This document provides an overview of implementing a simplified MIPS processor with a memory-reference instructions, arithmetic-logical instructions, and control flow instructions. It discusses:
1. Using a program counter to fetch instructions from memory and reading register operands.
2. Executing most instructions via fetching, operand fetching, execution, and storing in a single cycle.
3. Building a datapath with functional units for instruction fetching, ALU operations, memory references, and branches/jumps.
4. Implementing control using a finite state machine that sets multiplexers and control lines based on the instruction.
(Ref : Computer System Architecture by Morris Mano 3rd edition) : Microprogrammed Control unit, micro instructions, micro operations, symbolic and binary microprogram.
Cloud computing is a model for enabling ubiquitous, convenient, on-demand network access to a shared pool of configurable computing resources (e.g., networks, servers, storage, applications, and services) that can be rapidly provisioned and released with minimal management effort or service provider interaction. It allows enterprises to get their applications up and running faster, scale and re-provision resources at will, and save money by opting to pay as they use. Cloud computing allows companies to avoid or minimize up-front infrastructure costs, and focus on projects that differentiate their businesses instead of on infrastructure.
Cache memory is a small, fast memory located between the CPU and main memory. It stores copies of frequently used instructions and data to accelerate access and improve performance. There are different mapping techniques for cache including direct mapping, associative mapping, and set associative mapping. When the cache is full, replacement algorithms like LRU and FIFO are used to determine which content to remove. The cache can write to main memory using either a write-through or write-back policy.
The document describes five addressing modes in MIPS:
1. Immediate addressing mode uses instructions with immediate values to perform operations like addition and bitwise OR.
2. Register addressing mode performs operations using values stored in registers like addition and bitwise OR.
3. Base/displacement addressing mode loads/stores values from/to memory using a register plus an offset.
4. PC-relative addressing mode allows branching to locations using the program counter plus an offset.
5. Pseudo direct addressing mode allows jumping to absolute or register addresses.
The document discusses the instruction set of the 8086 microprocessor. It describes that the 8086 has over 20,000 instructions that are classified into several categories like data transfer, arithmetic, bit manipulation, program execution transfer, and string instructions. Under each category, it provides details about specific instructions like MOV, ADD, AND, CALL, etc. and explains their functionality and operand usage.
This document discusses carry lookahead adders. It explains that carry lookahead adders improve speed by reducing the time needed to determine carry bits. It describes how carry lookahead adders work by calculating whether each digit position will propagate a carry and combining these values to deduce carries. The document also discusses implementing carry lookahead adders using groups to reduce span and adding additional levels of carry lookahead to handle more bits.
Direct memory access (DMA) allows certain hardware subsystems to access computer memory independently of the central processing unit (CPU). During DMA transfer, the CPU is idle while an I/O device reads from or writes directly to memory using a DMA controller. This improves data transfer speeds as the CPU does not need to manage each memory access and can perform other tasks. DMA is useful when CPU cannot keep up with data transfer speeds or needs to work while waiting for a slow I/O operation to complete.
- ARM was developed in 1983 by Acorn Computers with a 4-man team to replace the 6502 processor in BBC computers. It has since become one of the most widely used processor cores in the world due to its simplicity, low power consumption, and use in portable devices.
- ARM Holdings licenses the ARM processor core designs to manufacturers but does not manufacture the chips itself. ARM cores power many products including PDAs, phones, media players, handheld game consoles, digital cameras, and more. Popular ARM architectures include ARM7TDMI and ARM9TDMI.
- The ARM architecture uses a load/store design with 32-bit fixed-length instructions operating on a large number of general purpose
(Ref : Computer System Architecture by Morris Mano 3rd edition) : Microprogrammed Control unit, micro instructions, micro operations, symbolic and binary microprogram.
Cloud computing is a model for enabling ubiquitous, convenient, on-demand network access to a shared pool of configurable computing resources (e.g., networks, servers, storage, applications, and services) that can be rapidly provisioned and released with minimal management effort or service provider interaction. It allows enterprises to get their applications up and running faster, scale and re-provision resources at will, and save money by opting to pay as they use. Cloud computing allows companies to avoid or minimize up-front infrastructure costs, and focus on projects that differentiate their businesses instead of on infrastructure.
Cache memory is a small, fast memory located between the CPU and main memory. It stores copies of frequently used instructions and data to accelerate access and improve performance. There are different mapping techniques for cache including direct mapping, associative mapping, and set associative mapping. When the cache is full, replacement algorithms like LRU and FIFO are used to determine which content to remove. The cache can write to main memory using either a write-through or write-back policy.
The document describes five addressing modes in MIPS:
1. Immediate addressing mode uses instructions with immediate values to perform operations like addition and bitwise OR.
2. Register addressing mode performs operations using values stored in registers like addition and bitwise OR.
3. Base/displacement addressing mode loads/stores values from/to memory using a register plus an offset.
4. PC-relative addressing mode allows branching to locations using the program counter plus an offset.
5. Pseudo direct addressing mode allows jumping to absolute or register addresses.
The document discusses the instruction set of the 8086 microprocessor. It describes that the 8086 has over 20,000 instructions that are classified into several categories like data transfer, arithmetic, bit manipulation, program execution transfer, and string instructions. Under each category, it provides details about specific instructions like MOV, ADD, AND, CALL, etc. and explains their functionality and operand usage.
