Implications of traditional beliefs and practices on natural resource conservation and management: evidence from some selected urban rivers in Ghana

BOHR International Journal of Civil Engineering
and Environmental Science
2023, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 8–24
DOI: 10.54646/bijcees.2023.02
www.bohrpub.com
RESEARCH
Implications of traditional beliefs and practices on natural
resource conservation and management: evidence from
some selected urban rivers in Ghana
Kofi Adu-Boahen1*, Kwadwo Frimpong2, Dominic Kwaku Danso Mensah3 and Emmanuel Yeboah Okyere1
1Department of Geography Education, Faculty of Social Sciences Education, University of Education, Winneba, Ghana
2Department of Geography, Christ the King Senior High School, Obuasi, Ghana
3Department of Educational Administration and Management, University of Education, Winneba, Ghana
*Correspondence:
Kofi Adu-Boahen,
kadu-boahen@uew.edu.gh
Received: 03 February 2023; Accepted: 09 February 2023; Published: 18 February 2023
The article presents an assessment of the implications of the use of traditional practices and belief systems on
natural resource conservation, using a case of selected communities in Ghana (Fomena, Tepa, Tanoso, and Ejisu).
The study adopted both qualitative and quantitative research approach to achieve the formulated objectives. A total
of 208 (52 each) respondents were selected mainly by convenient and snowballing sampling techniques. Data were
collected using both unstructured interview guides and questionnaires. The study revealed that taboos, totems,
and customary practices are the major instruments used in the conservation and management of rivers in the
study areas. However, it was realized that the traditional measures are challenged by the influence of western
religion, education and modernity, increasing immigration resulting in a high number of foreigners, civilization and
sometimes ignorance. The study recommends the traditional authorities, families as well as clergymen for people
to appreciate the differences in African traditions and African religion should undertake that massive sensitization.
Also, government or agencies (like the Environmental Protection Agency and the local assembly unit) responsible
for taking care of the environment and its resources should incorporate the traditional measures in their policies
and action plans toward natural or environmental resource conservation and management like water bodies.
Keywords: customary practice, conservation, natural resources, traditional beliefs, totems
1. Introduction
Traditional ecological knowledge (TEK), also known as
customary behaviors and beliefs, has become a key factor
in determining the effectiveness of conservation programs
(1). Studies conducted worldwide have demonstrated the
importance of traditional methods in resource management
and conservation (2). For instance, the Baima Tibetans in
China have started to rebuild their destroyed culture, which
includes traditions and rituals that were disregarded by
powerful modern scientific knowledge. Because the goals and
beliefs of the local people were upheld in the management
of these protected areas, these management techniques were
essential for biodiversity conservation and the preservation
of natural resources that supported livelihoods (3).
Water bodies are not an exception when it comes to
the application of cultural practice to the preservation and
management of other natural resources. It is evident that
local people in Asia, South America and tropical Africa
have developed a number of coherent resource protection
and management strategies for water bodies and resources
therein (4). Through a number of cultural practices, rituals
and taboos, in the early 20th century, Amerindians on the
West Coast of North America maintained their salmon
fishery and a variety of other marine resources (5). In
their work titled “the influence of traditional practices on
natural resources conservation” conducted in Uli in Nigeria,
according to Anoliefo et al. (6), it is not permitted to do
domestic cleaning, feces collection, or urination in the area of
the stream designated for drinking. Killing a python in the Uli
8

10.54646/bijcees.2023.02 9
town was abhorrent. Because of these taboos, streams (like
the Atammiri River) are incredibly pure and a great supply of
water for drinking and other household purposes.
In Ghana, particularly among the Akan people, traditional
knowledge has been massively employed in conservation
and management natural resource. Indigenous populations
in some societies, like the Ashanti in Ghana, used cultural
methods to maintain forests and were mainly successful in
doing so before the industrial revolution and urbanization
(7). Cobbinah (2011) had also mentioned how cultural
practices were passed down from one generation to the
next, ensuring the preservation of the forest’s biodiversity
and the livelihoods of its inhabitants. Because they were
affordable and needed less time and energy to implement,
these outdated conservation approaches were successful (8).
