finishes. It concludes by discussing pointing in masonry construction and various pointing techniques.
Stones have been used in construction for thousands of years in buildings all over the world. They are classified geologically based on their mode of formation as igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic rocks. Igneous rocks form from cooling magma, sedimentary rocks form from compressed sediments, and metamorphic rocks form from changes to existing rocks. Stones are also classified chemically based on their dominant composition of silica, calcareous, or argillaceous minerals. Structurally, stones can occur as massive unstratified rocks, stratified layered rocks, or foliated banded rocks. Many historical structures were constructed of stone and it remains an important building material.
All you need to know about timber in just a single ppt with interesting slides. Hope it hlps! This ppt was created as the result of a teamwork with my classmates
Concrete
The word concrete comes from the Latin word "concretus". Which means compact.Now a days concrete is most common and necessary things in our life.
The history of cementing materials together goes back to the time when prehistoric man prepare his cave to build shelter.
He used mud and clay to fill the gap between stone. To keep out the wind and cold.
Later the Assyrians and Babylonians used clay as their bonding substance and straw to make a shape.
The Egyptians used lime and gypsum and crushed stone to create a material that would harden even better.
This document discusses causes, effects, and methods of preventing dampness in buildings. It outlines several precautions that should be taken such as proper site drainage and wall thickness. Common causes of dampness include rising moisture, rain penetration, and poor drainage. Effects include breeding mosquitoes and damage to building materials. Methods of damp proofing discussed are damp proof courses, waterproof surface treatments, integral treatments during construction, cavity walls, and cement grouting of cracks. Specific materials used for damp proof courses like bitumen and mastic asphalt are also outlined.
The document discusses reinforced cement concrete (RCC), including its history, materials, specifications, and advantages/disadvantages. RCC uses steel reinforcement embedded in concrete to resist tensile, shear, and sometimes compressive stresses. François Coignet is considered a pioneer of RCC, building the first reinforced concrete structure in 1853. Proper proportions and mixing of cement, aggregates like sand and gravel, and water are needed to produce durable concrete. Precast concrete involves casting pieces off-site then transporting them for assembly.
This document provides an overview of concrete, including its composition, properties, production process, and testing. Some key points:
- Concrete is a composite material made of cement, fine and coarse aggregates, and water. It can be classified based on its cementing material, mix proportions, performance specifications, grade, density, and place of casting.
- The production of concrete involves batching, mixing, transporting, placing, compacting, curing, and finishing. Proper batching and mixing are important to ensure uniform strength. Compaction removes entrapped air for maximum strength. Curing maintains moisture for proper hardening.
- Concrete properties depend on water-cement ratio, with maximum theoretical
This document discusses properties of concrete and compaction methods. It covers the importance of compacting concrete to remove air voids and increase strength. Methods of compaction include manual techniques like rodding and tamping as well as mechanical vibration using internal and external vibrators. Improper vibration can lead to defects like honeycombing or segregation. Newer techniques like self-compacting concrete use superplasticizers to reduce the need for external vibration during pouring and placement.
This document presents a summary of different types of bricks. It defines bricks and discusses their sizes, including modular and traditional bricks. It then describes several categories of bricks including building bricks (e.g. clay, sand lime, engineering), paving bricks, fire bricks, and special bricks. Building bricks are used for wall construction, paving bricks are used as pavers, and special bricks are used for uncommon designs. Bricks can also be classified based on their manufacturing quality. The document was created by students at Shree Santkrupa College of Engineering & Technology and discusses bricks to educate about their various types.
1. Plastering is done for protection, smooth surfaces, decoration, and to conceal defects. Requirements include adhesion, affordability, hardness, and workability.
2. Common plaster types include sand faced, rough cast, pebbled dash, and smooth cast.
3. Defects can include blistering, cracking, efflorescence, flaking, peeling, and popping. Cracking is caused by structural issues or drying movements.
STONE -As A Building Material.
Stones have been considered as one of the popular building material from the olden days due to their availability in abundance from the natural rocks. Building stones should possess enough strength and durability.
The stones which are suitable for the construction of the structures such as retaining walls, abutments, dams, barrages, roads etc are known as building stones.
This document provides information on bricks as a building material. It discusses the history of bricks, which date back 7,000 years, and describes how they have evolved from being hand-molded mud bricks to modern mechanized clay bricks. It also outlines various types of modern bricks including clay, concrete, fly ash, and aerated concrete bricks. Additionally, it covers raw materials, sizes, orientations, properties, uses, advantages and disadvantages of brick as a construction material. Finally, the document classifies bricks based on their manufacturing method, shape, and quality.
Prestressed concrete is concrete that is placed under compression using tensioned steel strands, cables, or bars. This is done through either pre-tensioning or post-tensioning. In pre-tensioning, the steel components are tensioned before the concrete is poured, while in post-tensioning, the steel components are tensioned after the concrete has hardened. Prestressed concrete provides benefits over reinforced concrete like lower construction costs, thinner structural elements, and longer spans between supports.
Introduction;
Reinforced brick masonry (RBM) consists of brick masonry which incorporates steel reinforcement embedded in mortar.
This masonry has greatly increased resistance to forces that produce tensile and shear stresses.
The reinforcement provides additional tensile strength, allowing better use of brick masonry's inherent compressive strength.
The two materials complement each other, resulting in an excellent structural material.
HISTORY;
Brick masonry is one of the oldest forms of building construction, and reinforcement has been used to strengthen masonry since 1813.
...
Sand is a naturally occurring granular material composed of finely divided rock and mineral particles, with silica being the most common constituent. There are different types of sand sourced from pits, rivers, seas and dredging, with each having distinct properties that make them suitable for different construction applications like plastering, masonry or concreting. Proper testing and grading of sand ensures it meets the necessary quality standards for use in various building works.
This document provides information on common types of construction materials used for flooring in India. It discusses clay tiles, ceramic tiles, vitrified tiles, mosaic floors, marble floors, granite floors, concrete floors and various natural stone floors. For each type, it describes what they are made of, their properties, advantages, disadvantages and common applications. It also provides details on the manufacturing process for tiles, pavers blocks and laying different types of flooring.
S.M.A.R.T. policing explores shifting traditional police systems to a model focused on being strict and sensitive, modern and mobile, alert and accountable, reliable and responsive, and tech-savvy and trained. Smart cities face security risks from physical, economic, cultural and emotional attacks on infrastructure and data. Risks include privacy violations, catastrophic failures, and impacts from locational data access. S.M.A.R.T. policing aims to address these challenges through sensitivity, partnership with society, public broadband networks, mobile technology, and coordination between departments.
This document discusses various environmental issues related to pollution and climate change, including the greenhouse effect, acid rain, ozone layer depletion, urban heat islands, and light pollution. It provides details on the causes and effects of each issue and potential methods for control and mitigation. The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases like CO2 trapping heat in the lower atmosphere. Acid rain forms from SO2 and NOx emissions and damages forests and aquatic ecosystems. Ozone layer depletion is mainly due to CFC emissions allowing more UV rays to reach the surface. Urban heat islands occur where cities are warmer than surrounding rural areas due to factors like lack of vegetation and heat-absorbing surfaces. Light pollution disrupts ecosystems, observatories
Sand is a naturally occurring granular material composed of finely divided rock and mineral particles.
the most common constituent of sand is silica (silicon dioxide, or SiO2), usually in the form of quartz.
