This document discusses healthcare-associated infections (HAIs) and outbreak investigations. It defines key terms like clusters, outbreaks, and epidemics. It also outlines the reasons to investigate outbreaks, how to recognize them, and the goals and steps of investigations. The steps include defining cases, identifying cases, analyzing person, place and time factors, developing and evaluating hypotheses, implementing controls, and communicating findings. The overall purpose is to identify the cause of the outbreak and implement measures to control it.
This document discusses hospital outbreak investigations. It defines endemic and epidemic infections in hospitals. Common source and propagated epidemics are described. Steps in investigating outbreaks in hospitals and communities are provided, including forming an investigation team, developing a case definition, conducting epidemiological and laboratory analyses. The goals of outbreak investigations are outlined. Methods for confirming and controlling outbreaks are discussed.
outbreak investigation - types of epidemics and investigating themTimiresh Das
This document discusses an upcoming presentation on outbreak investigation. It begins with definitions of key terms like epidemic, outbreak, endemic, and pandemic. It then discusses determinants of disease outbreaks and types of epidemics. The objectives, steps, and examples of outbreak investigation are provided. Various factors related to outbreaks like incubation period, quarantine, herd immunity, and triggers for surveillance are defined.
This document provides an overview of epidemic investigation. It begins with definitions of key terms like epidemic, outbreak, endemic, and pandemic. It describes the objectives of epidemic investigation as defining the scope and identifying the causative agent. The steps in an investigation are outlined as verifying diagnoses, defining the population at risk, analyzing data, formulating hypotheses, and writing a report. Recent outbreaks around the world are briefly discussed.
1) The document discusses surveillance in public health and describes its key components and purposes. Surveillance involves the systematic collection, analysis, and interpretation of health data to provide information for action.
2) An effective surveillance system is simple, flexible, timely, and produces high-quality data. It addresses an important public health problem and accomplishes its objectives of understanding disease trends, detecting outbreaks, and evaluating control measures.
3) The document outlines how to establish a surveillance system, including selecting priority diseases, defining standard case definitions, and developing regular reporting and data dissemination processes. Both passive and active surveillance methods are described.
The 10-step approach to outbreak investigations involves:
1) Identifying an investigation team and resources.
2) Establishing the existence of an outbreak.
3) Verifying the diagnosis, constructing a case definition, and finding cases systematically.
Descriptive epidemiology is then used to develop hypotheses, which are evaluated through additional studies if needed, before implementing control measures, communicating findings, and maintaining surveillance to confirm the outbreak has ended. Being systematic and following these steps is key to determining the source and controlling outbreaks.
The unusual occurrence in a community or region of disease, specific health related behaviour (eg. Smoking) or other health related events (eg. Traffic accidents) clearly in excess of “expected occurrence.
Surveillance involves the systematic collection, analysis, and use of health data for decision-making. It serves as an early warning system and monitors the impact of interventions. There are different types of surveillance including community-based, hospital-based, and active/passive surveillance. Community-based surveillance engages community members to detect and report health events. Hospital-based surveillance relies on regular reporting from hospitals. Active surveillance actively seeks out cases, while passive surveillance waits for cases to be reported. The appropriate surveillance method depends on the context and challenges.
This document discusses hospital outbreak investigations. It defines endemic and epidemic infections in hospitals. Common source and propagated epidemics are described. Steps in investigating outbreaks in hospitals and communities are provided, including forming an investigation team, developing a case definition, conducting epidemiological and laboratory analyses. The goals of outbreak investigations are outlined. Methods for confirming and controlling outbreaks are discussed.
outbreak investigation - types of epidemics and investigating themTimiresh Das
This document discusses an upcoming presentation on outbreak investigation. It begins with definitions of key terms like epidemic, outbreak, endemic, and pandemic. It then discusses determinants of disease outbreaks and types of epidemics. The objectives, steps, and examples of outbreak investigation are provided. Various factors related to outbreaks like incubation period, quarantine, herd immunity, and triggers for surveillance are defined.
This document provides an overview of epidemic investigation. It begins with definitions of key terms like epidemic, outbreak, endemic, and pandemic. It describes the objectives of epidemic investigation as defining the scope and identifying the causative agent. The steps in an investigation are outlined as verifying diagnoses, defining the population at risk, analyzing data, formulating hypotheses, and writing a report. Recent outbreaks around the world are briefly discussed.
1) The document discusses surveillance in public health and describes its key components and purposes. Surveillance involves the systematic collection, analysis, and interpretation of health data to provide information for action.
2) An effective surveillance system is simple, flexible, timely, and produces high-quality data. It addresses an important public health problem and accomplishes its objectives of understanding disease trends, detecting outbreaks, and evaluating control measures.
3) The document outlines how to establish a surveillance system, including selecting priority diseases, defining standard case definitions, and developing regular reporting and data dissemination processes. Both passive and active surveillance methods are described.
The 10-step approach to outbreak investigations involves:
1) Identifying an investigation team and resources.
2) Establishing the existence of an outbreak.
3) Verifying the diagnosis, constructing a case definition, and finding cases systematically.
Descriptive epidemiology is then used to develop hypotheses, which are evaluated through additional studies if needed, before implementing control measures, communicating findings, and maintaining surveillance to confirm the outbreak has ended. Being systematic and following these steps is key to determining the source and controlling outbreaks.
The unusual occurrence in a community or region of disease, specific health related behaviour (eg. Smoking) or other health related events (eg. Traffic accidents) clearly in excess of “expected occurrence.
Surveillance involves the systematic collection, analysis, and use of health data for decision-making. It serves as an early warning system and monitors the impact of interventions. There are different types of surveillance including community-based, hospital-based, and active/passive surveillance. Community-based surveillance engages community members to detect and report health events. Hospital-based surveillance relies on regular reporting from hospitals. Active surveillance actively seeks out cases, while passive surveillance waits for cases to be reported. The appropriate surveillance method depends on the context and challenges.
This document outlines the steps and objectives for investigating an epidemic outbreak. It details verifying diagnoses, confirming the epidemic's existence, defining the at-risk population, rapidly searching for all cases and their characteristics, analyzing the data, formulating hypotheses, testing hypotheses, evaluating ecological factors, further investigating the population at risk, writing reports, and implementing control measures. The overall goal is to determine the cause and transmission modes of the epidemic in order to prevent future occurrences.
An epidemic occurs when there is an unusual increase in the occurrence of a disease within a community or region beyond what is normally expected. To determine if an epidemic has occurred, one must consider the magnitude of cases, factors responsible, and cause/mode of transmission. Investigating an epidemic involves 10 steps: 1) verifying diagnoses, 2) confirming the epidemic's existence, 3) defining the at-risk population, 4) rapidly searching for all case characteristics, 5) analyzing data, 6) formulating hypotheses, 7) testing hypotheses, 8) evaluating ecological factors, 9) further investigating the at-risk population, and 10) writing a report of the background, methodology, data analysis, and control recommendations.