Amidst centralized and modern conservation and
management approaches, traditional ecological knowledge
has provided a great deal to the management of water bodies
and species therein. Deep scientific or rational explanations
with important implications for biodiversity lie behind the
well-known personal and mystical explanation for taboos
(9). Boamah (9) asserts that water bodies are revered because
animals with ethereal connections live there. In terms of
water, its use, and conservation, riparian societies have
sophisticated traditional knowledge and practices. The
communities made sure that essential water supplies are
secured and conserved by upholding the spirit of nature and
protecting forests (WRC of Ghana, 2012).
The Akan make reference to using the idea of nsuo abosom
(river/water deities). This is the idea that there are gods who
live in the waters. These spirits have control over the lakes,
rivers, lagoons, and ocean. Due to this belief, the Akan’s
worship the gods of the sea, lake, river, and lagoon under
the guise of offering adoration to Onyankopon (the Supreme
Being) through them (10). People must approach sacred
water bodies with caution and adhere to taboos because
entities live in water bodies (9). The Akans use taboos as
a line of defense against hazardous human activities that
damage water resources. Acheampong (2010) highlighted
that in addition to basic laws, there are specific prohibitions
and taboos that prohibit using metal objects in lakes and
rivers, limit fishing during specified seasons, and forbid doing
laundry on certain days [see (9)].
Fishing is completely prohibited in the Tano and Koraa
rivers in the Brong-Ahafo area of Ghana because fish are
thought to be the children of the spirit that lives there
(11). Similar to this, the Akyem people consider the Birim
River to be the source of their intellectual and spiritual well-
being. People in the region revere the river, and the Ohum
festival is devoted to protecting the environment of the Birim
Basin. On Tuesdays, swimming and fishing in the river are
prohibited. The use of motorized boats on Lake Bosomtwe is
prohibited because communities along its shores feel that the
lake’s “children” detest loud noise. As a result, transportation
and fishing are both done on wooden planks in the Lake.
Women are occasionally prohibited from using the lagoon’s
resources at the Muni-Pomadze wetland in Winneba in order
to maintain the lagoon’s water quality and stop contaminants
or impurities from being dumped there (12).
Despite the strength and function of traditional ecological
knowledge and belief system in the management and
protection of natural resources, this informal institution
receives little attention [(Kankpeyeng, 2000) cited in (13)].
And hence has led to the eminent and devastating impacts
of human activities on water bodies in some areas in Ghana.
The country in recent times has witnessed a great challenge
with regards to sustainable management and conservation of
natural resources (particularly rivers). Current development
indicates that anthropogenic activities such as improper
waste disposal and particularly illegal mining operation have
left most of these streams/rivers in a bad state both in
urban and rural communities. Most shows signs of recurrent
bioaccumulation. This suggests that the communities lose
their water supply. In fact, the use of contaminated water may
develop a number of water-borne diseases such the Buruli
ulcer, bilharzias, and other incapacitating conditions (Ghana
web, 2018).
Despite being aware of the stringent customs governing
the Tano River as discussed before, Mohammed Nurudeen
of Joy News nonetheless claimed that illegal mining activities
in the Brong Ahafo region had silted the Tano River, causing
it to dry up for the first time in 40 years. Charles Brobbey,
Regional Chief Manager of the GWC, who stated that the
corporation had shut down the treatment facility due to
the river drying up, also corroborated this (14). Illegal gold
mining has been reported to constitute a threat to the Oda
River Forest Reserve. Numerous animal species call the
Reserve, particularly the river, home, and as it is attacked,
those animals are in danger of losing either their habitat or
lives (15). This is, however, an evidence that there is more
to be done when it comes to the sustainable management
of water bodies in the country. Literature reveals much
works being done on the use of traditional practices in the
management of natural resources (9, 10, ? , 12, 16). Upon
review, only few focused on its use in the conservation and
management of water bodies and more specifically examined
their effectiveness and challenges. Meanwhile, Veldman
(2004) as reviewed in the work of Adu-Gyamfi (17) explains
that changing social norms and culture is undermining
many local practices as well as traditional beliefs that have
survived for hundreds of years. For example, the erosion of
traditional valued, especially among the youth, has rendered
the Kaya sacred forests in Kenya vulnerable to encroachment,
overexploitation, and desecration. Likewise, in Ghana, young
people are often disinterested in following the old tradition.
This attracted the attention of the researcher to look further
into management and conservation of water bodies as far
traditional beliefs and practices are concerned.