This document discusses carry lookahead adders. It explains that carry lookahead adders improve speed by reducing the time needed to determine carry bits. It describes how carry lookahead adders work by calculating whether each digit position will propagate a carry and combining these values to deduce carries. The document also discusses implementing carry lookahead adders using groups to reduce span and adding additional levels of carry lookahead to handle more bits.
Direct memory access (DMA) allows certain hardware subsystems to access computer memory independently of the central processing unit (CPU). During DMA transfer, the CPU is idle while an I/O device reads from or writes directly to memory using a DMA controller. This improves data transfer speeds as the CPU does not need to manage each memory access and can perform other tasks. DMA is useful when CPU cannot keep up with data transfer speeds or needs to work while waiting for a slow I/O operation to complete.
- ARM was developed in 1983 by Acorn Computers with a 4-man team to replace the 6502 processor in BBC computers. It has since become one of the most widely used processor cores in the world due to its simplicity, low power consumption, and use in portable devices.
- ARM Holdings licenses the ARM processor core designs to manufacturers but does not manufacture the chips itself. ARM cores power many products including PDAs, phones, media players, handheld game consoles, digital cameras, and more. Popular ARM architectures include ARM7TDMI and ARM9TDMI.
- The ARM architecture uses a load/store design with 32-bit fixed-length instructions operating on a large number of general purpose
The 8086 microprocessor has an architecture that separates it into a Bus Interface Unit (BIU) and Execution Unit (EU). The BIU fetches instructions and data from memory and handles address calculation on the buses. The EU decodes and executes instructions using its 16-bit ALU. The 8086 has 16 general purpose registers including 4 data registers (AX, BX, CX, DX) and segment/pointer registers. It also contains a flag register for storing status flags. The 8086 can queue up to 6 bytes of upcoming instructions to improve performance.
Michael Flynn proposed a taxonomy in 1966 to classify computer architectures based on the number of instruction streams and data streams. The four classifications are: SISD (single instruction, single data stream), SIMD (single instruction, multiple data streams), MISD (multiple instructions, single data stream), and MIMD (multiple instructions, multiple data streams). SISD corresponds to the traditional von Neumann architecture, SIMD is used for array processing, MIMD describes most modern parallel computers, and MISD has never been implemented.
This document discusses the history and characteristics of CISC and RISC architectures. It describes how CISC architectures were developed in the 1950s-1970s to address hardware limitations at the time by allowing instructions to perform multiple operations. RISC architectures emerged in the late 1970s-1980s as hardware improved, focusing on simpler instructions that could be executed faster through pipelining. Common RISC and CISC processors used commercially are also outlined.
This document describes the Advanced Microcontroller Bus Architecture (AMBA) Advanced High-performance Bus (AHB) 2.0 specification. It details features of AHB such as burst transfers, split transactions, and single-cycle bus master handover. It also explains typical components in an AMBA AHB system including masters, slaves, arbitration, and bus operation with different transfer types.
In these slides the registration organization and stack organization have discussed in detail. Stack organization is discussed with the aid of animation to let the user understand it in a better and easy way.
The document discusses various methods for input/output (IO) in computer systems, including IO interfaces, programmed IO, interrupt-initiated IO, direct memory access (DMA), and input-output processors (IOPs). It describes how each method facilitates the transfer of data between the CPU, memory, and external IO devices.
This document discusses blocking and non-blocking assignments in Verilog. Blocking assignments execute sequentially, while non-blocking assignments are scheduled for the end of the simulation cycle. The document provides examples of always blocks and initial blocks using both blocking and non-blocking assignments. It demonstrates that blocking assignments update values immediately, while non-blocking assignments update values at the end of the block.
This document discusses asynchronous data transfer between independent units. It describes two methods for asynchronous transfer - strobe control and handshaking. Strobe control uses a single control line to time each transfer, while handshaking introduces a second control signal to provide confirmation between units. Specifically, it details the handshaking process, which involves control signals like "data valid" and "data accepted" or "ready for data" to coordinate placing data on the bus and accepting data between a source and destination unit.
1. The ARM architecture was first developed by Acorn Computers in 1983 to use the RISC concept. It was based on designs from Berkeley and Stanford and optimized for embedded applications.
2. ARM uses a load-store architecture with 32-bit fixed-length instructions. It has enhanced RISC features like conditional execution and shift-and-ALU operations in a single cycle.
3. The ARM software development tools include a C compiler, assembler, linker, debugger and ARMulator emulator. These allow developing, building, loading and debugging ARM programs on hardware or via emulation.
This document discusses hardware description languages used in electronics design. It describes how HDLs like VHDL and Verilog are used to program digital and mixed-signal circuits. Simulation allows validation of the design against specifications. The document also discusses formal verification using property specification languages and different modeling styles for Verilog like gate-level, dataflow, and behavioral modeling.
The document discusses different levels of computer memory hierarchy including main memory, cache memory, auxiliary memory, and virtual memory. Main memory uses RAM and ROM chips that are connected to the CPU through address and data buses. The address lines select the specific memory chip and byte location within that chip. Main memory is the highest level of memory that can be accessed directly by the CPU for storage of data and instructions currently in use.
PCI is a widely used interface standard developed in 1993 to connect processors to chipsets. It provides faster data transfer speeds than the earlier ISA standard. Features include synchronous bus architecture, 64-bit addressing, and burst mode data transfer.