This document discusses various measures used to quantify mortality and morbidity. It defines key terms like rates, ratios, proportions and describes different types of mortality and morbidity measures including crude death rates, cause-specific mortality rates, life expectancy, years of life lost, and others. It also discusses methods to adjust rates to account for factors like age and sex, and aggregate measures that combine mortality and morbidity data.
The document describes the steps taken to investigate an outbreak of jaundice in Rohtak, India. People first noticed an unusual occurrence of jaundice cases that had not been seen in over 10 years. A house-to-house survey confirmed it was an outbreak. Laboratory tests of water samples found one-third failed orthotolidine tests and 3 of 5 samples had unsafe coliform counts. Additional observations revealed poor sanitation practices in the community that could have contributed to the spread of the disease.
This document discusses and compares monitoring and surveillance in veterinary epidemiology. It defines surveillance as a more intensive form of monitoring that involves the gathering, analysis, and dissemination of disease data to support control actions. The key differences provided are that surveillance requires professional analysis and judgment to make recommendations, has formulated standards, and can differentiate between acceptable and unacceptable changes in disease status. Various types of surveillance systems and their uses in disease control planning and evaluation are also outlined.
This document provides an overview of public health surveillance. It defines surveillance as the ongoing collection, analysis, and interpretation of health data to inform public health programs and actions. The document outlines the historical origins of surveillance dating back to ancient Greece. It describes various types of surveillance including community-level surveillance, routine reporting systems, active and passive surveillance, sentinel surveillance, and surveys. It also discusses the integrated disease surveillance program in India and how it aims to strengthen surveillance systems at the state and district levels.
This document provides an overview of basic measurements used in epidemiology. It discusses tools like proportion, rate, and ratio. It also covers various measures of mortality like crude death rate, specific death rate, and proportional mortality rate. Measures of morbidity like incidence and prevalence are explained. The relationship between incidence and prevalence is described. Standardization techniques are introduced to make rates comparable between populations.
Epidemiology is the study and analysis of the patterns, causes, and effects of health and disease conditions in defined populations. It is the cornerstone of public health, and shapes policy decisions and evidence-based practice by identifying risk factors for disease and targets for preventive healthcare. Epidemiologists help with study design, collection, and statistical analysis of data, amend interpretation and dissemination of results (including peer review and occasional systematic review). Epidemiology has helped develop methodology used in clinical research, public health studies, and, to a lesser extent, basic research in the biological sciences
Life is full of curves and thus the epidemiology. However, some curves are important as Epidemic Curves and Survival Curves. This presentation is an attempt to know about epidemic curves.
Descriptive epidemiology is the first phase of epidemiological investigation which aims to observe disease distribution in a population and identify characteristics associated with disease. It involves defining the population and disease, describing disease occurrence by time, place and person, measuring disease burden, comparing data to indices, and formulating hypotheses about potential causes. Key aspects include examining time trends, geographical variation, and characteristics of individuals with disease like age and sex. The goal is to understand basic features of a health problem and generate ideas about causal factors.
This document discusses the concepts of association and causation in epidemiology. It defines key terms like correlation, relative risk, odds ratio, and attributable risk which are used to measure the strength of association between different factors. It also differentiates between association and causation, explaining that correlation does not necessarily imply causation. The document outlines different types of causal relationships like necessary and sufficient, necessary but not sufficient, and neither necessary nor sufficient. It also discusses approaches used to study disease etiology and evaluate evidence for a causal relationship.
This document discusses disease surveillance and the concept of a public health ecosystem. It describes key aspects of public health including promoting healthy lifestyles, researching disease prevention, and controlling infectious diseases. Disease surveillance is highlighted as a core public health function. An ideal public health information ecosystem is proposed, with different components like surveillance, immunization, and environmental health. The document explores what disease surveillance entails and presents the idea of a disease surveillance ecosystem that brings together different stakeholders like epidemiologists, nurses, and laboratory staff. It addresses current gaps and ways to prioritize and fill them. Finally, it considers exercises around building an ideal disease surveillance team and responding to syndromic surveillance alerts.
This document discusses disease screening and provides information on various aspects of screening programs and tests. It defines screening as actively searching for unrecognized disease in apparently healthy individuals using simple tests. The key points are:
- Screening is part of secondary prevention and aims to detect diseases early when they may be still curable. It involves testing populations, not individuals with symptoms.
- An ideal screening test is both highly sensitive and specific, but in practice these factors typically have an inverse relationship. Sensitivity and specificity can be adjusted by changing the test cutoff criteria.
- For a screening program to be effective, the disease must be an important health problem that can be detected early and treated effectively to improve outcomes. The screening test
This document provides an introduction to the basic concepts of epidemiology. It defines epidemiology as the study of patterns, causes, and effects of health and disease conditions in populations. The aims of epidemiology are to describe disease distribution and frequency, identify risk factors, and provide data to prevent and control diseases. Epidemiologists make comparisons between groups with and without disease exposure to identify determinants and test hypotheses. Basic measurements in epidemiology include mortality, morbidity, disability, and the distribution of disease and risk factors. Rates, ratios, and proportions are key tools used to measure and express disease frequency in populations.
This document outlines a presentation on clinical epidemiology. It begins with an introduction to clinical epidemiology, noting that it was introduced in 1938 as a "new basic science for preventive medicine" and shifted its focus to individual patients in the 1960s. The document then defines clinical epidemiology as "the science of making predictions about individual patients by counting clinical events in similar patients." It discusses why clinical epidemiology is important for clinical decision making and avoiding bias. The rest of the document outlines topics to be covered, including uses of clinical epidemiology, sensitivity and specificity, predictive values, ROC curve analysis, and likelihood ratios.
The document defines key terms related to epidemics such as epidemic, endemic, outbreak, sporadic, and pandemic. It discusses the iceberg concept of infectious disease and explains that only a small portion of cases are clinically apparent. The levels of response to different disease triggers are outlined. The document also covers the objectives and steps of an epidemic investigation including developing a case definition, confirming the existence of an epidemic, defining the population at risk, rapidly searching for cases, analyzing data through epidemiological curves, and formulating and testing hypotheses. Control measures and the importance of forecasting and preventing future epidemics are also summarized.
Screening tests aim to identify unrecognized disease in apparently healthy individuals. They differ from diagnostic tests in that they are applied to groups rather than individuals, use a single criterion, and are less accurate. Validity refers to a test's accuracy while reliability is its precision on repeat tests. Sensitivity measures a test's ability to identify true positives, and specificity measures its ability to identify true negatives. Screening programs must consider factors like disease burden, test characteristics, and whether early detection improves outcomes.