This article therefore seeks to assess the application
of traditional beliefs and customary practices in the

10 Adu-Boahen et al.
FIGURE 1 | Indigenous module to Natural Resource Conservation. Source: Compiled from reviewed literature (6, 7, 16, 18, Asante, 2011, 19).
protection and management of rivers in four selected
semi-urban communities in Ghana. Specifically, the study
sought to identify traditional beliefs and practices used in
the protection and management of rivers in the various
communities; examine the effectiveness of the use of
traditional beliefs and practices in the management of the
rivers; and investigate challenges in adherence to traditional
beliefs and practices used to conserve and manage rivers in
the respective communities. This paper answers the following
questions:
1. What are the traditional beliefs and practices used
in the protection and management of rivers in the
selected communities?
2. How effective is the application of traditional beliefs
and practices toward management of rivers in the
selected communities?
3. What are the challenges of adherence to the
traditional beliefs and practices used in the
protection and management of rivers in the
communities?
This article will provide bodies and policymakers like
the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and Water
management authorities in planning and strategizing
specific policy formulation measures to solve problems
of natural resource conservation and management. Also,
it will serve as a blueprint to learners, lectures, non-
governmental agencies and concerned stakeholders in
strategic management and decision making. It shall intensify
the campaign on biodiversity conservation and sensitization
programs in Ghana. Additionally, it will provide the
foundation of stimulating further research on empirical
studies concerning the phenomenon.
1.1. Conceptual framework
This section of the article talks about the conceptual
and theoretical issues that underlines the article. These
include the Community Base Natural Resource Management
approach, cultural theory and traditional module to natural
resource conservation. The framework conceptualizes that,
conservation and management of natural resources locally is
surrounded by cultural institutions and traditional practices
which ensures judicious use of bio resources especially those
that takes years to rejuvenate (e.g., water bodies). See Figure 1
below showing the linkages.
The Figure 1 is a module that depict how cultural practice
and indigenous people manage and conserve their available
resources. It explains that traditional institutions (like, Clan
heads, priests, kings etc.) establishes rules to guard natural
elements such as forests, water bodies, mineral resources,
etc., hence, sort to protect them. These are made possible
through the use of traditionally embedded knowledge in
the form of beliefs, customary practices, moral values, and
social norms (7, 18). Notwithstanding that, humans and
environment interactions have always been unfavorable. This
is because humans’ actions toward the environment and its
resources when not controlled threatens its resilience. As
such, indigenous institutions use instruments like taboos,
totems and other inhibitions that are observed by people to
show respect to deities and ancestors. These deities (gods) are
believed to live in the water bodies, trees (forest), animals,

10.54646/bijcees.2023.02 11
FIGURE 2 | Map of study areas in National and Regional Context. Source: Fieldwork, (2021).
etc., in their communities as their place of abode (? ).
This champion the idea of the use of taboos and totems
in other to safeguard the abodes of the gods and hence
preserve natural resources (environmental resources). The
measures by the traditional institutions are strong to the
extent that, individuals or indigenes who go contrary to
them are punished (16). These include sanctions, rituals, and
sacrifices (6). History has indicated that, in the olden days,
instances were that individuals who fall short were banished
or sacrifice (killed). This was done in other to please the gods
and ancestors to swerve their anger on the entire community.
Clan heads, fetishes, stools, and indigenous people overseas,
checks and advise each other of their actions that could
potentially result in committing an abomination [(Lebbie,
2008) cited in (19)]. Knowledge of this framework identifies
various structures in cultural institutions that aids in the
conservation and management course.
Theoretically, the module is supported and highly
informed by the community-based natural resources
management and Human-Environment Relations Theory.
CBNRM strategy aims to facilitate improved environmental
management outcomes through the full engagement of
populations and resource consumers in decision-making
efforts and the inclusion of local organizations, customary
procedures and information structures into management,
regulatory and compliance processes (20). The Human-
Environment Relations Theory gives similar explanation
that human beings are related to the environment and this
unique relationship is hinged on the cultural system of the
people (21).
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Description of study area
The study was performed in four communities in both the
Ashanti and Bono regions of Ghana.
The communities include; Fomena in the Adansi North
District, Ejisu in the Ejisu District, Tepa in the Ahafo-
Ano North District, and Tanoso in the Tano north District.