USB is a universal serial bus standard created in 1996 to connect peripherals to computers. Up to 127 devices can connect to a single USB host controller via cables up to 5 meters long without hubs or 40 meters with hubs. USB allows for plug-and-play connectivity of devices such as mice, keyboards, cameras, and storage.
SCSI is an interface standard developed in 1981 for connecting computers and peripheral devices via daisy-chained ports. Up to 8 or 16
The document describes the 8 addressing modes of the 8086 microprocessor. These are: 1) Immediate, where the operand is specified in the instruction itself. 2) Register, where operands are registers. 3) Direct memory, using a segment and offset address. 4) Register indirect, using a base register address. 5) Register relative, using a base register and displacement. 6) Base indexed, using a base and index register. 7) Relative indexed, using a base, index, and displacement. 8) Implied, where operands are implied and not specified.
This document discusses interprocessor arbitration in multiprocessor systems. It describes serial and parallel arbitration procedures for determining which processor will be granted access to shared resources like memory. Serial arbitration involves connecting the arbitration circuits of each processor in a daisy chain configuration to prioritize requests. Parallel arbitration uses an external priority encoder and decoder. Different dynamic arbitration algorithms are also covered, such as round-robin time slicing and prioritizing the longest waiting request. The functions of typical bus control signals used in arbitration are defined.
This document describes the VHDL implementation of a MIPS processor subset. It begins with a simple single-cycle implementation and expands it to a multicycle design using pipelining. The design is broken into modules for the ALU, memory, control unit, and datapath. VHDL code and testbenches are provided to verify the correct execution of arithmetic, memory, and branch instructions. The goal is to understand hardware implementation by designing a basic processor in VHDL according to guidelines from the textbook "Computer Organization & Design."
The document discusses parallel processing and pipelining. It describes four types of parallel processing: single instruction stream single data stream (SISD), single instruction stream multiple data stream (SIMD), multiple instruction stream single data stream (MISD), and multiple instruction stream multiple data stream (MIMD). It then uses an example of a laundry process to illustrate how pipelining can be used to increase throughput. Pipelining involves dividing a process into sequential stages that can operate concurrently on different tasks to improve efficiency.
The 8086 microprocessor has an architecture that separates it into a Bus Interface Unit (BIU) and Execution Unit (EU). The BIU fetches instructions and data from memory and handles address calculation on the buses. The EU decodes and executes instructions using its 16-bit ALU. The 8086 has 16 general purpose registers including 4 data registers (AX, BX, CX, DX) and segment/pointer registers. It also contains a flag register for storing status flags. The 8086 can queue up to 6 bytes of upcoming instructions to improve performance.
Michael Flynn proposed a taxonomy in 1966 to classify computer architectures based on the number of instruction streams and data streams. The four classifications are: SISD (single instruction, single data stream), SIMD (single instruction, multiple data streams), MISD (multiple instructions, single data stream), and MIMD (multiple instructions, multiple data streams). SISD corresponds to the traditional von Neumann architecture, SIMD is used for array processing, MIMD describes most modern parallel computers, and MISD has never been implemented.
This document discusses the history and characteristics of CISC and RISC architectures. It describes how CISC architectures were developed in the 1950s-1970s to address hardware limitations at the time by allowing instructions to perform multiple operations. RISC architectures emerged in the late 1970s-1980s as hardware improved, focusing on simpler instructions that could be executed faster through pipelining. Common RISC and CISC processors used commercially are also outlined.
This document describes the Advanced Microcontroller Bus Architecture (AMBA) Advanced High-performance Bus (AHB) 2.0 specification. It details features of AHB such as burst transfers, split transactions, and single-cycle bus master handover. It also explains typical components in an AMBA AHB system including masters, slaves, arbitration, and bus operation with different transfer types.
In these slides the registration organization and stack organization have discussed in detail. Stack organization is discussed with the aid of animation to let the user understand it in a better and easy way.
The document discusses various methods for input/output (IO) in computer systems, including IO interfaces, programmed IO, interrupt-initiated IO, direct memory access (DMA), and input-output processors (IOPs). It describes how each method facilitates the transfer of data between the CPU, memory, and external IO devices.
This document discusses blocking and non-blocking assignments in Verilog. Blocking assignments execute sequentially, while non-blocking assignments are scheduled for the end of the simulation cycle. The document provides examples of always blocks and initial blocks using both blocking and non-blocking assignments. It demonstrates that blocking assignments update values immediately, while non-blocking assignments update values at the end of the block.
This document discusses asynchronous data transfer between independent units. It describes two methods for asynchronous transfer - strobe control and handshaking. Strobe control uses a single control line to time each transfer, while handshaking introduces a second control signal to provide confirmation between units. Specifically, it details the handshaking process, which involves control signals like "data valid" and "data accepted" or "ready for data" to coordinate placing data on the bus and accepting data between a source and destination unit.
1. The ARM architecture was first developed by Acorn Computers in 1983 to use the RISC concept. It was based on designs from Berkeley and Stanford and optimized for embedded applications.
2. ARM uses a load-store architecture with 32-bit fixed-length instructions. It has enhanced RISC features like conditional execution and shift-and-ALU operations in a single cycle.
3. The ARM software development tools include a C compiler, assembler, linker, debugger and ARMulator emulator. These allow developing, building, loading and debugging ARM programs on hardware or via emulation.
This document discusses hardware description languages used in electronics design. It describes how HDLs like VHDL and Verilog are used to program digital and mixed-signal circuits. Simulation allows validation of the design against specifications. The document also discusses formal verification using property specification languages and different modeling styles for Verilog like gate-level, dataflow, and behavioral modeling.