The document discusses notifiable diseases, which are diseases that are legally required to be reported to government authorities. It provides information on the process of disease notification and lists examples of notifiable diseases in various countries and within India. It also describes the Integrated Disease Surveillance Programme launched in India in 2004 to help detect and respond rapidly to disease outbreaks. Key agencies involved in disease surveillance and reporting at national and international levels are also outlined.
This document discusses public health surveillance. It begins by defining surveillance and its main components, which include the ongoing collection and analysis of health data to facilitate disease prevention and control. The document then lists the main uses of surveillance data, such as estimating disease burden and evaluating programs. It describes three main sources of surveillance data: individuals, healthcare providers, and environmental conditions. The document outlines the five main steps of surveillance and discusses selecting health problems for surveillance based on factors like disease severity. It also describes different data collection methods, like notifications, surveys, and disease registries. In closing, it outlines the flow of surveillance information between data providers, analysts, and those responsible for public health response and decision-making.
Guidelines for Management of Outbreak in Healthcare Organizationdrnahla
Guidelines for Management of Outbreak in Healthcare Organization
Dr. NAHLA ABDEL KADERوMD, PhD.
INFECTION CONTROL CONSULTANT, MOH
INFECTION CONTROL CBAHI SURVEYOR
Infection Control Director, KKH.
The document summarizes the key steps in investigating an epidemic:
1) Verify the diagnosis and confirm the existence of an epidemic by comparing to previous years.
2) Define the population at risk by obtaining maps, counting population size, and initial line-listing of cases.
3) Conduct a rapid search for all cases through medical surveys, case sheets collecting details of identified cases, and searching for additional cases.
4) Analyze the collected data to understand patterns in time, place and person which can reveal the source and spread of disease. Formulate and test hypotheses based on this analysis.
This document outlines the steps and objectives for investigating an epidemic outbreak. It details verifying diagnoses, confirming the epidemic's existence, defining the at-risk population, rapidly searching for all cases and their characteristics, analyzing the data, formulating hypotheses, testing hypotheses, evaluating ecological factors, further investigating the population at risk, writing reports, and implementing control measures. The overall goal is to determine the cause and transmission modes of the epidemic in order to prevent future occurrences.
An epidemic occurs when there is an unusual increase in the occurrence of a disease within a community or region beyond what is normally expected. To determine if an epidemic has occurred, one must consider the magnitude of cases, factors responsible, and cause/mode of transmission. Investigating an epidemic involves 10 steps: 1) verifying diagnoses, 2) confirming the epidemic's existence, 3) defining the at-risk population, 4) rapidly searching for all case characteristics, 5) analyzing data, 6) formulating hypotheses, 7) testing hypotheses, 8) evaluating ecological factors, 9) further investigating the at-risk population, and 10) writing a report of the background, methodology, data analysis, and control recommendations.
This document discusses various measures used to quantify mortality and morbidity. It defines key terms like rates, ratios, proportions and describes different types of mortality and morbidity measures including crude death rates, cause-specific mortality rates, life expectancy, years of life lost, and others. It also discusses methods to adjust rates to account for factors like age and sex, and aggregate measures that combine mortality and morbidity data.
The document describes the steps taken to investigate an outbreak of jaundice in Rohtak, India. People first noticed an unusual occurrence of jaundice cases that had not been seen in over 10 years. A house-to-house survey confirmed it was an outbreak. Laboratory tests of water samples found one-third failed orthotolidine tests and 3 of 5 samples had unsafe coliform counts. Additional observations revealed poor sanitation practices in the community that could have contributed to the spread of the disease.
This document discusses and compares monitoring and surveillance in veterinary epidemiology. It defines surveillance as a more intensive form of monitoring that involves the gathering, analysis, and dissemination of disease data to support control actions. The key differences provided are that surveillance requires professional analysis and judgment to make recommendations, has formulated standards, and can differentiate between acceptable and unacceptable changes in disease status. Various types of surveillance systems and their uses in disease control planning and evaluation are also outlined.
This document provides an overview of public health surveillance. It defines surveillance as the ongoing collection, analysis, and interpretation of health data to inform public health programs and actions. The document outlines the historical origins of surveillance dating back to ancient Greece. It describes various types of surveillance including community-level surveillance, routine reporting systems, active and passive surveillance, sentinel surveillance, and surveys. It also discusses the integrated disease surveillance program in India and how it aims to strengthen surveillance systems at the state and district levels.
This document provides an overview of basic measurements used in epidemiology. It discusses tools like proportion, rate, and ratio. It also covers various measures of mortality like crude death rate, specific death rate, and proportional mortality rate. Measures of morbidity like incidence and prevalence are explained. The relationship between incidence and prevalence is described. Standardization techniques are introduced to make rates comparable between populations.
Epidemiology is the study and analysis of the patterns, causes, and effects of health and disease conditions in defined populations. It is the cornerstone of public health, and shapes policy decisions and evidence-based practice by identifying risk factors for disease and targets for preventive healthcare. Epidemiologists help with study design, collection, and statistical analysis of data, amend interpretation and dissemination of results (including peer review and occasional systematic review). Epidemiology has helped develop methodology used in clinical research, public health studies, and, to a lesser extent, basic research in the biological sciences
Life is full of curves and thus the epidemiology. However, some curves are important as Epidemic Curves and Survival Curves. This presentation is an attempt to know about epidemic curves.
Descriptive epidemiology is the first phase of epidemiological investigation which aims to observe disease distribution in a population and identify characteristics associated with disease. It involves defining the population and disease, describing disease occurrence by time, place and person, measuring disease burden, comparing data to indices, and formulating hypotheses about potential causes. Key aspects include examining time trends, geographical variation, and characteristics of individuals with disease like age and sex. The goal is to understand basic features of a health problem and generate ideas about causal factors.
This document discusses the concepts of association and causation in epidemiology. It defines key terms like correlation, relative risk, odds ratio, and attributable risk which are used to measure the strength of association between different factors. It also differentiates between association and causation, explaining that correlation does not necessarily imply causation. The document outlines different types of causal relationships like necessary and sufficient, necessary but not sufficient, and neither necessary nor sufficient. It also discusses approaches used to study disease etiology and evaluate evidence for a causal relationship.
This document discusses disease surveillance and the concept of a public health ecosystem. It describes key aspects of public health including promoting healthy lifestyles, researching disease prevention, and controlling infectious diseases. Disease surveillance is highlighted as a core public health function. An ideal public health information ecosystem is proposed, with different components like surveillance, immunization, and environmental health. The document explores what disease surveillance entails and presents the idea of a disease surveillance ecosystem that brings together different stakeholders like epidemiologists, nurses, and laboratory staff. It addresses current gaps and ways to prioritize and fill them. Finally, it considers exercises around building an ideal disease surveillance team and responding to syndromic surveillance alerts.