Chapter 10 wall finishes ( plastering,pointing & painting)KHUSHBU SHAH
This document discusses various aspects of wall finishes, specifically plastering, pointing, and painting. It begins by defining plastering as a process of obtaining a smooth surface on rough walls, roofs, columns, and ceilings. It then discusses the different types of mortars used for plastering, including lime, cement, and lime cement mortars. The document also covers methods of plastering such as multi-coat plastering and describes common plaster finishes. It concludes by discussing pointing in masonry construction and various pointing techniques.
Stones have been used in construction for thousands of years in buildings all over the world. They are classified geologically based on their mode of formation as igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic rocks. Igneous rocks form from cooling magma, sedimentary rocks form from compressed sediments, and metamorphic rocks form from changes to existing rocks. Stones are also classified chemically based on their dominant composition of silica, calcareous, or argillaceous minerals. Structurally, stones can occur as massive unstratified rocks, stratified layered rocks, or foliated banded rocks. Many historical structures were constructed of stone and it remains an important building material.
All you need to know about timber in just a single ppt with interesting slides. Hope it hlps! This ppt was created as the result of a teamwork with my classmates
Concrete
The word concrete comes from the Latin word "concretus". Which means compact.Now a days concrete is most common and necessary things in our life.
The history of cementing materials together goes back to the time when prehistoric man prepare his cave to build shelter.
He used mud and clay to fill the gap between stone. To keep out the wind and cold.
Later the Assyrians and Babylonians used clay as their bonding substance and straw to make a shape.
The Egyptians used lime and gypsum and crushed stone to create a material that would harden even better.
This document discusses causes, effects, and methods of preventing dampness in buildings. It outlines several precautions that should be taken such as proper site drainage and wall thickness. Common causes of dampness include rising moisture, rain penetration, and poor drainage. Effects include breeding mosquitoes and damage to building materials. Methods of damp proofing discussed are damp proof courses, waterproof surface treatments, integral treatments during construction, cavity walls, and cement grouting of cracks. Specific materials used for damp proof courses like bitumen and mastic asphalt are also outlined.
The document discusses reinforced cement concrete (RCC), including its history, materials, specifications, and advantages/disadvantages. RCC uses steel reinforcement embedded in concrete to resist tensile, shear, and sometimes compressive stresses. François Coignet is considered a pioneer of RCC, building the first reinforced concrete structure in 1853. Proper proportions and mixing of cement, aggregates like sand and gravel, and water are needed to produce durable concrete. Precast concrete involves casting pieces off-site then transporting them for assembly.
This document provides an overview of concrete, including its composition, properties, production process, and testing. Some key points:
- Concrete is a composite material made of cement, fine and coarse aggregates, and water. It can be classified based on its cementing material, mix proportions, performance specifications, grade, density, and place of casting.
- The production of concrete involves batching, mixing, transporting, placing, compacting, curing, and finishing. Proper batching and mixing are important to ensure uniform strength. Compaction removes entrapped air for maximum strength. Curing maintains moisture for proper hardening.
- Concrete properties depend on water-cement ratio, with maximum theoretical
This document discusses properties of concrete and compaction methods. It covers the importance of compacting concrete to remove air voids and increase strength. Methods of compaction include manual techniques like rodding and tamping as well as mechanical vibration using internal and external vibrators. Improper vibration can lead to defects like honeycombing or segregation. Newer techniques like self-compacting concrete use superplasticizers to reduce the need for external vibration during pouring and placement.
This document presents a summary of different types of bricks. It defines bricks and discusses their sizes, including modular and traditional bricks. It then describes several categories of bricks including building bricks (e.g. clay, sand lime, engineering), paving bricks, fire bricks, and special bricks. Building bricks are used for wall construction, paving bricks are used as pavers, and special bricks are used for uncommon designs. Bricks can also be classified based on their manufacturing quality. The document was created by students at Shree Santkrupa College of Engineering & Technology and discusses bricks to educate about their various types.
1. Plastering is done for protection, smooth surfaces, decoration, and to conceal defects. Requirements include adhesion, affordability, hardness, and workability.
2. Common plaster types include sand faced, rough cast, pebbled dash, and smooth cast.
3. Defects can include blistering, cracking, efflorescence, flaking, peeling, and popping. Cracking is caused by structural issues or drying movements.
STONE -As A Building Material.
Stones have been considered as one of the popular building material from the olden days due to their availability in abundance from the natural rocks. Building stones should possess enough strength and durability.
The stones which are suitable for the construction of the structures such as retaining walls, abutments, dams, barrages, roads etc are known as building stones.
This document provides information on bricks as a building material. It discusses the history of bricks, which date back 7,000 years, and describes how they have evolved from being hand-molded mud bricks to modern mechanized clay bricks. It also outlines various types of modern bricks including clay, concrete, fly ash, and aerated concrete bricks. Additionally, it covers raw materials, sizes, orientations, properties, uses, advantages and disadvantages of brick as a construction material. Finally, the document classifies bricks based on their manufacturing method, shape, and quality.
Prestressed concrete is concrete that is placed under compression using tensioned steel strands, cables, or bars. This is done through either pre-tensioning or post-tensioning. In pre-tensioning, the steel components are tensioned before the concrete is poured, while in post-tensioning, the steel components are tensioned after the concrete has hardened. Prestressed concrete provides benefits over reinforced concrete like lower construction costs, thinner structural elements, and longer spans between supports.
Introduction;
Reinforced brick masonry (RBM) consists of brick masonry which incorporates steel reinforcement embedded in mortar.
This masonry has greatly increased resistance to forces that produce tensile and shear stresses.
The reinforcement provides additional tensile strength, allowing better use of brick masonry's inherent compressive strength.
The two materials complement each other, resulting in an excellent structural material.
HISTORY;
Brick masonry is one of the oldest forms of building construction, and reinforcement has been used to strengthen masonry since 1813.
...
Sand is a naturally occurring granular material composed of finely divided rock and mineral particles, with silica being the most common constituent. There are different types of sand sourced from pits, rivers, seas and dredging, with each having distinct properties that make them suitable for different construction applications like plastering, masonry or concreting. Proper testing and grading of sand ensures it meets the necessary quality standards for use in various building works.
This document provides information on common types of construction materials used for flooring in India. It discusses clay tiles, ceramic tiles, vitrified tiles, mosaic floors, marble floors, granite floors, concrete floors and various natural stone floors. For each type, it describes what they are made of, their properties, advantages, disadvantages and common applications. It also provides details on the manufacturing process for tiles, pavers blocks and laying different types of flooring.
S.M.A.R.T. policing explores shifting traditional police systems to a model focused on being strict and sensitive, modern and mobile, alert and accountable, reliable and responsive, and tech-savvy and trained. Smart cities face security risks from physical, economic, cultural and emotional attacks on infrastructure and data. Risks include privacy violations, catastrophic failures, and impacts from locational data access. S.M.A.R.T. policing aims to address these challenges through sensitivity, partnership with society, public broadband networks, mobile technology, and coordination between departments.