Fomena, Ejisu, and Tepa are in the Ashanti Region whiles
Tanoso is in the Ahafo Region of Ghana. The Ashanti
region is indeed the middle zone between 6.15 W and
2.25 W longitudes and 5.50 N and 7.46 N latitudes [(22);
Figure 2]. The region shares borders with Ahafo, Bono
East and Bono Region in the North, Eastern Region in the
East, Central Region in the South and Western Region in
the South West. Akan is the predominant ethnic group,
accounting for 94.2% of the population by origin in the
region. The Ahafo region is also bordered in the north
by the Bono region, in the east by the Ashanti region,
in the west by the Bono region and in the south by the
western-north region. This area lies in Ghana’s mountain belt
(23). The communities are located in the Ghanaian semi-
deciduous forest zone, where the mean monthly temperature

is approximately 27◦C and the relative humidity varies from
95 to 71.6% during the wet season to 42.5% during the
dry. They are distinguished by a double rainfall maxima
regime, with the major rainy season lasting from March to
July and the minor rainy season lasting from September to
November. The average yearly rainfall varies from 855 to
1,500 mm. With an elevation of 210−300 m above sea level,
the topography is undulating.
Rivers in the various communities in the region were the
main natural resources considered for the purpose of the
study. They include, Ankafo and Benin rivers in Fomena,
Baffoe and Oda rivers in Ejisu, Abu and Kwasu rivers in
Tepa, and the Tano River in Tanoso community. These rivers
were chosen because they bore characteristics of the subject
in question. These rivers belong to the Pra (23,200km2) and
the Tano Basins (15,000km2), respectively. The Pra Basin
occupies a larger area than the Tano and hence more rivers
were selected from the basin.
2.2. Profile of the rivers
2.2.1. Bemin, ankafo, oda and baffoe river
The Ankafo and Bemin stream have their source from
the Kusa scarp. Both streams are perennial, thus they
flow throughout the year and depict typical dendritic
pattern. The Ankafo flows through Fomena, Dompoase,
Kyeaboso, Ahinsan, etc., whiles the Bemin from Fomena
flows through Ayaase, Old Edubiase and joins the Oda
River near Jacobu. One of the main tributaries of the
Pra basin is the Oda and Baffoe River. It originates in
the Kwahu Plateau’s highlands in the Eastern Region and
flows for about 240 kilometers before reaching the Gulf of
Guinea close to Shama in the Western Region. Its roughly
23,200 km2 basin area spans over 55% of Ashanti, 23%
of Eastern, 15% of Central, and 7% of Western Regions.
The basin’s climate is characterized as wet and semi-
arid, with bi-modal rainfall that peaks in May/June and
October. The basin receives between 1,500 and 2,000 mm
of rainfall each year. With an average annual value of
1,650 mm, potential evapotranspiration (PET) outweighs
rainfall for the majority of the months of the year. There
are about 75 species of fish in the Pra basin and among
them are Aethiomastacembelus nigromarginatus, Barbus
trispilos, Chiloglanis occidentalis, Epiplatys bifasciatus,
Tilapia busumana, and Parachanna obscura (ishbase.org,
2003). The vegetation around the rivers is semi deciduous
forest in nature. The native vegetation cover has been
converted into secondary forest due to the environmentally
unfriendly farming methods, stone quarrying activities, and
illegal chain saw operations in the area. The basin’s water
supplies are being negatively affected by anthropogenic
activity (WRC, 2012).
TABLE 1 | Distribution of the rivers and their respective basins.
River Basin Total size
Tano Tano 15,000 Km2
Abu Tano
Kwasu Tano
Oda Pra 23,200 km2
Baffoe Pra
Bemin Pra
Ankafo Pra
Source: Fieldwork, (2021).
2.2.2. Tano, abu and kwasu
The Tano Basin contains these rivers. Between Latitudes 50 N
and 70 400 N and Longitudes 20 000 W and 30 150 W,
the Tano Basin is situated in Ghana’s southwest (Table 1).