This document discusses disease screening and provides information on various aspects of screening programs and tests. It defines screening as actively searching for unrecognized disease in apparently healthy individuals using simple tests. The key points are:
- Screening is part of secondary prevention and aims to detect diseases early when they may be still curable. It involves testing populations, not individuals with symptoms.
- An ideal screening test is both highly sensitive and specific, but in practice these factors typically have an inverse relationship. Sensitivity and specificity can be adjusted by changing the test cutoff criteria.
- For a screening program to be effective, the disease must be an important health problem that can be detected early and treated effectively to improve outcomes. The screening test
This document provides an introduction to the basic concepts of epidemiology. It defines epidemiology as the study of patterns, causes, and effects of health and disease conditions in populations. The aims of epidemiology are to describe disease distribution and frequency, identify risk factors, and provide data to prevent and control diseases. Epidemiologists make comparisons between groups with and without disease exposure to identify determinants and test hypotheses. Basic measurements in epidemiology include mortality, morbidity, disability, and the distribution of disease and risk factors. Rates, ratios, and proportions are key tools used to measure and express disease frequency in populations.
This document outlines a presentation on clinical epidemiology. It begins with an introduction to clinical epidemiology, noting that it was introduced in 1938 as a "new basic science for preventive medicine" and shifted its focus to individual patients in the 1960s. The document then defines clinical epidemiology as "the science of making predictions about individual patients by counting clinical events in similar patients." It discusses why clinical epidemiology is important for clinical decision making and avoiding bias. The rest of the document outlines topics to be covered, including uses of clinical epidemiology, sensitivity and specificity, predictive values, ROC curve analysis, and likelihood ratios.
The document defines key terms related to epidemics such as epidemic, endemic, outbreak, sporadic, and pandemic. It discusses the iceberg concept of infectious disease and explains that only a small portion of cases are clinically apparent. The levels of response to different disease triggers are outlined. The document also covers the objectives and steps of an epidemic investigation including developing a case definition, confirming the existence of an epidemic, defining the population at risk, rapidly searching for cases, analyzing data through epidemiological curves, and formulating and testing hypotheses. Control measures and the importance of forecasting and preventing future epidemics are also summarized.
Screening tests aim to identify unrecognized disease in apparently healthy individuals. They differ from diagnostic tests in that they are applied to groups rather than individuals, use a single criterion, and are less accurate. Validity refers to a test's accuracy while reliability is its precision on repeat tests. Sensitivity measures a test's ability to identify true positives, and specificity measures its ability to identify true negatives. Screening programs must consider factors like disease burden, test characteristics, and whether early detection improves outcomes.
The document discusses notifiable diseases, which are diseases that are legally required to be reported to government authorities. It provides information on the process of disease notification and lists examples of notifiable diseases in various countries and within India. It also describes the Integrated Disease Surveillance Programme launched in India in 2004 to help detect and respond rapidly to disease outbreaks. Key agencies involved in disease surveillance and reporting at national and international levels are also outlined.
This document discusses public health surveillance. It begins by defining surveillance and its main components, which include the ongoing collection and analysis of health data to facilitate disease prevention and control. The document then lists the main uses of surveillance data, such as estimating disease burden and evaluating programs. It describes three main sources of surveillance data: individuals, healthcare providers, and environmental conditions. The document outlines the five main steps of surveillance and discusses selecting health problems for surveillance based on factors like disease severity. It also describes different data collection methods, like notifications, surveys, and disease registries. In closing, it outlines the flow of surveillance information between data providers, analysts, and those responsible for public health response and decision-making.
Guidelines for Management of Outbreak in Healthcare Organizationdrnahla
Guidelines for Management of Outbreak in Healthcare Organization
Dr. NAHLA ABDEL KADERوMD, PhD.
INFECTION CONTROL CONSULTANT, MOH
INFECTION CONTROL CBAHI SURVEYOR
Infection Control Director, KKH.
The document summarizes the key steps in investigating an epidemic:
1) Verify the diagnosis and confirm the existence of an epidemic by comparing to previous years.
2) Define the population at risk by obtaining maps, counting population size, and initial line-listing of cases.
3) Conduct a rapid search for all cases through medical surveys, case sheets collecting details of identified cases, and searching for additional cases.
4) Analyze the collected data to understand patterns in time, place and person which can reveal the source and spread of disease. Formulate and test hypotheses based on this analysis.
Surveillance of healthcare-associated infections: understanding and utilizing...Evangelos Kritsotakis
Presented at the EUCIC Basic Module for Infection Prevention and Control, Groningen, May 2022.
This module is organised by the European Committee on Infection Control (EUCIC) is taught face-to-face by top experts from different academic centres in Europe, who cover all major aspects of Infection Prevention and Control in the hospital.
This document outlines the steps for investigating an outbreak. It defines key epidemiological terms and discusses when to investigate an outbreak. The 10 steps of an outbreak investigation are described as: 1) defining the problem, 2) generating hypotheses, 3) testing hypotheses, 4) verifying diagnoses, 5) finding and counting cases, 6) performing descriptive epidemiology, 7) analyzing data, 8) communicating findings, 9) implementing control measures, and 10) preventing future outbreaks. Preparedness, the roles of NGOs, recent outbreak examples, and the importance of surveillance and inter-sectoral coordination are also covered.
The document outlines the key principles and steps of conducting an outbreak investigation. It defines what constitutes an outbreak and explains that the purpose is to control the current outbreak, prevent future occurrences, and evaluate existing surveillance and prevention programs. The main steps described are confirming the outbreak, defining cases, collecting descriptive data, developing hypotheses, testing hypotheses through analytical studies, communicating conclusions, and recommending control measures.
steps in epidemic investigation
Prepare for field work
Confirm the existence of an outbreak
Verify the diagnosis and determine the etiology of the disease.
Define the population at risk
Develop case definition, start case finding, and collect information on the cases(after choosing study design)
Describe person, place and time (by questionnaire)
Evaluation of ecological factors
Formulate several possible hypothesis hypotheses.
Test hypotheses using analytical study
Refine hypotheses and carry out additional studies
Draw conclusions to explain the causes or determinants of outbreak based on clinical, laboratory, epidemiological & environmental evidence
Report and recommend appropriate control measures to concerned authorities at the local/national, and if appropriate at international levels
Communication of the findings
Follow up of the recommendation to assure implementation of control measures
epidemiology with part 2 (complete) 2.pptAmosWafula3
This document provides an overview of epidemiology. It begins by defining epidemiology as the study of what falls upon populations in terms of health and disease. A modern definition is provided that describes epidemiology as studying the distribution and determinants of health states in populations.