This document discusses various environmental issues related to pollution and climate change, including the greenhouse effect, acid rain, ozone layer depletion, urban heat islands, and light pollution. It provides details on the causes and effects of each issue and potential methods for control and mitigation. The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases like CO2 trapping heat in the lower atmosphere. Acid rain forms from SO2 and NOx emissions and damages forests and aquatic ecosystems. Ozone layer depletion is mainly due to CFC emissions allowing more UV rays to reach the surface. Urban heat islands occur where cities are warmer than surrounding rural areas due to factors like lack of vegetation and heat-absorbing surfaces. Light pollution disrupts ecosystems, observatories
The document discusses the economic reforms in India and their implications. It provides background on the economic reforms initiated in 1985 which aimed to assign a greater role to the private sector. The industrial policy statement of 1991 further liberalized the economy by abolishing licensing and opening all sectors to competition. While some states like Gujarat and Maharashtra benefited greatly, growing over 8% annually, other states like Bihar and UP saw slower growth. This led to rising inequality among Indian states in the post-reform period, with implications for balanced regional development and poverty reduction. The divergent state growth patterns require addressing state-specific deficiencies to mitigate regional differences going forward.
This document provides an overview of basic economic concepts and the scope of economics. It discusses how economics is the study of how societies use scarce resources to satisfy unlimited wants. It provides examples of how increasing automobile usage has led to higher oil consumption but oil reserves are limited. Society must choose how to allocate these limited resources. The document also discusses different definitions of economics, including wealth, welfare, scarcity, and growth-oriented definitions. It outlines the differences between microeconomics, which studies individual economic units, and macroeconomics, which studies the overall economy. Finally, it discusses whether economics should be considered a science and provides arguments for why it can be viewed as a social science.
The document discusses various aggressive environments that can affect concrete structures, including:
- Alkali-aggregate reaction, where certain aggregates react with alkalis in cement and cause expansion cracking. Factors like aggregate type, cement alkali content, temperature and moisture play a role.
- Sulphate attack, where sulphates react with cement compounds and form gypsum and other products, increasing volume and causing disruption. Magnesium sulphate is particularly damaging.
- Chloride attack, where chlorides can penetrate concrete and lead to corrosion of embedded steel reinforcement by disrupting the protective oxide layer.
- Acid attack, where acids below a pH of around 6.5 can dissolve cement
Inflation is defined as a sustained increase in the overall price level in an economy. There are several views on the causes of inflation. Monetarists believe inflation is always a monetary phenomenon caused by an increase in the money supply. Keynes argued inflation occurs when aggregate demand exceeds aggregate supply after full employment is reached. Common causes of inflation include demand-pull (excess demand) and cost-push (rising production costs). Inflation can take different forms such as creeping inflation (slow price increases) or hyperinflation (rapid price increases). While moderate inflation may stimulate investment and growth, high inflation negatively impacts those on fixed incomes and makes planning difficult.
Traffic engineering deals with measuring and analyzing traffic to achieve safe and efficient movement of people and goods. Key aspects include conducting traffic studies to understand volume, speed, origin-destination, and accidents. The arrangements made to control traffic flow and avoid accidents include road signs, markings, signals, and traffic islands. Signs are used to warn, direct, and guide users through regulatory, warning, and informational signs. Markings are lines and symbols applied to roadways to warn, inform and guide users. Together signs and markings help control traffic and ensure safety.
Macroeconomics studies the overall economy and aggregates like total output, income, employment and prices. It examines how the whole economy behaves, including why economic activity rises and falls. Macroeconomists analyze indicators like GDP, unemployment, inflation, interest rates, stock markets and exchange rates. GDP measures the total value of final goods and services produced domestically in a year. Other key concepts include consumption, investment, and the relationship between gross domestic product, gross national product, net domestic product and national income.
National income is defined as the total value of final goods and services produced in a country in a year. It is measured in monetary terms as it is not possible to add different goods measured in physical units. GDP, GNP, NNP, NDP are the key concepts used to measure national income using methods like product, income and expenditure. National income accounts help analyze economic growth, productivity and guide policymaking. Issues in estimating national income include exclusion of non-monetized and informal sectors in developing countries.
Traffic engineering deals with applying scientific principles and techniques to facilitate the safe, efficient movement of people and goods. It aims to achieve free flow of traffic with minimal accidents. Key aspects studied include traffic characteristics, volumes, speeds, origins/destinations, flow, capacity, parking, and accidents. Data is collected through surveys and analysis informs planning, design, operation, and management of road infrastructure.
This document discusses the importance of recreational facilities for public health and well-being. It notes that parks, playgrounds, and other recreational areas are lacking in many towns. Without wholesome recreation options, children are at risk of delinquency. The document then outlines various considerations for establishing an effective public recreation system, including location, types of facilities, and classification of parks. It describes different park systems like belt, wedge, and combination systems as well as features like boulevards and parkways.
Glass is an amorphous solid formed by rapidly cooling molten materials containing silica. The most common type of glass, soda lime glass, is made from silica, sodium oxide and calcium oxide. Glass is manufactured by melting raw materials in furnaces then shaping the molten glass through various processes like pressing, blowing or drawing. Glass has high strength and hardness but is brittle, with properties that can be altered by adding materials like lead, boron or fiberglass. It has various industrial and architectural uses due to its strength, durability and optical properties.
The document discusses various elements of building construction including:
- Common building components like foundations, walls, columns, beams, floors, roofs, doors, windows and other elements.
- Types of foundations including shallow and deep foundations.
- Classification of buildings based on occupancy and structure.
- Loads considered in building design such as dead, live, wind, snow, and earthquake loads.
- Principles of building planning including aspect, privacy, grouping, and flexibility.
This document discusses methods for disposing of treated sewage effluents. It describes natural methods like dilution disposal into water bodies, and disposal on land. It also describes artificial treatment methods before disposal. Key points covered include standards for dilution disposal, factors favoring dilution disposal, types of receiving waters, and the processes involved in the self-purification of natural streams.
The document provides an overview of concrete technology, including its history, composition, strength mechanism, current practices, and future trends. It discusses how the ancient Egyptians and Romans used early forms of concrete and mortar in construction. The modern development of cement began with John Smeaton in the 18th century and Joseph Aspdin's invention of Portland cement in the 19th century. The document also describes the typical ingredients of concrete - cement, aggregate, sand, water and admixtures - and how hydration of cement provides the binding strength. Current and emerging concrete types like self-compacting concrete, high performance concrete, fly ash concrete and biological/self-healing concrete are summarized.
This document discusses clay products used in building construction. It describes how clay is formed and composed of minerals like kaolinite. Clay is classified based on its formation (residual or transported) and characteristics (china clay, fire clay, vitrified clay, brick clay). Brick clay is most commonly used to manufacture building bricks. The process of brick making involves selecting suitable clay, preparing and molding the clay into bricks, drying the bricks, firing them in kilns, and cooling the finished bricks. The ideal composition of brick clay includes 20-30% alumina, 50-60% silica, and 4-6% iron oxide and lime to provide strength and bind the bricks during firing.