The document discusses different levels of computer memory hierarchy including main memory, cache memory, auxiliary memory, and virtual memory. Main memory uses RAM and ROM chips that are connected to the CPU through address and data buses. The address lines select the specific memory chip and byte location within that chip. Main memory is the highest level of memory that can be accessed directly by the CPU for storage of data and instructions currently in use.
PCI is a widely used interface standard developed in 1993 to connect processors to chipsets. It provides faster data transfer speeds than the earlier ISA standard. Features include synchronous bus architecture, 64-bit addressing, and burst mode data transfer.
USB is a universal serial bus standard created in 1996 to connect peripherals to computers. Up to 127 devices can connect to a single USB host controller via cables up to 5 meters long without hubs or 40 meters with hubs. USB allows for plug-and-play connectivity of devices such as mice, keyboards, cameras, and storage.
SCSI is an interface standard developed in 1981 for connecting computers and peripheral devices via daisy-chained ports. Up to 8 or 16
The document describes the 8 addressing modes of the 8086 microprocessor. These are: 1) Immediate, where the operand is specified in the instruction itself. 2) Register, where operands are registers. 3) Direct memory, using a segment and offset address. 4) Register indirect, using a base register address. 5) Register relative, using a base register and displacement. 6) Base indexed, using a base and index register. 7) Relative indexed, using a base, index, and displacement. 8) Implied, where operands are implied and not specified.
This document discusses interprocessor arbitration in multiprocessor systems. It describes serial and parallel arbitration procedures for determining which processor will be granted access to shared resources like memory. Serial arbitration involves connecting the arbitration circuits of each processor in a daisy chain configuration to prioritize requests. Parallel arbitration uses an external priority encoder and decoder. Different dynamic arbitration algorithms are also covered, such as round-robin time slicing and prioritizing the longest waiting request. The functions of typical bus control signals used in arbitration are defined.
This document describes the VHDL implementation of a MIPS processor subset. It begins with a simple single-cycle implementation and expands it to a multicycle design using pipelining. The design is broken into modules for the ALU, memory, control unit, and datapath. VHDL code and testbenches are provided to verify the correct execution of arithmetic, memory, and branch instructions. The goal is to understand hardware implementation by designing a basic processor in VHDL according to guidelines from the textbook "Computer Organization & Design."
The document discusses parallel processing and pipelining. It describes four types of parallel processing: single instruction stream single data stream (SISD), single instruction stream multiple data stream (SIMD), multiple instruction stream single data stream (MISD), and multiple instruction stream multiple data stream (MIMD). It then uses an example of a laundry process to illustrate how pipelining can be used to increase throughput. Pipelining involves dividing a process into sequential stages that can operate concurrently on different tasks to improve efficiency.
This document discusses pipelining in microprocessors. It describes how pipelining works by dividing instruction processing into stages - fetch, decode, execute, memory, and write back. This allows subsequent instructions to begin processing before previous instructions have finished, improving processor efficiency. The document provides estimated timing for each stage and notes advantages like quicker execution for large programs, while disadvantages include added hardware and potential pipeline hazards disrupting smooth execution. It then gives examples of how four instructions would progress through each stage in a pipelined versus linear fashion.
pipelining is the concept of decomposing the sequential process into number of small stages in which each stage execute individual parts of instruction life cycle inside the processor.
El documento habla sobre la responsabilidad de los seres humanos de cuidar el medio ambiente. Define el medio ambiente como todo lo que rodea a un ser vivo y afecta sus circunstancias de vida. Explica que la contaminación atmosférica ocurre cuando agentes nocivos aparecen en el medio ambiente y pueden amenazar la vida en el planeta. Recomienda que los humanos deben cultivar, proteger y amar la vida en la Tierra como parte de su papel de custodiar el jardín del mundo.
Este documento describe diferentes juegos infantiles tradicionales que involucran las manos, como piedra papel o tijeras, el juego del ratón y el gato, y gallina ciega. Los juegos se desarrollan al aire libre e involucran a varios niños de diferentes edades agarrándose de las manos o formando un círculo.
Prezentacja pod tytułem "Najlepsze klimatyzacje w jednym miejscu" przedstawia cel oraz zawartość serwisu StrefaKlimatyzacji.pl. Na 32 slajdach zawarte zostały szczegółowe informacje na temat Klimatyzacji LG. Prezentacja z pewnością okaże się przydatna dla wszystkich uczestników rynku klimatyzacyjnego - między innymi producentów, dystrybutorów, instalatorów oraz końcowych użytkowników klimatyzacji LG. Więcej informacji dostępnych jest na stronie internetowej http://www.strefaklimatyzacji.pl/.
Este documento describe la importancia del control interno para una organización. Explica que el control interno ayuda a prevenir fallas, mejorar la toma de decisiones y asegurar el buen funcionamiento de la empresa. Luego, presenta las respuestas de un gerente general a una serie de preguntas sobre las actividades de control interno de su organización. Finalmente, concluye que el control interno es fundamental para el éxito de una empresa y refleja el compromiso de la alta gerencia.
La Unión Europea ha anunciado nuevas sanciones contra Rusia por su invasión de Ucrania. Las sanciones incluyen prohibiciones de viaje y congelamiento de activos para más funcionarios rusos, así como restricciones a las importaciones de productos rusos de acero y tecnología. Los líderes de la UE esperan que estas medidas adicionales aumenten la presión económica sobre Rusia y la disuadan de continuar su guerra contra Ucrania.