The objectives and purposes of epidemiology are then outlined, which include describing disease distribution and magnitude, identifying risk factors, providing data for prevention/control programs, and recommending interventions. Key epidemiological terms like incidence, prevalence, endemic, epidemic, and pandemic are also defined. Descriptive and analytical study designs commonly used in epidemiology like cross-sectional and case-control studies are described. The document concludes by contrasting the approaches of epidemiology versus clinical medicine
The document provides guidance on conducting an epidemiological investigation of an epidemic, outlining the objectives, team roles and responsibilities, and steps of an investigation which include establishing the existence of an outbreak, verifying diagnoses, constructing a case definition, systematically finding and recording information on cases, developing and evaluating hypotheses, and implementing control measures. The goal of an epidemic investigation is to understand the factors driving the outbreak in order to control spread and prevent future occurrences.
An outbreak of Burkholderia cepacia bloodstream infections occurred among newborns in the NICU, with 16 of 59 newborns infected over a month. This was a significant increase over the unit's typical infection rate of 2% per month. The ICC nurse investigated by learning about B. cepacia, verifying the diagnoses, establishing the outbreak, and defining cases. Preliminary findings identified a cluster of infections in October, with all blood cultures from within 24 hours of birth testing positive for B. cepacia. The source and mode of transmission were still unknown.
The document provides an overview of investigating disease outbreaks through a 13-step approach. It defines key epidemiological concepts like outbreak, epidemic, endemic and pandemic. The 13 steps include: 1) forming an investigation team, 2) verifying the existence of an outbreak, 3) verifying diagnoses, 4) defining cases, 5) finding cases systematically, 6) descriptive epidemiology, 7) developing hypotheses, 8) evaluating hypotheses, 9) refining hypotheses, 10) additional studies, 11) control measures, 12) surveillance, and 13) communication. Descriptive epidemiology involves characterizing cases by time, place and person. Hypothesis development and evaluation use epidemiological and analytical methods.
This document outlines the educational objectives and content for a lecture on epidemiology. The objectives are to define key epidemiology terms, discuss the functions and modes of epidemiologic investigation, and identify sources of data and potential sources of error. The content includes definitions of epidemiology and related terms, the main functions of epidemiology, descriptive and analytic modes of investigation, how surveillance system data is applied through outbreak investigation, and sources of epidemiological data and potential sources of error.
Here are the key points to compare the different research methods:
Cross-sectional study:
- Advantages: Quick, easy, low cost, can study multiple factors at once
- Disadvantages: Cannot determine temporal sequence, prone to biases
- Requirements: Representative sample, standardized data collection
Case-control study:
- Advantages: Efficient to study rare diseases, can study multiple exposures
- Disadvantages: Prone to selection and recall biases, uncertain temporal sequence
- Requirements: Clear case definition, appropriate controls matched to cases
Cohort study:
- Advantages: Directly measures risk, establishes temporal sequence
- Disadvantages: Expensive, long follow up needed
The document outlines the steps for investigating an epidemic. It defines what constitutes an epidemic and lists different types. The key steps for an epidemic investigation include:
1. Verifying diagnoses of cases and confirming the existence of an epidemic.
2. Defining the population at risk by mapping cases.
3. Searching for all cases, including infected individuals and their contacts.
4. Analyzing collected data to form a hypothesis about the source and spread.
5. Evaluating environmental factors and testing the initial hypothesis.
6. Writing a final report with recommendations to prevent future epidemics.
This document provides an overview of investigating and managing disease outbreaks. It discusses key concepts like endemic, epidemic, pandemic and outbreak. It also outlines the 10 steps to investigate an outbreak: 1) prepare for field work, 2) confirm outbreak occurrence, 3) verify diagnoses, 4) define cases and find cases, 5) descriptive epidemiology, 6) form hypotheses, 7) evaluate hypotheses, 8) refine hypotheses, 9) intervention and follow up, and 10) communicate findings. Descriptive epidemiology involves analyzing cases by time, place and person using tools like epidemic curves and spot maps.
Lecture 8 & 9. Outbrek invesitgation and screening test.pptxMesfinShifara
This document provides an overview of investigating and managing disease outbreaks. It discusses key concepts like levels of disease occurrence (endemic, epidemic, pandemic), thresholds for declaring an outbreak, and steps for outbreak investigation and control. The steps include preparing for field work, verifying the outbreak, defining cases, descriptive epidemiology of time, place and person, formulating a hypothesis, and implementing control measures. Understanding disease patterns and investigating outbreaks aims to control transmission and prevent future occurrences.
An outbreak exists when there are more cases of a disease than normal in a particular area, group, or time period. Investigating outbreaks helps describe the problem, implement control measures, and advance medical knowledge. When investigating an outbreak, epidemiologists verify diagnoses, identify cases, analyze data by time, place, and person to form hypotheses, and evaluate control measures to terminate the outbreak.
The document discusses the management of epidemics through various steps including forecasting, investigation, and control. It describes how forecasting involves studying past disease trends to predict future outbreaks. Investigation aims to define the scope of an epidemic by confirming diagnoses, identifying the at-risk population, and screening affected areas. Control methods center around removing infection sources, preventing transmission, and vector control such as mosquito elimination. The overall management of epidemics requires coordinated preparedness, surveillance, health education, and preventive measures to contain disease spread and severity.
This document discusses epidemiology and how it was used to identify smoking as a cause of lung cancer. It shows that lung cancer rates increased dramatically between 1937-1950 in the US. A case-control study found that smokers were over 20 times more likely to develop lung cancer than non-smokers. A later British study found that lung cancer risk increased with the number of cigarettes smoked per day. Through observational epidemiological studies, researchers were able to establish smoking as a major risk factor and cause of lung cancer.
This document provides an overview of the rules and guidelines for the 2014 Disease Detectives event for Science Olympiad. It outlines that the topic for 2014 will be environmental quality. It provides resources for training materials, including sample problems and event guidelines. It describes the format of the event and emphasizes checking the official rules for parameters. It also gives an overview of epidemiology concepts focused on for 2014, including environmental causes of health problems and the scientific method as it relates to outbreak investigation.
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Influenza a emergency prepardness for healthcare facilitiesMoustapha Ramadan
The data presented are per 4th of March 2017 and subject to changes.
The presentation aims to provide the basic infection control requirement for healthcare facilities during large influenza epidemic or pandemic
This document outlines strategies to prevent central line-associated bloodstream infections (CLABSI) presented by Dr. Moustapha Ramadan, Head of the infection control office at Ibn Sina Hospital. It defines central line infections and risk factors such as host conditions, microbes, therapy factors, and catheter characteristics. Strategies discussed include education and training, infection control practices like hand hygiene and maximal barriers, appropriate catheter site care and dressings, and using antimicrobial catheters and locks in some cases. The goal is to standardize aseptic insertion and maintenance of intravascular catheters to reduce CLABSI rates.