This document discusses the functions of commercial banks. It begins by defining a bank as a financial intermediary that takes deposits from savers and lends those funds to borrowers. It then describes the key functions of commercial banks, which include accepting deposits, lending loans, facilitating payments through checks, transferring funds, and providing various agency services. Commercial banks also engage in credit creation by lending out more money than they hold in deposits. The document outlines other services commercial banks provide and principles of sound banking, including maintaining adequate liquidity and expanding access. It concludes by explaining the role and functions of central banks, such as issuing currency, advising governments, overseeing commercial banks, and facilitating interbank clearing.
This document defines money and discusses its key functions. It notes that money acts as a medium of exchange, unit of account, standard of deferred payment, store of value, and means of transferring value. The document outlines different forms of money including cash money created by central banks and credit money created by commercial banks through loans. It also discusses quantity theories of money, how money supply is measured, and references for further reading on macroeconomic topics related to money.
This document discusses concepts related to corporate environmental management strategies. It covers topics like strategic environmental management, sustainable industrial development, the triple bottom line concept, cleaner technologies, life cycle analysis, and green marketing. For sustainable industrial development, it emphasizes the importance of factors like population stabilization, integrated land use planning, and use of non-polluting renewable energies. The triple bottom line concept involves considering social, environmental and economic factors. Life cycle analysis assesses environmental impacts across a product's entire lifecycle. Green marketing involves marketing environmentally-friendly products and emphasizing environmental aspects in promotion.
Physical Unit Operations Screening
- Screening is the first unit operation in wastewater treatment used to retain coarse solids and debris. It protects downstream equipment from clogging.
- Screens can be manually or mechanically cleaned and come in various designs like bar racks. Proper design considers factors like bar size, spacing, slope, and allowable head loss.
- A design example is provided to calculate the area, velocity, and head loss of a bar rack screen for a peak flow of 50 MLD. Head loss is estimated to be 1.7 cm when clean and 15.7 cm when half clogged. Frequent cleaning is needed to reduce head losses.
The document discusses the process of making bricks which involves moulding, drying, and burning. Bricks are moulded by hand or machine into standard sizes prescribed by the Bureau of Indian Standards. They are then dried before being burnt in kilns at high temperatures between 700-1000°C, which causes physical and chemical changes that make the bricks strong and resistant to cracking. Good quality bricks are uniformly shaped, well-burnt, and produce a clear ringing sound when struck. They also absorb less than 20% water and have sufficient hardness and crushing strength. Bricks are classified based on their burning process as sun-dried, burnt, and overburnt.
A brick is building material used to make walls, pavements and other elements in masonry construction. Traditionally, the term brick referred to a unit composed of clay, but it is now used to denote rectangular units made of clay-bearing soil, sand, and lime, or concrete materials. Bricks can be joined together using mortar, adhesives or by interlocking them.[1][2] Bricks are produced in numerous classes, types, materials, and sizes which vary with region and time period, and are produced in bulk quantities. Two basic categories of bricks are fired and non-fired bricks.
In this slide there is a brief discussion about Types , Making & examples of bricks & also plastering
Clay product By Nausad Ansari for studentsNausadAnsari4
Clay products like bricks are made from clay through processes of molding, drying, and firing. Bricks are commonly used construction materials due to their uniform size and shape which allows for efficient arrangements in buildings. To make bricks, clay is molded into rectangular blocks and then dried and fired at high temperatures to become hard and durable. Firing causes chemical reactions that form new crystalline compounds and results in strong, compact bricks suitable for use in construction.
A small hard block of backed clay that is used to build structure
such as houses and sometimes to make streets ,paths ,etc
Another definition
Molded rectangular block of clay backed by sun or in a kiln until hard and use as a buildings and paving material.
types of Bricks details and manufacture.pptxalpnarohatgi1
There are several types of bricks:
- Wire cut bricks are made by slicing clay into brick-sized pieces using wires.
- Hand moulded bricks involve shaping prepared brick earth by hand.
- Bricks are classified into four classes based on properties like strength and water absorption. First class bricks are of the highest quality while fourth class are overburnt and brittle.
- Common types include modular bricks which have nominal dimensions that are multiples of tens, and non-modular bricks which have specified but not nominal dimensions.
Bricks are one of the oldest and most widely used construction materials. They are durable, lightweight, fire resistant, and cheaper than stones to use for building. A good quality brick is made from a mixture of clay and sand that is molded, dried, and fired at a high temperature. This makes the brick hard and long-lasting. Bricks are commonly used to construct walls, bridges, floors, and other structural elements in buildings. They have advantages over other materials like stones in being easier to work with and transport. Proper analysis and processing of the clay mixture is important to produce high quality bricks with good compressive strength, low water absorption, and resistance to cracking.
Artificial Construction Materials- A beginners presentationPrashant P
Artificial Construction Materials- Materials including commonly used ones as well as new in the industry. Basic Presentation for beginners in the civil engineering field. I had prepared this in the first year of my diploma course.
This document provides an overview of various construction materials used in civil engineering projects. It begins by discussing naturally available materials like stone, brick, lime, and timber. It then covers industrial materials like cement and metals. For each material, the document outlines the composition, requirements, types, properties and common uses. Stone is described in more detail, covering the different types of stone and their uses in hydraulic structures, retaining walls, and more. The document also provides a detailed breakdown of the production of bricks and their various classifications, as well as the properties and uses of lime, cement, and timber. It discusses the seasoning process for timber to reduce moisture content.
This document discusses building construction materials, specifically bricks. It covers the constituents needed for good brick earth, the manufacturing process of bricks which involves preparation of clay, moulding, drying, and burning. It describes hand moulding and machine moulding methods. Bricks can be burnt using clamp burning or kiln burning. Finally, it classifies burnt bricks into four categories based on their manufacturing and preparation: first class, second class, third class, and fourth class bricks.
properties,Manufacturing, types and features of bricksZeeshan Afzal
Bricks
Definition of bricks
properties of bricks
types of bricks
features of bricks
How bricks are made
Preparation of brick earth
Moulding of bricks
Drying of bricks
Burning of bricks
PREPARATION OF BRICK EARTH
Removal of loose soil:
About 30 cm depth contains a lot of impurities
like organic matter and hence
it should be taken out and thrown away.
Digging, spreading and cleaning:
The earth is then dug out from the ground.
This earth is spread into heaps
about 50 to 150 cm height.
Weathering:
The earth is then exposed to atmosphere for softening.
The period may be Of
few weeks to a season.
Hand moulding
When moulding is done with hand it is called hand moulding.
A wooden rectangular mould made in the shape of a brick is normally used for this purpose.
Machine moulding
The clay is placed in the machine, it comes out through the opening Under pressure.
It is cut to bricks by steel wires fixed into frames.
These bricks are also called wire cut bricks.
DRYING OF BRICKS
contain 7 to 30 percent moisture, depending upon the
forming method.
most of this water is evaporated in dryer chambers
temperatures about 100 ºF to 400 ºF (38 ºC to 204 ºC).
time, is between 24 to 48 hours.
Heat and humidity must be carefully regulated to avoid cracking in the brick.
BURNING OF BRICKS
INTERMITTENT KILN
Highly inefficient & labor-intensive.