La red point-to-point conecta máquinas individuales y requiere en ocasiones máquinas intermedias para establecer rutas, mientras que la red broadcast transmite datos por un solo canal compartido por todas las máquinas, donde el paquete es recibido por todas pero solo la destinataria lo procesa, y los equipos unidos por un concentrador forman este tipo de red.
IMPORTANCIA DE LOS VALORES PARA UNA CONVIVENCIA SOCIALdayanarodriguez95
Este documento describe la importancia de los valores para una convivencia social ordenada. Explica que los valores nos permiten orientar nuestro comportamiento y analiza conceptos como la axiología, valores infrahumanos e inframorales, valores instrumentales y terminales, anomia, democracia y civismo. Finalmente, enfatiza la necesidad de poner en práctica nuestros mejores valores a diario.
Este documento presenta conceptos básicos sobre potencias y raíces cuadradas. Explica que una potencia es una forma abreviada de expresar una multiplicación con factores iguales y define la base y el exponente. También define cuadrados y cubos y explica cómo leer y escribir potencias. Finalmente, cubre potencias de base diez y cómo expresar números grandes de forma simplificada, así como el concepto de raíz cuadrada y cómo calcularla.
Edición impresa del Diario Regional La Calle del lunes 26 de agosto 2.pdf1Rosario Romani
El documento habla sobre la profesión del reportero gráfico y las dificultades que enfrenta para captar escenas de interés público de forma oportuna. Explica que los reporteros gráficos se juegan la vida cada día para proporcionar una memoria ilustrada de la historia actual. También destaca la labor de reconocidos reporteros gráficos venezolanos como Héctor Rondón, ganador del Premio Pulitzer.
Este documento presenta los resultados de un proyecto de reciclaje de papel realizado en tres centros educativos en Panamá. El proyecto buscaba involucrar a estudiantes y docentes en una cultura ambiental que promueva el reciclaje. Se recolectaron y analizaron cantidades de papel en una escuela primaria, un colegio y una universidad. Los resultados mostraron beneficios ambientales como árboles y agua recuperados, así como ahorro de energía. El proyecto logró capacitar a estudiantes sobre la import
El documento describe al flamenco austral, un ave en peligro de extinción con patas y cuello largos y pico curvado. Es un visitante invernal de la Península Valdés en Argentina y se encuentra en grandes bandadas en lugares como el Lago Nakuru en África. Su declive se debe a la recolección de huevos, actividades mineras, bajos niveles de agua y perturbación humana. Se proponen medidas de conservación como la recolección sustentable de huevos y la caza regulada.
Presentación final del sistema de ventas de anuncios online de TuDirectorio.Co. Está dirigido a personas que quieran operar por el sistema freelance o distribuidores de tudirectorio.co donde se explica que es TuDirectorio, cual es su finalidad, su alcance
El Proyecto Educativo Institucional (PEI) es un instrumento de gestión que presenta una propuesta singular para dirigir los procesos pedagógicos, institucionales y administrativos de la Fundación Centro Nacional de Estudios Profesionales (FCECEP). El PEI de la FCECEP se basa en valores como la autonomía, responsabilidad, tolerancia y solidaridad para formar sujetos comprometidos con su desarrollo personal, profesional y laboral capaces de transformar su entorno social y económico.
1. A basic MIPS implementation is described that contains only memory-reference, arithmetic-logical, and control flow instructions. It uses a program counter to fetch instructions from memory and reads register operands before using the ALU.
2. A multicycle implementation is proposed that shares functional units like the ALU and registers across different instruction types by using multiplexers. It breaks instruction execution into stages like fetch, decode, execute, and writeback.
3. The control unit for this implementation can be designed using a finite state machine or microprogramming. It defines signals to control multiplexers and functional units on each clock cycle to implement the pipeline.
Pipelining is a technique used in computer processors to overlap the execution of instructions to enhance performance. It works by dividing instruction execution into discrete stages, such as fetch, decode, execute, memory, and write-back, so that multiple instructions can be in different stages at the same time. In a pipelined processor, the average time to complete an instruction is reduced compared to a non-pipelined processor, leading to higher throughput. However, special techniques are needed to handle data and structural hazards that can occur when instructions interact in unexpected ways within the pipeline.
Pipelining of Processors Computer ArchitectureHaris456
Pipelining is a technique used in microprocessors to overlap the execution of multiple instructions to increase throughput. It works by dividing the instruction execution process into discrete stages, such as fetch, decode, execute, memory, and write-back. When an instruction enters one stage, the previous instruction can enter the next stage, allowing the processor to complete more than one instruction per clock cycle. Pipelining reduces the time needed to complete a series of instructions by allowing the stages to process separate instructions simultaneously rather than sequentially.
The CPU contains several main components that work together to process data and execute instructions: the register set holds temporary data and instructions, the ALU performs calculations and comparisons, and the control unit controls data movement and the overall operation of the CPU. The fetch-execute cycle describes the basic steps the CPU follows to process each instruction - it fetches the instruction from memory, decodes it, executes the required operation, and writes the result back to memory. A stack provides efficient storage for operations like evaluating expressions in Reverse Polish Notation, using a last-in, first-out approach.