This presentation aims to give a quick guide on new technologies in environmental cleaning. The decision of choosing a specific type depends on each healthcare setting and its need.
Cholera is an acute infection caused by Vibrio cholerae bacteria found in contaminated water or food. It has an incubation period of 2 hours to 5 days and those infected may shed the pathogen in their stool while asymptomatic. Standard and contact precautions are required to control spread, including isolation of patients, proper hand hygiene, and environmental cleaning with chlorine-based disinfectants. Rehydration with oral rehydration salts is the primary treatment for cholera cases.
Prevention of mycobateria tuberculosis in healthcare settingsMoustapha Ramadan
This document discusses the prevention of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) in healthcare settings. It begins with an introduction to mycobacteria and the diseases they cause like tuberculosis, leprosy, and atypical mycobacterial infections. It then provides facts about MTB globally and its symptoms. The remainder of the document outlines administrative, environmental, and respiratory precautions that can be taken to prevent MTB transmission in healthcare settings, including proper patient management, cleaning/disinfection, staff training/surveillance, and use of airborne isolation rooms and respiratory protection equipment.
This document outlines a prevention strategy for multidrug-resistant organisms (MDROs) in healthcare settings. It discusses key components such as developing infection control guidelines, surveillance programs, antimicrobial stewardship, and continuous education. Control interventions include administrative support, education, judicious antimicrobial use, surveillance, standard/contact precautions, and environmental measures applied in combination based on the situation.
Infection prevention in healthcare construction and renovationMoustapha Ramadan
Infection prevention and control in healthcare setting during construction and renovation.
Is really there is a need? What is the role of infection preventionist?
Presentation was given to Labor workers and Engineers
This document discusses antimicrobial resistance and strategies to address it. It notes that antibiotic overuse has led to many resistant infections worldwide. To combat this, the WHO advocates a coordinated, multi-sector response including prudent antibiotic use, infection control, surveillance, and new drug development. Key strategies to reduce resistant infections in healthcare facilities include antibiotic stewardship programs, hand hygiene, isolation precautions, and developing treatment guidelines based on local resistance patterns.
The document outlines recommendations for infection prevention and control in the operating room, including maintaining sterile zones, following standard precautions like proper hand hygiene and use of personal protective equipment, and CDC guidelines for preventing surgical site infections such as administering antimicrobial prophylaxis within 1 hour before incision. Risk factors for infection are classified and procedures for cleaning spills of blood and body fluids are described. Evaluation of infection control practices involves using checklists to monitor compliance and surveillance to identify infections and associated risk factors.
Fexofenadine is sold under the brand name Allegra.
It is a selective peripheral H1 blocker. It is classified as a second-generation antihistamine because it is less able to pass the blood–brain barrier and causes lesser sedation, as compared to first-generation antihistamines.
It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. Fexofenadine has been manufactured in generic form since 2011.
TEST BANK For Brunner and Suddarth's Textbook of Medical-Surgical Nursing, 14...Donc Test
TEST BANK For Brunner and Suddarth's Textbook of Medical-Surgical Nursing, 14th Edition (Hinkle, 2017) Verified Chapter's 1 - 73 Complete.pdf
TEST BANK For Brunner and Suddarth's Textbook of Medical-Surgical Nursing, 14th Edition (Hinkle, 2017) Verified Chapter's 1 - 73 Complete.pdf
TEST BANK For Brunner and Suddarth's Textbook of Medical-Surgical Nursing, 14th Edition (Hinkle, 2017) Verified Chapter's 1 - 73 Complete.pdf
Selective alpha1 blockers are Prazosin, Terazosin, Doxazosin, Tamsulosin and Silodosin majorly used to treat BPH, also hypertension, PTSD, Raynaud's phenomenon, CHF
The Children are very vulnerable to get affected with respiratory disease.
In our country, the respiratory Disease conditions are consider as major cause for mortality and Morbidity in Child.
CLASSIFICATION OF H1 ANTIHISTAMINICS-
FIRST GENERATION ANTIHISTAMINICS-
1)HIGHLY SEDATIVE-DIPHENHYDRAMINE,DIMENHYDRINATE,PROMETHAZINE,HYDROXYZINE 2)MODERATELY SEDATIVE- PHENARIMINE,CYPROHEPTADINE, MECLIZINE,CINNARIZINE
3)MILD SEDATIVE-CHLORPHENIRAMINE,DEXCHLORPHENIRAMINE
TRIPROLIDINE,CLEMASTINE
SECOND GENERATION ANTIHISTAMINICS-FEXOFENADINE,
LORATADINE,DESLORATADINE,CETIRIZINE,LEVOCETIRIZINE,
AZELASTINE,MIZOLASTINE,EBASTINE,RUPATADINE. Mechanism of action of 2nd generation antihistaminics-
These drugs competitively antagonize actions of
histamine at the H1 receptors.
Pharmacological actions-
Antagonism of histamine-The H1 antagonists effectively block histamine induced bronchoconstriction, contraction of intestinal and other smooth muscle and triple response especially wheal, flare and itch. Constriction of larger blood vessel by histamine is also antagonized.
2) Antiallergic actions-Many manifestations of immediate hypersensitivity (type I reactions)are suppressed. Urticaria, itching and angioedema are well controlled.3) CNS action-The older antihistamines produce variable degree of CNS depression.But in case of 2nd gen antihistaminics there is less CNS depressant property as these cross BBB to significantly lesser extent.
4) Anticholinergic action- many H1 blockers
in addition antagonize muscarinic actions of ACh. BUT IN 2ND gen histaminics there is Higher H1 selectivitiy : no anticholinergic side effects
Breast cancer :Receptor (ER/PR/HER2 NEU) Discordance.pptxDr. Sumit KUMAR
Receptor Discordance in Breast Carcinoma During the Course of Life
Definition:
Receptor discordance refers to changes in the status of hormone receptors (estrogen receptor ERα, progesterone receptor PgR, and HER2) in breast cancer tumors over time or between primary and metastatic sites.
Causes:
Tumor Evolution:
Genetic and epigenetic changes during tumor progression can lead to alterations in receptor status.
Treatment Effects:
Therapies, especially endocrine and targeted therapies, can selectively pressure tumor cells, causing shifts in receptor expression.
Heterogeneity:
Inherent heterogeneity within the tumor can result in subpopulations of cells with different receptor statuses.
Impact on Treatment:
Therapeutic Resistance:
Loss of ERα or PgR can lead to resistance to endocrine therapies.