Between Ghana and Cote d’Ivoire, the Tano River System’s
entire catchment area is around 15,000 km2. The main Tano
River rises in the mountains at Techiman in the Brong-Ahafo
Region at an elevation of 518 meters above sea level as its
source, and it travels for 400 km until emptying into the
Aby Lagoon in Côte d’Ivoire. Hemichromis fasciatus, Schilbe
intermedius, Hepsetus Odoe, Rai Senegalensis, Sarotherodon
Tila-pia zillii, Galilaeus Brycinus nurse, Heterobranchus spp.,
Chrysichthys nigrodigitatus, and Chrysichthys nigrodigitatus
species are some of the species that can be found in the Tano.
The Basin establishes a significant source of groundwater
and surface water for domestic use. The Tano Basin’s climate
can be classified as partially wet semi-equatorial and partly
southern equatorial in Ghana. Except at Sefwi-Wiawso,
where the value is less than 50% and thus indicates poor
quality, the basin’s surface water quality falls into the class
II category, which denotes reasonably clean water. Low
dissolved oxygen levels are one cause of the poor quality, as
they make it difficult for any type of aquatic life to survive
in the bodies of water. Largely agricultural lands, forests, and
grassland/human settlements characterize the land use and
land cover in the Tano basin.
2.3. Research design and methods
The study employed the “mix” method approach using
the convergent parallel and embedded mixed method
design to determine the traditional methods used in the
management and conservation of rivers in the selected
communities. A convergent parallel design involves the
researcher simultaneously conducting the quantitative and
qualitative portions during the same stage of the research
process, giving equal weight to each approach, analyzing the
two parts separately, and combining the results (Creswell and
Pablo-Clark, 2011). The embedded mixed method design had
a significant impact on the study as well. The underlying
assumptions of this design are that a single data set is

10.54646/bijcees.2023.02 13
insufficient, that many questions must be addressed, and that
several data kinds are needed for various question types.
Additionally, one piece of data plays a supporting, supporting
role in a study that is based primarily on the other type of
data (24). According to Creswell (2009), both quantitative
and qualitative evidence combined offer a clearer view of
the study issue than any form alone. This was necessary
to obtain adequate data since the study explores people’s
cultural ideologies, beliefs and practices. For emphasis,
the researcher wanted to hear from insiders of traditional
knowledge systems who are familiar with the fundamental
traditional customs and beliefs used in the management and
protection of the various rivers, so the study’s fulcrum was
grounded in the phenomenological approach (25).
2.4. Sample and sampling procedures
The four towns that have rivers that have been effectively
conserved through indigenous cultural traditions were
chosen using a purposive sampling technique. Purposive
sampling works best when research locations are chosen
within a cultural domain that have the particular qualities
being investigated (26). It was also employed due to its
efficiency in terms of both time and money. Additionally,
Cinner and Aswani (2007) and Shahabuddin and Rao
(2010) presented evidence that communities close to natural
resources are in a position to ensure sustainable use of their
resources, which was used in the selection of communities.
Additionally, as with the rivers, based on their proximity
and degree of interest. A total sample of 208 were engaged
in the study. Due to the lack of data on the number
of people closer to and engaging with the rivers in the
cities, 5% (0.05) of each community’s population was
selected and distributed among the different categories of
respondents. However, the application of this approach to
the population of the various communities would have
made the sample too large hence 50 members from each
community who live closer to the rivers and 2 traditional
authorities each from all the study areas were selected.
The reason for choosing the sample was to ensure easy
data management and since the size of the large sample
tends to destroy the quality of the information obtained
as noted by (27). Also, very large samples often appear
to transform minor variations into statistically meaningful
differences, even though they are clinically irrelevant (28).
Other specific inclusion criteria were community members
who were 25 years and above and have self-reportage
knowledge regarding the use of indigenous beliefs and
practices in the conservation and management of rivers in
the respective communities.
The study sample were enlisted through non-random
subjective sampling procedure. Both purposive and snow
balling approaches were employed to select respondents who
lived closer to the rivers and prospective participants who
were recommended by others (29). While the purposive
sampling was used to select the community members who
responded to the questionnaires, snow balling was used to
identify opinion leaders who had comprehensive knowledge
in matters of beliefs and practices governing rivers in their
respective communities. Snowballing helped to resolve the
problem of finding main players who are the custodians of
the rivers (30).
2.5. Data collection and procedure
Both interview guides (unstructured) and questionnaires
(Close-ended) were used to solicit information from
participants and respondents. Chiefs and elders of the
community and the ordinary community members provided
the primary data for the study. Secondary data were also
extracted from already existing literature on the subject.