This document discusses the implementation of a basic MIPS processor including building the datapath, control implementation, pipelining, and handling hazards. It describes the MIPS instruction set and 5-stage pipeline. The datapath is built from components like registers, ALUs, and adders. Control signals are designed for different instructions. Pipelining is implemented using techniques like forwarding and branch prediction to handle data and control hazards between stages. Exceptions are handled using status registers or vectored interrupts.
Design pipeline architecture for various stage pipelinesMahmudul Hasan
This document discusses the concepts of single-cycle control, multi-cycle control, and pipelining in processors. It explains that single-cycle control has a low CPI but a long clock period, while multi-cycle control has a short clock period but high CPI. Pipelining allows overlapping the execution of instructions to improve throughput. The document presents diagrams of 5-stage instruction pipelines and describes the fetch, decode, execute, memory, and write-back stages. It also discusses pipeline hazards and performance improvements from pipelining over single-cycle and multi-cycle designs.
This document discusses instruction-level parallelism (ILP), which refers to executing multiple instructions simultaneously in a program. It describes different types of parallel instructions that do not depend on each other, such as at the bit, instruction, loop, and thread levels. The document provides an example to illustrate ILP and explains that compilers and processors aim to maximize ILP. It outlines several ILP techniques used in microarchitecture, including instruction pipelining, superscalar, out-of-order execution, register renaming, speculative execution, and branch prediction. Pipelining and superscalar processing are explained in more detail.
Parallel processing involves performing multiple tasks simultaneously to increase computational speed. It can be achieved through pipelining, where instructions are overlapped in execution, or vector/array processors where the same operation is performed on multiple data elements at once. The main types are SIMD (single instruction multiple data) and MIMD (multiple instruction multiple data). Pipelining provides higher throughput by keeping the pipeline full but requires handling dependencies between instructions to avoid hazards slowing things down.
The document describes the multi-cycle datapath and control approach for implementing a processor. It explains how instructions can be broken down into multiple execution steps that are each completed within a single clock cycle, allowing for simpler hardware at the cost of increased execution time per instruction. Additional registers are used to store intermediate results between cycles, and multiplexers allow functional units like the ALU and memory to be reused across cycles for different purposes. Control signals coordinate the movement of data between registers and functional units across each step of the multi-cycle implementation.
The document discusses parallel processing and pipelining. It defines parallel processing as performing concurrent data processing to achieve faster execution. This can be done by having multiple ALUs that can execute instructions simultaneously. The document then discusses Flynn's classification of computer architectures based on instruction and data streams. It describes single instruction single data (SISD), multiple instruction single data (MISD), and multiple instruction multiple data (MIMD) architectures. The document then defines pipelining as decomposing processes into sub-operations that flow through pipeline stages. It provides examples of arithmetic and instruction pipelines, describing the stages in each.
The document discusses pipelining in computer processors. It explains that pipelining allows for overlapping execution of multiple instructions to improve processor throughput. An analogy is drawn to an assembly line in laundry - non-pipelined execution is like completing an entire load sequentially, while pipelined is like having different stages of multiple loads occurring in parallel. Pipelining is achieved by breaking instruction execution into discrete stages, such as fetch, decode, execute, memory, and writeback. This allows new instructions to enter the pipeline before previous ones have finished, improving instruction completion rate.
This slide contain the description about the various technique related to parallel Processing(vector Processing and array processor), Arithmetic pipeline, Instruction Pipeline, SIMD processor, Attached array processor
The document discusses different types of control systems for CPUs, including hardwired and microprogrammed control. It explains that microprogrammed control uses sequences of microinstructions stored in memory to interpret instructions, allowing for more flexibility than hardwired control. The execute cycle is categorized into four groups of actions: CPU-memory transfers, CPU-I/O transfers, data processing, and control alterations. Microinstructions are organized into fields that activate control signals, and the main concerns in microinstruction sequencing design are microinstruction size and address generation time.
This document discusses computer architecture performance, including metrics like execution time, throughput, and instructions per cycle (IPC). It provides examples of calculating the cycles per instruction (CPI) for different instruction types and evaluating potential design changes based on their impact on CPI and overall performance. The principles of locality and Amdahl's Law, which states that speedups from parallelism are limited by the serial fraction of a program, are also covered.
The document discusses pipeline computing and its various types and applications. It defines pipeline computing as a technique to decompose a sequential process into parallel sub-processes that can execute concurrently. There are two main types - linear and non-linear pipelines. Linear pipelines use a single reservation table while non-linear pipelines use multiple tables. Common applications of pipeline computing include instruction pipelines in CPUs, graphics pipelines in GPUs, software pipelines using pipes, and HTTP pipelining. The document also discusses implementations of pipeline computing and its advantages like reduced cycle time and increased instruction throughput.
The document discusses parallel processing and pipelining techniques in computer organization. It covers topics like parallel processing concepts and classifications, pipelining concepts and how it increases computational speed, arithmetic and instruction pipelining, handling pipeline hazards like data dependencies and branches. The key advantages of pipelining include decomposing tasks into sequential sub-operations that can complete concurrently, improving throughput and achieving speedup close to the number of pipeline stages when the number of tasks is large.
Computer Organization : CPU, Memory and I/O organizationAmrutaMehata
This document provides information on CPU, memory, and I/O organization. It begins with an overview of the main components of a computer including the processor unit, memory unit, and input/output unit. It then describes the CPU in more detail including the arithmetic logic unit, control unit, and CPU block diagram. The document discusses the system bus and its various lines. It also covers CPU registers, instruction cycles, and status and control flags. The document provides an overview of instruction set architecture and compares RISC and CISC processor designs.