Use coal + scavenged fuels
Most common, most primitive, most polluting
Temporary Structures
High Alumina BricksHigh alumina bricks from 50% up to 90% alumina
Various selected superior grade aggregates to meet the various service conditions of various types of furnaces like laddie, blast furnace, cement and sponge iron rotary kiln.
Concrete Bricks
These bricks have either pale green or gray color.
these are prepared from a small, dry aggregate concrete which is formed in steel molds by using vibration and compaction.
Fire Brick
A Fire brick is a block of ceramic material
used in masonry construction and sized to be layer with one hand using mortar.
bricks may be made from type of material .
these are built primarily to withstand high heat and also find applications in extreme mechanical, chemical, or thermal stresses.
the brick is widely used as refractory insulating bricks for maintaining insistent temperature.
Light Weight Hollow Blocks
This blocks are used in construction of houses in earthquake prone areas.
These bricks are made of fly ash, cement, lime, gypsum, stone dust etc.
available in different sizes.
hollow concrete blocks is used as substitute for conventional bricks or stones used in construction of buildings. and the blocks' importmant feature
This document provides an overview of various construction materials used in civil engineering projects. It discusses naturally available materials like stone, brick, lime, cement and timber. It describes the composition, types, properties and uses of each material. For stone, brick and lime, it specifically outlines the requirements and specifications of different varieties. The document serves as a reference for civil engineers to understand the nature and behavior of various materials used in building and infrastructure development.
What is pointing?
Scope of pointing
Method of pointing
What is plastering?
Objective of plastering
Lime plaster
Cement plaster
Gypsum plaster (plaster of Paris)
Water proof plaster of Mortar
Heat resistant plasters
Defects in plastering
1.Stretcher bond
2.Header bond
3.English bond and
4.Flemish bond.
The document discusses different types of flooring materials including natural materials like mud, timber, stone, and man-made materials like concrete, metal, and tiles. It provides details on various stone flooring options like marble, granite, and ceramic tiles. Marble flooring has advantages like being available in many colors and patterns, adding radiance, and being durable; but it has disadvantages like getting cold in winter and being expensive. Selection of flooring depends on factors like initial cost, appearance, durability, and maintenance requirements.
Brick masonry involves laying bricks bonded together with mortar. Bricks are made from clay and other ingredients, formed into blocks. There are different brick bonds used in masonry walls like English, Flemish and stretcher bonds. Masonry joints are used to join the bricks. Proper bonding of bricks is important for strength and stability of walls. Defects can occur if bricks contain excessive salts or dampness causes corrosion of embedded metals.
are horizontal elements of building structures which divide building into different levels for the purpose of creating more accommodation with in the restricted space, one above the other and also provide support to the occupants, furniture and equipment of a building.
Bricks are rectangular blocks used in masonry construction that are produced in various classes and types depending on the region. There are several types of bricks including sun-dried clay bricks, burnt clay bricks, fly ash bricks, concrete bricks, and engineering bricks. Burnt clay bricks are further classified into four classes based on their quality. Identification of good bricks at construction sites involves checking for uniform color, smooth surfaces, and strength. Bricks provide hardness, compressive strength, and limited water absorption for use in buildings, foundations, and other construction.
one of the important activities in construction work is brickwork. this presentation gives a brief outlook of brickwork masonry and plastering and waterproofing.
Bricks are building materials traditionally made of clay but now made of various materials laid in mortar. They have been used in construction for thousands of years, with some of the earliest bricks dating to before 7500 BC. There are various types of bricks including fired bricks which are hardened in a kiln, non-fired "mud bricks," and engineered bricks designed for strength. Bricks are manufactured through processes involving preparing raw materials, molding, drying, and firing. Improved brick making technologies and kilns have increased efficiency and sustainability while reducing environmental impacts.
Suicide Prevention through Architecture (Building) and City PlanningGAURAV. H .TANDON
Suicide Prevention through Architecture (Building) and City Planning
Accessing The Potentials Of CPTED Principles In Addressing Safety Concerns Of Suicide Prevention In City Planning
Suicide Prevention through Architecture (Building) and City PlanningGAURAV. H .TANDON
Suicide Prevention through Architecture (Building) and City Planning
Accessing The Potentials Of CPTED Principles In Addressing Safety Concerns Of Suicide Prevention In City Planning
Digital Detoxing in Smart Cities.
Digital Detox for Sustainability: Unplugging/Redesigning technologies of Smart Cities for a Sustainable Future
“How a small Village in Maharashtra, India teaching importance of Digital detoxing to Mega Smart cities of India”
Digital Detoxing in Smart Cities
Digital Detox for Sustainability: Unplugging/Redesigning technologies of Smart Cities for a Sustainable Future
“How a small Village in Maharashtra, India teaching importance of Digital detoxing to Mega Smart cities of India”
The document discusses the importance of premarital screening or testing before marriage. It explains that premarital screening involves testing prospective spouses for infectious diseases, genetic disorders, and compatibility to help ensure a healthy marriage and family. Compatibility is assessed through both traditional Indian kundli matching of astrological charts as well as modern medical testing. While kundli matching provides useful information, medical screening can detect diseases and identify health risks that could impact a couple's well-being and ability to have children. The document recommends couples undergo premarital screening through blood tests, physical exams, and counseling to aid in informed decision making.
A polymath is defined as a person with expertise in various fields of science, humanities, and the arts. Historically, polymaths included great Renaissance thinkers like Leonardo da Vinci and Benjamin Franklin who made significant contributions across multiple disciplines. Nowadays, it is difficult to find true polymaths due to the ever-increasing specialization of knowledge. However, the document outlines characteristics of polymaths such as cultivating curiosity, multiple passions and interests, and not worrying about perfection in order to bring back the Renaissance ideal of a well-rounded thinker.
Godfather-like figures organize complex crash for cash schemes involving staged, induced, and ghost crashes to fraudulently obtain insurance payouts. They recruit drivers, passengers, and professional enablers like doctors and repair shops to carry out the schemes, which can net up to £30,000 per crash. The schemes cost insurers millions each year and ultimately increase premiums for all policyholders.
The document discusses arguments for and against lowering the minimum voting age. It notes that while most countries have the age set at 18, some have it as low as 16. Advocates argue that 16-year-olds have adult responsibilities and should have a say, and research shows lower ages increase youth participation without lowering vote quality. However, others argue younger people lack maturity. Countries experimenting with lower ages often do so incrementally. Overall it is a complex debate that intersects with issues of children's rights.
The document provides an overview of the ecological footprint concept. It defines ecological footprint as a method that measures human demand on nature against the Earth's biological capacity to regenerate resources and absorb waste. Key points include:
- Humanity's ecological footprint has exceeded the Earth's biocapacity since the 1970s, meaning more than 1 Earth is needed each year to replenish what is used.
- The ecological footprint is calculated by adding up the productive land and sea area required to produce the resources an individual, group, or activity consumes and absorb their waste, expressed in global hectares.
- Many countries and individuals have an ecological deficit, using more than what local ecosystems can regenerate.