HER2 discordance affects the efficacy of HER2-targeted treatments.
Treatment Adjustment:
Regular reassessment of receptor status may be necessary to adjust treatment strategies appropriately.
Clinical Implications:
Prognosis:
Receptor discordance is often associated with a poorer prognosis.
Biopsies:
Obtaining biopsies from metastatic sites is crucial for accurate receptor status assessment and effective treatment planning.
Monitoring:
Continuous monitoring of receptor status throughout the disease course can guide personalized therapy adjustments.
Understanding and managing receptor discordance is essential for optimizing treatment outcomes and improving the prognosis for breast cancer patients.
Phosphorus, is intensely sensitive to ‘other worlds’ and lacks the personal boundaries at every level. A Phosphorus personality is susceptible to all external impressions; light, sound, odour, touch, electrical changes, etc. Just like a match, he is easily excitable, anxious, fears being alone at twilight, ghosts, about future. Desires sympathy and has the tendency to kiss everyone who comes near him. An insane person with the exaggerated idea of one’s own importance.
congenital GI disorders are very dangerous to child. it is also a leading cause for death of the child.
this congenital GI disorders includes cleft lip, cleft palate, hirchsprung's disease etc.
Understanding Atherosclerosis Causes, Symptoms, Complications, and Preventionrealmbeats0
Definition: Atherosclerosis is a condition characterized by the buildup of plaques, which are made up of fat, cholesterol, calcium, and other substances, in the walls of arteries. Over time, these plaques harden and narrow the arteries, restricting blood flow.
Importance: This condition is a major contributor to cardiovascular diseases, including coronary artery disease, carotid artery disease, and peripheral artery disease. Understanding atherosclerosis is crucial for preventing these serious health issues.
Overview: We will cover the aims and objectives of this presentation, delve into the signs and symptoms of atherosclerosis, discuss its complications, and explore preventive measures and lifestyle changes that can mitigate risk.
Aim: To provide a detailed understanding of atherosclerosis, encompassing its pathophysiology, risk factors, clinical manifestations, and strategies for prevention and management.
Purpose: The primary purpose of this presentation is to raise awareness about atherosclerosis, highlight its impact on public health, and educate individuals on how they can reduce their risk through lifestyle changes and medical interventions.
Educational Goals:
Explain the pathophysiology of atherosclerosis, including the processes of plaque formation and arterial hardening.
Identify the risk factors associated with atherosclerosis, such as high cholesterol, hypertension, smoking, diabetes, and sedentary lifestyle.
Discuss the clinical signs and symptoms that may indicate the presence of atherosclerosis.
Highlight the potential complications arising from untreated atherosclerosis, including heart attack, stroke, and peripheral artery disease.
Provide practical advice on preventive measures, including dietary recommendations, exercise guidelines, and the importance of regular medical check-ups.
Part III - Cumulative Grief: Learning how to honor the many losses that occur...bkling
Cumulative grief, also known as compounded grief, is grief that occurs more than once in a brief period of time. As a person with cancer, a caregiver or professional in this world, we are often met with confronting grief on a frequent basis. Learn about cumulative grief and ways to cope with it. We will also explore methods to heal from this challenging experience.
2. Definitions of ( cluster/outbreak/pseudo
outbreak/ epidemic)
Healthcare settings infections
Reasons to investigate
How to recognize outbreak/epidemic
Goals of investigations
Steps of investigations
3. Cluster : refers to a group of cases in a specific
time and place
Outbreak: An increase in the incidence of a
disease above what is normally expected in
localized area over a specific period of time
4. Pseudo outbreak:
Increase in detection of true cases that does not
represent an outbreak eg: Change in local
reporting practices, increased interest in certain
diseases because of local or national awareness,
changes in diagnostic methods
or increase in incidence not related to true
increase in cases eg: misdiagnosis, laboratory
contamination
5. Epidemic :
The occurrence in a defined community or
region of cases of illness with a frequency
clearly in excess of normal expectancy…
endemo epidemic
A single case of a communicable disease long
absent from a population or the first invasion
by a disease not previously recognized…exotic
epidemic
6. Significant increase in the rate of HAIs above
the facility’s background rate.
5% of HAIs occur in outbreaks
Most outbreaks go unrecognized
7. Localized or systemic condition that results
from adverse reaction due to the presence of an
infectious agent(s) or its toxin(s) that was not
present or incubating at the time of admission
to the health facility.
Examples : UTI, VAP ,SSI, BSI, Clostridium
difficile etc…
8. Because every report by itself is very much
influenced by the local situation. Thus, only a
systematic evaluation of a large number of
outbreak reports will provide a less biased
assessment of data.
9. May represent breakdowns in public health
measures.
Evaluate existing prevention strategies, e.g.,
vaccines
Describe new diseases
Teach (and learn) epidemiology of infectious
diseases
Address public concern about the outbreak
10. Recently WHO recommends global alert and
response system (GAR).
Early warning which is timely surveillance
systems that collect information on epidemic-
prone diseases in order to trigger prompt public
health interventions.
Relies on an in-depth review done by
epidemiologists of the data coming in.
12. Surveillance is the collection, analysis,
interpretation and dissemination of information
about a selected health event. This information is
important to plan, implement and evaluate a health
program.
13. Uses of Surveillance
I) Identify the disease trend so that planning of
preventive and control programs can be adjusted to
meet the new situation.
2) Identify, investigate and help the control of
outbreaks or epidemics.
3) Identify the population at risk for certain disease or
death.
4) Identify new emerging disease.
5) Evaluation of preventive and control measures of
the disease under study.
14. Identify the etiologic agents
Identify the reservoir(s)
Identify the mode of transmission
Apply control and prevention measures
Eliminate the reservoir(s) and transmission
Prevent future outbreaks
15. Prepare for field work
Establish the existence of an epidemic
Verify the diagnosis
Define and identify cases
Descriptive epidemiology and epidemic
curves.
16. Develop hypotheses
Evaluate hypotheses
Refine hypotheses and carry out additional
studies
Implement control and prevention measures
Communicate findings
17. Develop an outbreak team.
Determine the role of each member in the
investigation
Research the disease and gather the supplies and
equipment you will need
Make necessary administrative and personal
arrangements for such things
18. Review existing information to determine the number of
potential cases, location, and severity of the problem
surveillance records
laboratory records
patient medical records
radiology
Pharmacy
Compare rates of infection for both the background period
and the outbreak period
19. Goal is to rule out pseudo-outbreaks.
Requires to :
Review the clinical findings
Laboratory findings
Examination a sample of affected persons
20. A. Define cases ( Establish case definition):
Case definition should be broad enough to
include most, if not all, of the actual cases.