This document discusses the architecture and operation of processing units. It begins by outlining fundamental concepts like how the processor fetches and executes instructions sequentially using the program counter. It then describes the execution of a single instruction through fetch, execution, and incrementing the program counter phases. The document details the components involved in instruction execution like registers, arithmetic logic unit, and memory. It explains the sequencing of control signals to perform operations like register transfers, arithmetic/logic, and memory access. The document compares hardwired and microprogrammed approaches to control and their advantages/disadvantages. It concludes with details on arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction, overflow detection, and fast addition techniques.
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Particle Swarm Optimization–Long Short-Term Memory based Channel Estimation w...IJCNCJournal
Paper Title
Particle Swarm Optimization–Long Short-Term Memory based Channel Estimation with Hybrid Beam Forming Power Transfer in WSN-IoT Applications
Authors
Reginald Jude Sixtus J and Tamilarasi Muthu, Puducherry Technological University, India
Abstract
Non-Orthogonal Multiple Access (NOMA) helps to overcome various difficulties in future technology wireless communications. NOMA, when utilized with millimeter wave multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) systems, channel estimation becomes extremely difficult. For reaping the benefits of the NOMA and mm-Wave combination, effective channel estimation is required. In this paper, we propose an enhanced particle swarm optimization based long short-term memory estimator network (PSOLSTMEstNet), which is a neural network model that can be employed to forecast the bandwidth required in the mm-Wave MIMO network. The prime advantage of the LSTM is that it has the capability of dynamically adapting to the functioning pattern of fluctuating channel state. The LSTM stage with adaptive coding and modulation enhances the BER.PSO algorithm is employed to optimize input weights of LSTM network. The modified algorithm splits the power by channel condition of every single user. Participants will be first sorted into distinct groups depending upon respective channel conditions, using a hybrid beamforming approach. The network characteristics are fine-estimated using PSO-LSTMEstNet after a rough approximation of channels parameters derived from the received data.
Keywords
Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR), Bit Error Rate (BER), mm-Wave, MIMO, NOMA, deep learning, optimization.
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1. 1
Unit 3
Processor and Control Unit
By
Mrs.M.Kavitha, AP/CSE
A.V.C College of Engineering
2. 2
A Basic MIPS Implementation
• We're ready to look at an implementation of the MIPS
• Simplified to contain only:
– memory-reference instructions: lw, sw
– arithmetic-logical instructions: add, sub, and, or, slt
– control flow instructions: beq, j
• Generic Implementation:
– use the program counter (PC) to supply instruction address
– get the instruction from memory
– read registers
– use the instruction to decide exactly what to do
• All instructions use the ALU after reading the registers
Why? memory-reference? arithmetic? control flow?
5.1 Introduction
3. 3
An Overview of the Implementation
• For most instructions: fetch instruction, fetch operands, execute,
store.
• Missing Multiplexers, and some Control lines for read and write.
4. 4
An Overview of the Implementation
• The program counter gives the instruction address to the instruction
memory.
• After the instruction is fetched ,the register operands required by an
instruction are specified by fields of that instruction.
• Once the register operands have been fetched, they can be used to
compute a memory address( for a load and store), to compute an
arithmetic result( for an integer arithmetic-logical instruction) or a
compare(for a branch).
• If the instruction is an arithmetic-logical instruction, the result from the
ALU must be written to a register.
• If the operation is a load or store, the ALU result is used as an address to
either store a value from memory into the registers. The result from the
ALU or memory is written back into the register file.
• Branches require the use of the ALU output to determine the next
instruction address which comes either from the ALU( where the PC and
branch offset are summed) or from an adder that increments the current
PC by 4.
5. 5
Continue
• The basic implementation of the MIPS subset including the necessary
multiplexers and control lines.
• Multiplexer (data selector) selects from among several inputs based on
the setting of its control lines. The control lines are set based on
information taken from the instruction being executed.
6. 6
5.3 Building a Datapath
• Datapath
– Elements that process data and addresses within the CPU
• Register file, ALUs, Adders, Instruction and Data
Memories, …
We need functional units (datapath elements) for:
1. Fetching instructions and incrementing the PC.
2. Execute arithmetic-logical instructions: add, sub, and, or, and slt
3. Execute memory-reference instructions: lw, sw
4. Execute branch/jump instructions: beq, j
1. Fetching instructions and incrementing the PC.
7. 7
Continue
2. Execute arithmetic-logical instructions: add, sub, and, or, and slt
The arithmetic logic instructions read operands from two
registers, perform an ALU operation on the contents of
the registers and write the result to the register. So
this instructions as R-type instructions.
add $t1, $t2, $t3 # t1 = t2 + t3
10. 10
Creating a Single Datapath
• Sharing datapath elements between two different instruction classes ,
we have connected multiple connections to the input of an element and
used a multiplexer and control signals to select among the multiple
inputs.
11. 11
Continue
Now we con combine all the pieces to make a simple datapath
for the MIPS architecture:
12. 12
5.4 A Simple Control Implementation
Scheme
The ALU Control
20. 20
Why a Single-Cycle Implementation Is Not Used Today
Example: Performance of Single-Cycle Machines
Calculate cycle time assuming negligible delays except:
– memory (200ps),
– ALU and adders (100ps),
– register file access (50ps)
Which of the following implementation would be faster:
1. When every instruction operates in 1 clock cycle of fixes length.
2. When every instruction executes in 1 clock cycle using a variable-length
clock.