Urban Heat Island Effect occurs when urban areas become significantly warmer than surrounding rural areas due to human activities and infrastructure that replace open land and vegetation. Impervious surfaces like concrete and asphalt absorb and re-emit more solar radiation than natural landscapes, causing surface and ambient air temperatures to increase in cities. Additional factors like reduced evapotranspiration from plants, waste heat from energy usage, and decreased wind speed between buildings exacerbate the higher temperatures. As temperatures rise, greater air conditioning usage produces more waste heat in a self-perpetuating cycle of increasing the Urban Heat Island Effect.
Communication is the exchange of information between individuals through a common system of symbols, signs or behavior. It involves five main steps - ideation, encoding, transmission, decoding and response. Communication can occur through different levels like interpersonal, group, organizational and mass communication. Effective communication requires good command over language and follows certain characteristics. Technical communication is more formal in style and involves technical vocabulary or graphics. It plays a pivotal role in organizations and their success depends on quality information flow. Some important books and Ted talks on developing strong communication skills are also mentioned.
The unethical practice of gift giving to doctors by pharma companiesGAURAV. H .TANDON
The document discusses the unethical practice of pharmaceutical companies giving gifts to doctors in various countries. It notes that while informing doctors about new drugs is acceptable, gifts can influence prescribing behaviors and create conflicts of interest. Regulations in countries like Bangladesh, Australia, China, India, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, and Vietnam prohibit or limit such gifts. The document calls for India's government to implement uniform marketing codes for pharmaceutical companies to restrict unethical practices like bribing doctors with foreign trips, phones, or other incentives.
The document discusses the concepts of compassionate cities and urban loneliness. It defines compassion and describes how living alone in cities can cause loneliness, especially among the elderly. It suggests ways for urban planners to address this issue, such as creating more green spaces for social interaction and improving transportation infrastructure to encourage community. The goal is to make cities places where compassion for all residents is a priority and people care for one another's well-being. The Charter for Compassion aims to promote compassion as a core value globally.
Copper has natural antimicrobial properties that have been exploited for centuries. It kills bacteria, viruses, and fungi through mechanisms like oxidative stress and damage to cell membranes and proteins. Recent clinical studies show copper alloys reduce bacterial contamination on high-touch surfaces in hospitals by 90-100% compared to other materials like stainless steel. The EPA has approved copper alloys as antimicrobial materials due to their ability to reduce MRSA and E. coli levels by over 99.9% within 2 hours of contact under laboratory conditions. However, while copper was widely used historically, other modern materials have replaced it despite its benefits for infection control.
The Liuzhou Forest City in China will be the world's first forest city, where all buildings are covered in greenery. Designed by Stefano Boeri Architetti, the city will house 30,000 inhabitants in buildings surrounded by over 40,000 trees and 1 million plants. The extensive greenery is intended to absorb air pollutants and carbon emissions while producing oxygen. In addition to environmental benefits, the forest city aims to be self-sufficient through geothermal and solar energy use. Construction is slated to begin in 2020.
Automotive vehicles are increasingly automated and connected to wireless networks, leaving them vulnerable to remote hacking attacks. Security researchers have demonstrated how hackers could potentially access a vehicle's internal computer systems to disable brakes or engine controls from a distance. Recent studies show many modern vehicles built after 2005 are at risk if automakers do not address vulnerabilities in wireless infotainment and connectivity systems that could allow unauthorized remote access and control over critical functions.
Collusion and Fraud Detection on Electronic Energy Meters GAURAV. H .TANDON
The document discusses collusion and fraud detection related to smart energy meters. It covers topics such as collusion, which involves secret cooperation to deceive others; electricity theft; advanced metering infrastructure; reasons for electricity theft; legal aspects; safety and economic impacts of theft; and techniques for theft. The key points are that collusion aims to limit competition through deception, modern meters allow remote monitoring but lack of trust remains a barrier, and electricity theft endangers safety, harms economics, and is considered a legal issue.
Smart buildings use automated systems and sensors to control operations like HVAC, lighting, and security. However, connecting these systems also introduces cybersecurity vulnerabilities. As buildings add more internet-connected devices, they provide more entry points for hackers to potentially access sensitive building systems and data. Cyber criminals are increasingly targeting smart buildings due to their growth and interconnected nature, which could allow access to security cameras, elevators, and other building operations if networks are breached.
Covid Management System Project Report.pdfKamal Acharya
CoVID-19 sprang up in Wuhan China in November 2019 and was declared a pandemic by the in January 2020 World Health Organization (WHO). Like the Spanish flu of 1918 that claimed millions of lives, the COVID-19 has caused the demise of thousands with China, Italy, Spain, USA and India having the highest statistics on infection and mortality rates. Regardless of existing sophisticated technologies and medical science, the spread has continued to surge high. With this COVID-19 Management System, organizations can respond virtually to the COVID-19 pandemic and protect, educate and care for citizens in the community in a quick and effective manner. This comprehensive solution not only helps in containing the virus but also proactively empowers both citizens and care providers to minimize the spread of the virus through targeted strategies and education.
This is an overview of my career in Aircraft Design and Structures, which I am still trying to post on LinkedIn. Includes my BAE Systems Structural Test roles/ my BAE Systems key design roles and my current work on academic projects.
Cricket management system ptoject report.pdfKamal Acharya
The aim of this project is to provide the complete information of the National and
International statistics. The information is available country wise and player wise. By
entering the data of eachmatch, we can get all type of reports instantly, which will be
useful to call back history of each player. Also the team performance in each match can
be obtained. We can get a report on number of matches, wins and lost.
Learn more about Sch 40 and Sch 80 PVC conduits!
Both types have unique applications and strengths, knowing their specs and making the right choice depends on your specific needs.
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Data Communication and Computer Networks Management System Project Report.pdfKamal Acharya
Networking is a telecommunications network that allows computers to exchange data. In
computer networks, networked computing devices pass data to each other along data
connections. Data is transferred in the form of packets. The connections between nodes are
established using either cable media or wireless media.
4. Properties Of Bricks
• Physical Properties
Shape:
• Standard shape - truly rectangular.
• Sharp and true right angled corners.
• Surface of bricks - regular and even.
• Special purpose bricks may be either cut or manufacture in various
other shapes.
Size:
• varies from country to country even place to place.
• Standard size: 19 cm * 9 cm * 9 cm
• Found very convenient in handling the bricks during construction and
making quantity estimation.
• Five hundred such bricks will be required for completing one cubic
meter of brick masonry.
• Pakistan and Bangladesh: 22 cm * 10.5 cm * 7 cm
• UK : 20 cm * 9.5 cm * 5.5 cm
• U.S.A: 20 cm * 10 cm * 10 cm or 30 cm * 10 cm * 10 cm
6. Properties Of Bricks
Colour:
• Uniform and bright. Most common colour falls under the
class red.
• Varies from dark red to light red colour.
• Very dark red colour indicates over burning and yellow
colour indicates under burning.
Density:
• Depends upon the type of clay used and method of
moulding.
• Varies from 1600 kg/m3 to 1900 kg/m3
• A single brick (19 cm * 9 cm * 9 cm) weight: 3.2 to 3.5 kg.
8. Properties Of Bricks
• Mechanical Properties
• Compressive strength:
• Most important property of bricks because they are to be used in load
bearing walls.
• It depends on the composition of clay and degree of burning.