For an in-depth interview, two (2) primary informants
were asked to participate. Other group members’ views and
opinions were often asked by the use of the questionnaires.
The interviews helped the researchers to obtain detailed
descriptions and data (31). Some questions about the
practices used in river management, the effectiveness of these
practices and the challenges of adherence to those cultural
practices used in river conservation and management are
discussed. Interview schedules were made for the various
identified authorities (Chiefs and community elders) in other
not to obstruct their daily planned activities. Interviewees
were not given names, and no information allowing for
personal identity was written down. Interviews were held
in both their native tongue and a language that both
parties could understand. Issues that were of focused
includes practices used in the management of rivers, the
effectiveness of these practices and challenges of their use
in the management of rivers in their communities. Apart
from taking of field notes, participants were provided
with an informed consent for recording. This allowed
for getting information in the interviewees’ own words.
Audio records were transcribed in English for critical
examination of what really transpired in the discussion.
The questionnaires were self-administered by the researcher.
The questions were interpreted into the local language
of those who could not understand English language.
The researcher waited for them to finish answering and
receives them. The rest who could read was given the
questionnaires and taken later. This was necessary as all
the administered questions were answered and received by
the researcher. Both data generation approach was useful
to obtain in-depth information on the subject matter and
to integrate the feedback received for the analysis by using
the two data sets.

2.6. Data analysis
The data was processed and analyzed in both qualitative and
quantitative form. The audio-recorded in-depth interviews
with traditional authorities and elderly people were analyzed
using the interpretive phenomenological analysis (32).
In order to establish a holistic understanding of the
interviewees’ words and phrases and to be able to accurately
convey their voices through quoting them, the researchers
paid close attention to the interviews. Thematic content
analysis was done to assess the qualitative information
from the interview, which involves reading transcripts and
spotting themes within the text (33). Member checking
with key participants was carried out after the data
were transcribed to ensure the validity and accuracy of
garnered data (25). This aided in organizing the various
responses from the interviewees under the questions
specific to the objectives of the study. Although, mixed
method was employed for the study, the majority of the
discussion were skewed to qualitative analysis following the
embedded mixed method approach. Meanwhile discussions
and analysis were done with the various literature reviewed.
Quantitatively, the data that was acquired from the
questionnaires were coded into the IBM SPSS software
version 20 and analyzed using descriptive statistics. Cross
tabulation was run to obtain responses for each of
the communities. Multiple regression analysis was done
to establish association between respondents’ background
variables and others. Means, percentages and frequencies
were calculated and the data presented in table form. Where
necessary, information was directly quoted to support the
qualitative analysis.
2.7. Ethics
Issues of ethics were very much considered in this study.
Information on the purpose of the study was made known
to respondents and participant first. Individuals were assured
of confidentiality and anonymity. In other to protect the
integrity of the respondents, appropriate protocols were
observed, especially in the case of chiefs and other traditional
authorities that were involved in the study. Customs
were respected as required by the communities’ cultural
practices. Also, the sacred days regarding the visitation
of the rivers as in the case of some of the communities
were respected. Voices that were recorded during interviews
were played back to the hearing of the respondents at the
end of the interviews. Interviews as well as questionnaires
were undertaken and administered at the respondent’s
most convenient time. Hence, helpful for the individual
to provide correct and reasonable information at their
comfort. The researcher declares that all information was
duly acknowledged.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Background characteristics of
respondents
Age, gender, religion and educational levels of respondents
were the background data considered for the study (Table 2).
Respondents were samples from all the four communities to
answer the questionnaire for the study. Details of distribution
of respondents are presented in the table below.
Majority of the respondents (66.5%) are male in all the
community except Tepa where the ratio of men was equal
with women who responded. On the average respondents
from the various communities were between 25 to 35 years
of age. A total (82%) of the overall respondents are
Christians followed by (9.5%) who are Muslims and others
belonging to the traditional religion. It is clear that the
various communities are of the Christian setting. Also, it
is an indication that, western religion is prevalent in the
communities which may inform the study. More so, (81%)
of the respondents were Akans, whiles (4.0%) are Ewes. The
other includes the people of Frafra, Kussasi, Kokombas, and
Bassare tribe. Almost all the respondents are educated or have
attained some level of education. However, peculiar to Tepa
community most (42%) had no formal education.