(sensitive not specific)
Case definition must not include an exposure
or risk factor you want to test
Case definition must be equally applied and
without bias to all persons under the
investigation
21. A. Define cases ( Establish case definition):
Usually includes four components:
clinical information about the disease,
characteristics about the people who are
affected,
information about the location or place, and
a specification of time during which the
outbreak occurred
22. A. Define cases ( Establish case definition):
Possible (suspected)
New or Worsening of cough, Fever >38, nasal
discharge, sore throat
Probable
Symptoms +Radiology evidence
Definite (confirmed)
Laboratory confirmed
23. A. Define cases ( Establish case definition):
Example :
A patient hospitalized in the ICU from 24th
March
2013, with new or worsening of cough, Fever >38,
with suggestive X-ray changes and cultures
identify a respiratory microorganism.
24. B. Identify cases (line listing)
Identifying information
e.g. Hospital admission number, unit, name, address, phone.
Demographics
e.g. Age, sex, date of admission, date of surgery.
Risk factor information
e.g. Type of surgery, comorbidity, catheters, implants
Clinical data
e.g. Onset of symptoms and signs, frequency and duration of clinical
features, treatments, devices, etc
25.
26.
27. A. Person:
Determine what population at risk
Define population by host characteristics or exposure
Use attack rate to identify high-risk groups
Numerator = number of cases
Denominator = number of people at risk
28. Number of patients affected divided by the total
number of population at risk
Number of infections divided by the total number
of population at risk
Number of adverse outcomes divided by the total
number of population at risk
31. Ratio of the risk of disease among exposed to the risk among the non
exposed
Pr (D E(
Pr (D E(
=
a
a+b
c
c+d
32. B. Place:
Geographic extent of problem
Clusters or patterns providing important etiologic
clues
Spot maps
Where cases live, work or may have been exposed
33.
34. C. Time: (Epidemic curve)
Histogram of the number of cases by their date of onset
Magnitude of the outbreak and time trend
Where are we in the time course of the outbreak?
Future course?
Probable time period of exposure
36. Hypotheses should address
Type of exposure
The agent and its reservoir
Mode of transmission
Risk factors that caused disease
37. Evaluate the credibility of your hypotheses
Use analytic epidemiology to quantify
relationships and explore the role of chance
Case control studies
Cohort studies
38. Compares patients with HAI’s to a group of controls
(individuals without the infection).
Two or three controls/case
Are the cases more likely to have been exposed to a certain risk
factor than the controls?
Case-control studies start with a disease (infected patients)
and go back to exposures.
Strength of the association between the infection and the risk
factor is measured by the Odds Ratio
39. Compares the rate of infection among those with a certain risk
factor to the rate among those without the risk factor
Asks: of those exposed to the risk factor under study, how many
will go on to develop the infection? (compared to those not
exposed to the risk factor)
Cohort studies start with an exposure and go forward to
diseases (infected patients)
Quantifies the extent to which exposure increases the risk of the
disease
Relative risk
40. Factors that should also be considered when evaluating
possible causality:
Testing statistical significance
Consistency with other studies
Temporality. Exposure to the factor precedes onset
of disease.
Biologic plausibility. Does the association make
sense biologically?
41. When analytic epidemiological studies do not
confirm hypotheses, we need to reconsider
hypotheses and look for new vehicles or modes
of transmission.
Sometimes you will need to refine your
hypotheses to obtain more specific exposure
histories or a more specific control group.
Laboratory and environmental studies
42. It should start as soon as possible
May be aimed at agent, source, or reservoir
Short or long term (reducing susceptibility)
43. Type of transmission
suspected
Suggested Actions
Cross- transmission
(transmission between
persons)
Patient isolation and barrier
precautions determined by
infectious agent
Hand transmission Promotion of hand hygiene
Airborne agent Isolation; negative pressure
Foodborne Elimination of the food causing
infection
47. Orally (Feedback/Debriefing)
Local health authorities and persons responsible for
implementation of control and prevention measures
Written reports follows the usual scientific format of
introduction, background, methods, results, discussion,
and recommendations.
Also it is a record of performance, legal issues, reference,
adding to knowledge base.
Editor's Notes
care
Ex of diseases : Avian influenza, influenza, SARS, Anthrax, yellow fever, plague, smallpox, hepatitis
This process should be guided by statistical tests that will allow the epidemiologist to focus on data cells (defined by time, place and disease) where a significant change has occurred, and forget cells where nothing significant has happened.
Surveillance of polio, surveillance of accident, surveillance of malnutrition and surveillance of adverse events following immunization.
Surveillance is a dynamic process and its components are depending on each other.
What is the Attack Rate?
It is the probability of disease,
So the attack rate in exposed = a /a+b
Next
Also the attack rate in non exposed=c /c+d
Next
To measure association between certain exposure and certain disease in cohort study,
we use a certain measure called the Relative Risk, which means the ratio of the risk of disease among exposed to the risk among the non exposed
Advantages
requires relatively small numbers of patients
can be performed quickly
can examine more than one risk factor
Disadvantages
selection and recall bias
cannot quantify the extent to which a risk factor increases risk
Advantages
Quantifies extent to which exposure increases risk
Better suited to study of rare exposures
Can study multiple effects of a single exposure
Disadvantages
Inefficient for outbreaks with low attack rates
The first step in testing for statistical significance is to assume that the exposure is not related to disease. This assumption is known as the null hypothesis. Next, you compute a measure of association, such as a relative risk or an odds ratio. These measures are then used in calculating a chi-square test (the statistical test most commonly used in studying an outbreak) or other statistical test. Once you have a value for chi-square, you look up its corresponding p-value (or probability value) in a table of chi-squares.
In interpreting p-values, you set in advance a cutoff point beyond which you will consider that chance is a factor. A common cutoff point is .05. When a p-value is below the predetermined cutoff point, the finding is considered "statistically significant," and you may reject the null hypothesis in favor of the alternative hypothesis, that is you may conclude that the exposure is associated with disease. The smaller the p-value, the stronger the evidence that your finding is statistically significant.
laboratory evidence can clinch the findings. And Environmental studies often help explain why an outbreak occurred and may be very important in some settings
Reducing susceptibility by immunizations in measles or chemoprophylaxis in malaria)
a. E.g., influenza-like illness without risk factor for ARD of potential concern.
b. Bacterial ARD refers to common bacterial respiratory infections caused by organisms such as Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus infl uenzae, Chlamydia spp., and Mycoplasma pneumoniae.
c. E.g., seasonal influenza, pandemic influenza.
d. E.g. avian influenza.
e. When a novel ARD is newly identified, the mode of transmission is usually unknown. Implement the highest
available level of infection control precautions, until the situation and mode of transmission is clarified.