• Varies from 35 kg/cm2 to 200 kg/cm2.
• Flexure strength:
• Bricks are often used in situation where bending loads are likely to
develop in building, so strength is required to take transverse loads.
• It should not be less than 10 kg/cm2 for common building.
• It should be more than 20 kg/cm2 for best grade bricks.
• Good building bricks – shearing strength 50-70 kg/cm2
10. Properties Of Bricks
• Insulation Property
• Ideal Brick Should Provide Adequate Insulation
Against Heat, Cold And Noise.
• The Heat And Sound Conductivity Of Bricks Varies
Greatly With Their Density And Porosity.
• Very Dense And Heavy Bricks Conduct Heat And
Sound At A Greater Rate. So, They Have Poor
Thermal And Sound Insulation Qualities.
• Bricks Should Be Design In Such A Way That They
Are Light Strong And Give Adequate Insulation.
12. Properties Of Bricks
• Durability Property: length of the time for which
they remain unaltered and strong when used in
construction. It depends on following factors:
• Absorption value: related to porosity of the brick.
• True porosity: it is defined as the ratio of volume of the
pores to gross volume of the sample of the substance.
• Apparent porosity: it is the quantity of water absorbed by
the brick sample.
• For ordinary bricks – not greater than 25%.
• Frost resistance: water on freezing expands by about 10%
in volume and exerts a pressure of the order of 140 kg/cm2
14. Properties Of Bricks
• Cold climate – decay.
• Efflorescence: it is disfiguring and deteriorating process of
brick in hot and humid climates.
• Brick surface gets covered with white or grey coloured
patches of salts (presents in ordinary clay).
• When rain water penetrates, salts get dissolved.
• When evaporation starts, salts move out along with the
water.
• Sulphates of calcium, magnesium, sodium and
potassium.
16. Qualities of Good Brick
• It should be uniform shape and should be of
standard size (ISI: 190 mm x 90 mm x 90 mm,
Depth of frog – 10 to 20 mm, Length of frog – 100
mm, Width of frog – 40 mm, Size including mortar
joint 200 mm x 100 mm x 100 mm, weight - 30 N).
• It should be properly burnt.
• It should give clear ringing sound when struck each
other.
• Bricks when broken should show a bright
homogeneous and compact structure free from
voids.
18. Qualities of Good Brick
• It should not absorb water more than 20 percent of its dry
weight for first class bricks. Absorption should not exceed
25% in any case.
• It should have good compressive strength, not less than 35
kg/cm2 .
• It should be sufficiently hard enough so that it should not
scratched by finger nail.
• Bricks should be low thermal conductivity and they should
be sound proof.
• It should have uniform colour (copper coloured) and
structure (free from cracks, sharp & square edges) through
out its body.
19. Qualities of Good Brick
• It should have adequate resistance to fire and can
resist temperature upto 1200⁰C.
• It should not contain much alkaline salts, which
may cause efflorescence on surface and decay the
bricks.
• It should be able to resist the weathering effects like
temperature variations, rain frost action etc.
21. Classification Of Bricks (ISS 1077-1971)
Class Characteristics Use
FIRST • Well burnt having even surface and perfectly
rectangular shape
• Clear ringing sound produced, when struck
each other.
• Compressive strength, not less than 140 kg/cm2
and its absorption after 24 hours immersion shall
not exceed 20%
• Uniform appearance, texture and structure.
• Specific gravity 1.8
• Should not break when dropped from 1 to 2 m
height
• Excellent for all types of
construction in the exterior
walls when the plastering is
not required.
• Suitable for flooring.
• Shaped bricks are used in
carvings, arches and copings
SECOND • Well burnt, even slightly over burning is
accepted.
• Clear metallic-ringing sound is also must.
• Compressive strength, not less than 70 kg/cm2
and absorption value between 20 to 22 %.
• Rectangular but slightly irregularity is permitted.
• Surface may be slightly uneven.
• Fine, compact and uniform texture
• For exterior works when the
plastering is to be done.
• For internal walls
• May not be used for
flooring.
22. Classification Of Bricks (ISS 1077-1971)
Class Characteristics Use
THIRD • Poorly and uneven burnt, it may be over
burnt or under burnt
• Dull sound produced, when struck each
other.
• Compressive strength, lies between 35 - 70
kg/cm2 and its absorption after 24 hrs,
absorption between 22 – 25 %.
• Appearance, shape and size are also non-
uniform and irregular.
• Soft, associated with flaws & cracks
• Used mostly in ordinary
type of construction and in
dry situations.
• For temporary building
FOURTH
class or
JHAMA
• Irregular in shape and dark in colour due
to over burning.
• Low in porosity and absorption.
• Unfit for use in building
construction because of
irregular size.
• Used in broken form.
• Used as aggregate for
concrete in foundation,
floors, roads, etc
Heavy Duty bricks: exceptionally dense, perfectly burnt and very strong bricks
compressive strength- 440 kg/cm2.
27. Standard Tests For Bricks (ISS – 1077-1970)
Efflorescence Test:
• Take 5 bricks at random.
• Place each brick in separate shallow flat bottom
dish containing distilled water.
• Depth of immersion should not be less than 2.5
cm.
• Keep these in warm room (18 to 300 C) with
adequate ventilation.
• Add fresh quantity of water when the bricks
dries.
• At the end of 2nd drying, observed for
appearance.
29. Standard Tests For Bricks (ISS – 1077-1970)
• Serious: salt deposition is all around and quite
heavy. Powdering of salt is prominent.
• Heavy: salt deposits covers more than 50% area.
Tendency to powder is absent.
• Moderate: salt deposits covers more than 50%
area. Forms thin layers without showing any
tendency to peal off in flacks or become powder.
• Slight: salt covers surface area of less than 10%
area. Forms only a very thin sticky layer.
• Nil: no deposits of any salt even after repeated
wetting.
31. Special Type Of Bricks
• Ordinary bricks are typically rectangular
in shape, solid in structure and made from
suitable type of brick-clays.
• Different types of groups for special type of
brick:
• Types where shape is modified
• Types with perforation in the body
• Types where a different material is used
to make the bricks.
32. Types Based On Modification In Shape
• Different situations where a perfect rectangular shape is not
suitable. Specially moulded bricks avoid the cumbersome process
of cutting & rounding rectangular bricks to the desired shape.
• E.g. plinth, the corners of walls and at the copings.
• King closer: the brick is so cut that it has length and width on one
side only. (corner cut)
• Queen closer: the brick cut is lengthwise so that brick has only
one half of the length.
• Squint brick: cut brick, the portion of cut forms angles other than
right angle.
• Splay bricks: These have level or portion taken off, width-wise,
length-wise or in both directions, which includes:
• Plinth header:
• Plinth stretcher:
• Plinth return:
• Coping bricks, bullnose, cow nose, miscellaneous shape.
34. Special Type Of Bricks
Queen CloserKing Closer
Squint Brick
Splay Bricks – Plinth Header
Splay bricks - Plinth stretcher
Splay Bricks - Plinth Return
35. Types Based On Perforations
• There are mainly three types of bricks:
• Perforated bricks
• Hollow bricks
• Channelled bricks
• Perforated bricks:
• Modern class of building bricks.