3.2. Awareness, benefits and instruments
used in the conservation and
management of rivers in the various
communities
The study at this point present information on the benefits
obtained from the rivers and traditional mechanism used
in the conservation and management of rivers in other to
ascertain the awareness of indigenous beliefs and practices
governing them. Table 3 presents the results of the data
collected on the above-mentioned issues.
Almost all the respondents (87%) were aware of the
traditional beliefs and practices that govern the rivers in
their respective communities. The respondents have all
benefited from the rivers in one way or the other. Means of
responses from the various communities were calculated due
to the multi-response nature of the questions. Responses on
benefits, traditional instruments used and those responsible
for the enforcement of the beliefs and practices were
calculated as presented in Table 4 below.
With respect to the benefits, means for Fomena and
Ejisu (5.5200 and 5.1400) indicates that, majority of the
people from the community use water from the rivers
(Bemin, Ankafo and Baffoe, and Oda) for domestic and
agricultural (irrigational) purposes. That of Tepa and Tanoso
(4.1600 and 6.1000), rivers in these communities serves
as side attraction, provide water for both domestic and

10.54646/bijcees.2023.02 15
TABLE 2 | Background characteristics of respondents.
Variables Responses Fomena Ejisu Tepa Tanoso Total
Gender Male
Female
39
11
34
16
25
25
35
15
133(66)
67(33.5)
Age 25−35
36−45
46−55
56 +
46
4
0
0
50
0
0
0
19
4
14
13
50
0
0
0
165(82)
8(4.0)
14(7.0)
13(6.5)
Religion Christian
Islamic
Traditionalist
None
43
5
2
0
46
4
0
0
31
7
4
8
42
3
0
5
162(82)
19(9.5)
6(3.0)
13(6.5)
Ethnicity Akan
Ewe
Others
49
1
0
44
3
3
29
4
17
40
0
10
162(81)
8(4.0)
30(15.0)
Education Tertiary
SHS/Secondary/
Vocational
Basic
No Formal Education
41
9
0
0
47
3
0
0
13
6
10
21
38
12
0
0
139(69)
30(15.0)
10(5.0)
21(10.5)
Occupation Teacher
Trader
Farmer
Student
Others
19
0
0
26
5
8
0
1
23
18
14
7
8
7
14
7
6
0
27
10
48(24.0)
13(6.5)
9(4.5)
83(41.5)
47(23.5)
Length of stay in
the community
10−20yrs
20−30yrs
30−40yrs
44
6
0
47
3
0
17
18
15
34
16
0
142(71)
43(21.5)
15(7.5)
Total 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 200(100)
Source: Field Work (2021).
TABLE 3 | Awareness of the traditional beliefs and practices.
Are you aware of traditional beliefs
and practices surrounding the river/s
in the community?
Yes
No
48
2
32
18
50
0
44
6
174(87.0)
26(13.0)
Total 50 50 50 50 200(100.0)
TABLE 4 | Benefits and mechanisms uses in the conservation and management of the rivers.
Variables Mean of responses standard deviation
Fomena Ejisu Tepa Tanoso
How do you benefit from the river in the community? 5.5200 2.41796 5.1400 2.55559 4.1600 2.51818 6.1000 3.51817
Instruments used in the conservation and management of the river/s in the community 3.6600 2.06635 4.0800 2.19312 4.1000 0.61445 3.5000 1.77569
Who enforces the beliefs and practices? 3.0400 1.44222 4.1200 1.92343 3.6600 1.74508 3.4000 1.90595
irrigational purposes as well as source of fish particularly in
the Tepa community. From the interview, one queen mother
at Fomena (Adansiman Nifahene Obaapanin), recounted
from the discussion that, the Ankafo and Bemin stream
has been very beneficial to the community. She emphasized
that in some time past, the services that were provided
by the streams extended from providing fresh water for
both domestic and agricultural use to the provision of food
(fish), providing aesthetic values as well promoting tourism
activities in the community (Table 4). Like the Baffoe river at

Ejisu, because of the Taboos that are observed by the people,
there is abundance of fish in the river which sometimes
attracts people to the scene. They throw pieces of bread
in the river, which catches the attention of the totemic
fishes for view.
“When I was a young girl, I witness even White men use
to come here and have a look at the fishes in the Ankafo.