To compare the performance, assume the following instruction mix:
25% loads
10% stores
45% ALU instructions
15% branches, and
5% jumps
21. 21
Continue
CPU clock cycle (option 1) = 600 ps.
CPU clock cycle (option 2) = 400 ×45% + 600×25% + 550 ×10% + 350 ×15% + 200×5%
= 447.5 ps.
Performance ratio = 34.1
5.447
600
=
45% ALU instructions
25% loads
10% stores
15% branches, and
5% jumps
memory (200ps),
ALU and adders (100ps),
register file access (50ps)
22. 22
5.5 A Multicycle Implementation
• A single memory unit is used for both instructions and data.
• There is a single ALU, rather than an ALU and two adders.
• One or more registers are added after every major functional unit.
23. 23
Continue
Replacing the three ALUs of the single-cycle by a single ALU means that the
single ALU must accommodate all the inputs that used to go to the three
different ALUs.
27. 27
Breaking the Instruction Execution into Clock Cycles
1. Instruction fetch step
IR <= Memory[PC];
PC <= PC + 4;
28. 28
Breaking the Instruction Execution into Clock Cycles
IR <= Memory[PC];
To do this, we need:
MemRead Assert
IRWrite Assert
IorD 0
-------------------------------
PC <= PC + 4;
ALUSrcA 0
ALUSrcB 01
ALUOp 00 (for add)
PCSource 00
PCWrite set
The increment of the PC and instruction memory access can occur in parallel, how?
29. 29
Breaking the Instruction Execution into Clock Cycles
2. Instruction decode and register fetch step
– Actions that are either applicable to all instructions
– Or are not harmful
A <= Reg[IR[25:21]];
B <= Reg[IR[20:16]];
ALUOut <= PC + (sign-extend(IR[15-0] << 2 );
30. 30
A <= Reg[IR[25:21]];
B <= Reg[IR[20:16]];
Since A and B are
overwritten on every
cycle Done
ALUOut <= PC + (sign-
extend(IR[15-0]<<2);
This requires:
ALUSrcA 0
ALUSrcB 11
ALUOp 00 (for add)
branch target address will
be stored in ALUOut.
The register file access and computation of branch target occur in parallel.
31. 31
Breaking the Instruction Execution into Clock Cycles
3. Execution, memory address computation, or branch completion
Memory reference:
ALUOut <= A + sign-extend(IR[15:0]);
Arithmetic-logical instruction:
ALUOut <= A op B;
Branch:
if (A == B) PC <= ALUOut;
Jump:
PC <= { PC[31:28], (IR[25:0], 2’b00) };
32. 32
Memory reference:
ALUOut <= A + sign-extend(IR[15:0]);
ALUSrcA = 1 && ALUSrcB = 10
ALUOp = 00
Arithmetic-logical instruction:
ALUOut <= A op B;
ALUSrcA = 1 && ALUSrcB = 00
ALUOp = 10
Branch:
if (A == B) PC <= ALUOut;
ALUSrcA = 1 && ALUSrcB = 00
ALUOp = 01 (for subtraction)
PCSource = 01
PCWriteCond is asserted
Jump:
PC <= { PC[31:28], (IR[25:0],2’b00) };
PCWrite is asserted
PCSource = 10
36. 36
Defining the Control
Two different techniques to specify the control:
– Finite state machine
– Microprogramming
Example: CPI in a Multicycle CPU
Using the SPECINT2000 instruction mix, which is: 25% load, 10% store, 11%
branches, 2% jumps, and 52% ALU.
What is the CPI, assuming that each state in the multicycle CPU requires 1
clock cycle?
Answer:
The number of clock cycles for each instruction class is the following:
Load: 5 25%
Stores: 4 10%
ALU instruction: 4 52%
Branches: 3 11%
Jumps: 3 2%
37. 37
Example Continue
The CPI is given by the following:
is simply the instruction frequency for the instruction class i. We can therefore
substitute to obtain:
CPI = 0.25×5 + 0.10×4 + 0.52×4 + 0.11×3 + 0.02×3 = 4.12
This CPI is better than the worst-case CPI of 5.0 when all instructions take the
same number of clock cycles.
n countInstructio
n countInstructio
CPI
n countInstructio
n countInstructio
CPI
n countInstructio
CPIn countInstructio
n countInstructio
cyclesCPU clock
CPI
i
i
i
ii
ratioThe
∑
∑
×=
×
==
40. 40
Defining the Control (Continue)
• Finite state machine controllers are typically implemented using a
block of combinational logic and a register to hold the current state.
41. 41
5.6 Exceptions
• Exceptions
• Interrupts
Type of event From where? MIPS terminology
I/O device request External Interrupt
Invoke the operating system from user
program
Internal Exception
Arithmetic overflow Internal Exception
Using an undefined instruction Internal Exception
Hardware malfunction Either Exception or interrupt
42. 42
How Exception Are Handled
To communicate the reason for an exception:
1. a status register ( called the Cause register)
2. vectored interrupts
Exception type Exception vector address (in hex)
Undefined instruction C000 0000hex
Arithmetic overflow C000 0020hex
43. 43
How Control Checks for Exception
Assume two possible exceptions:
Undefined instruction
Arithmetic overflow
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