• Cylindrical, rounded or rectangular holes are made in the
bricks after the moulding stage. These holes are called
perforations.
• Properly spaced from the side of the bricks, min 15 mm
• The volume of perforations may be as much as 20 to
50% of total volume of the brick.
• Bricks may be larger in size which can increase work
output.
36. Perforated Bricks
• Advantages of perforated bricks:
• Light in weight
• Less quantity of clay is required for
manufacture.
• Less time required for drying and burning.
• Better resistance against rain penetration and better
insulation against heat, which is suited for tropical
countries.
• Efflorescence is least.
• Specially suitable for construction of brick
panel in multi storied structure.
• Widely used in Germany, France and America.
38. Hollow Bricks
(Cavity Bricks Or Cellular Bricks)
• A few well defined sets of cavities with specified
dimensions made in the body of brick.
• Net weight = one third to one half of the solid brick.
• The thickness of the brick wall near to cavity should not
be less than 2 cm.
• The cavity extends throughout the body of the brick.
• Made from the special homogeneous clay.
• Advantages:
• More convenience and output may be three to four times
compared to ordinary bricks.
• Offer better insulation against heat, sound and dampness
• Ideal and economical for non-load bearing walls (e.g.
Partition walls)
39. Channel Or Gutter Bricks
• Continuous central semi circular cavity or
depression running through their length.
• Use: laying of drains
Hollow Bricks Channel Brick
40. Types Based On Composition
• There are mainly two major sub-classes of
bricks:
• Sand lime bricks (the common building bricks)
• Refractory bricks: has a specific use in
industrial processes.
• Sand lime bricks: bricks made from sand and lime as
the raw material instead of clay. The clay content may
be negligible.
• Method of manufacture and composition are different
from ordinary bricks.
• Shape and size is similar.
41. Sand Lime Bricks
• Manufacture: raw materials are:
• Sand: free from harmful impurities like mica, chlorine, iron
oxides black minerals and organic matter. (Around 90%)
• Lime: hydrated (slaked) lime. (8-12%)
• Has high-calcium content and should be free from
magnesium.
• Clay - upto 4%
• Salt Free Water (not sea water).
• For different colours, pigments are added in small
percentages.
• Iron oxides – for red and brown colour
• Chromium oxide – for green colour
• Ochre – for yellow colour
• Carbon black – for grey and black colour
43. Sand Lime Bricks
• Moulding: after mixing powdered raw materials in the
desired proportion, add 2-3 % clean water to obtain
damp moisture.
• Moulded using Rotary press under pressure ranging from
300 – 600 kg/cm2 which results into highly compressed
and dense sand lime bricks, almost dry at this stage.
• Auto-claving: A steel cylinder with closed end where
heating is done by steam under pressure – Auto-clave.
• Bricks are treated for 6-12 hrs under steam pressure
between 8-16 kg/cm2.
• Sand and lime react chemically and form chemical
compound: calcium silicate – chemical composition of
brick.
• The bricks taken out from the auto-clave are ready for use.
45. Sand Lime Bricks
• Properties:
• Very smooth and uniform finish and a pleasing
appearance.
• Dense, strong and hard.
• Least porous and hence free from efflorescence.
• Uniform in shape, size and finish and no plastering
requires.
• When requires, quantity of plaster is quite less.
• Water repelling.
• Material required are quite common in occurrence, can be
used as alternative of clay bricks.
• Disadvantages:
• Manufactured only by using mechanised method.
• Unsuitable for foundation and paving because bricks
can be damaged in presence of water and poor resistance
to abrasion.
46. Refractory Bricks Or Fire Bricks
• Separate group of bricks, which is capable to withstanding very
high temperature without undergoing any deformation in size or
shape and without reacting with the material of a particular
composition at these temperature.
• Use: making of inner walls of furnaces for manufacture of metals and
for similar high temperature applications.
• Classification: based on their reactivity towards melts at high
temperature.
• Acidic bricks: resistant to the metals of acidic composition but react
with the basic composition.
– E.g: fire clay bricks, silica bricks
• Basic bricks: resistant to the metals of basic composition.
– Not suitable in those furnaces where acidic melts are being heated.
– E.g. magnesia bricks, bauxite bricks.
• Neutral bricks: non reactive to both acidic and basic melts.
– Find application in heating either type of melts.
– E.g. chromite bricks, chrome-magnesite bricks.
48. Refractory Bricks Or Fire Bricks
• Manufacture: same as building bricks.
• The raw materials are first crushed to the required
size and mixed thoroughly in the presence of required
quantity of water.
• From this homogeneous mix, bricks are moulded.
• Dried and then burnt at very high temperature,
between 1600-20000C.
• Allowed to cool very gradually.
50. Different Important Refractory Bricks Or Fire Bricks
Fire clay bricks: Refractory materials of acidic group.
• Raw material: it can withstand very high temperature without fusing or
softening.
• Available under the coal layer in nature.
• Silica (65-75 %) and alumina (25-35 %)
• Free from impurities like oxides of calcium, magnesium and iron.
• Maximum limit for impurities = 5%
• Manufacture – similar to common building bricks.
• Temp very high – 16000 – 19000 C
• Types of fire clay bricks
• High duty fire clays – 1482-16480 C
• Medium duty fire clays – 1315-14810 C
• low duty fire clays – 870 -13140 C
• Properties: high resistance to spalling (breaking under heat).
high bearing capacity
low coefficient of thermal expansion
• Use: lining material in steel making furnaces, glass making furnaces.
52. Different Important Refractory Bricks
Or Fire Bricks
Silica Fire Bricks: acidic bricks made up mostly of silica (more
than 95%) and Calcium oxide (binding agent).
Raw material - pure quartz or sandstone of high silica content.
Burnt to around 15000 C, compressive strength – 15 MPa
Properties: Low porosity and free from air pockets
Good thermal expansion and conductivity
Remarkable load bearing capacity especially at
high temperature
Ability to withstand thermal shock
Use: lining material, roofs of acid and basic open hearth
furnaces, electric furnaces, refining furnaces
54. Different Important Refractory Bricks
Or Fire Bricks
Magnesium Fire Bricks: Basic Refractories
Raw material – magnesia = 85% (min.), calcium oxide =
25% (max.), silica = 5.5% (max.)
Source – rock dolomite
Properties: Thermal conductivity greater than that for fire
clay and silica fire bricks.
Highly resistant to the action of basic slags and
iron oxides
Starts losing strength at temperature above 15000
C
Use: Hearths of basic open-hearth and copper
reverberatory furnaces, electric arc and induction
furnaces
56. Different Important Refractory Bricks Or Fire
Bricks
Bauxite Fire Bricks: very important class of basic refractories
Source – rock bauxite, which may be mixed with some clay.
Properties: Bricks are highly refractory, not commonly used because
of high shrinkage at high temperature
Chromite Fire Bricks: neutral class of refractories.
Raw material – chromite (double oxide of chromium and iron in its
composition)
Some alumina and silica are also added to make a typical neutral
material.
Capable to resist both the acidic and basic environment in a furnace.
Properties: Low porosity
High resistance to both acid and basic slags
High thermal conductivity
Low resistance to spalling
Use: steel making furnaces.