Because we were forbidden to eat the fishes in the stream,
they became very big and numerous in the stream and
was so beautiful. Some of the fishes even had gold on their
head” (Queen Mother, Fomena)
The aforementioned findings are consistent with Addai
Pamfo (34) discussion that rivers in Ghana are crucial for the
movement of people and goods, the provision of food and
mineral aggregate, domestic and agricultural use, the creation
of jobs, tax revenue and foreign exchange earnings, and the
production of hydroelectric power.
Average of the responses on what instruments are used
for the conservation and management of rivers from all the
communities reveal that all of them use instruments such as
taboos, totems, customary practices and social norms. Also,
the study revealed that, the various traditional instruments
are enforced by Chief priest and some designated elders of
the various towns as indicated by the statistics in the Table 4.
The above revelation mimics the idea from the conceptual
and theoretical underpinnings of the study, which explains
that human beings are related to the environment and this
unique relationship is hinged on the cultural system of the
people (21). Thus cultural practices such as taboos, totemism,
moral values, social norms influences their interactions with
the environment (7, 18).
3.2.1. Beliefs and practices used in the
conservation and management of rivers in the
various communities
According to oral tradition, in the Fomena community, the
Ankafo River is personified as a male called Akwasi Ankafo
and the Bemin is a female.
“Some time ago, in the middle of the night, you will see
a very fine giant man who crosses the road and heads
toward the Bemin. He the Ankafo and Bemin are a
couple” (Queen Mother, Fomena)
Natural resources continue to be the ultimate in sustaining
life on earth. As informed by the conceptual and theoretical
framework, in order to safeguard nature’s resources, our
ancestors established mechanisms to foster the conservation
and management of environmental resources some of
which include water bodies. This, in the form of taboos,
totems, customs, and other inhibitions are passed on from
generation to generation. The community (Fomena, Tanoso,
and Ejisu) observes that it is an abomination to kill and
eat any kind of fish in the Ankafo stream. The community
believes that all the inhabitants of the rivers (Ankafo,
Tano, and Baffoe), respectively, are children of the deity in
the stream who represent all the community’s indigenes.
So, if anyone kills and eats, then he/she has killed his
children and must also face the consequences that come
by it. Below are excerpts from the in-depth interview
conducted;
“When I was a young girl, one man killed and ate some
of the fishes from the Ankafo. Because of that, he suffered
a swollen stomach and eventually died” (Queen Mother,
Fomena)
“My dad told me during the olden days, one white
Christian Priest who came around, said he believed in
God so why won’t he eat the abundant fishes in the Ankafo
stream. So, he sent people to go and catch some for him to
eat, where after eating he fell sick and died” (Community
Elder, Fomena)
This is consistent with the findings of Awuah-Nyamekye
(11), Anoliefo et al. (6), Issifu and Diawuo (13) in the
case of Tano river, the Sankama and Tongo-Tengzuk
community. However, fishing was allowed in other rivers
in the other communities at some particular periods. In
Abu and Kwasu River at Tepa community, fishing is only
an abomination during the period between September and
February every year. Within this period, the rivers are
reserved for the gods to have their peace and also improve
smooth rejuvenation of the river for the harvesting period.
Similarly, Acheampong (2010) posited from his study that
fishing was ban at specific times of the year, laundering
of clothes disallowed on certain days [see (9)]. All the
communities again observe that women on their menstrual
period are forbidden to go to the rivers. The reason is that,
they believe spiritually, it is unclean and also can contaminate
the rivers physically which will make it unhealthy to use fresh
water from them. This particular finding is almost the same
for most communities that use taboos for management and
conservation of water bodies as reviewed in the works of
(12, 16).
In the various communities, some days are sacred and
are referred to as “Dabone” where people are forbidden
to visit the rivers in the respective communities. It is
an abomination to visit the Ankafo River in Fomena
on Sundays. They hold the belief that the deity in
the river was born on Sunday, hence bears the name
Akwasi Ankafo. Another reason is that; they believe it’s
a sacred day where the deity and its children (mostly
fishes) come to enjoy the fresh air and relax at the
banks of the stream. As a result of that, Sundays are
reserved for the peace of the deity. People of Ejisu also
observe Tuesdays as sacred where it is forbidden to
visit the Baffoe River. It is an abomination to visit the
Tano River on Mondays because of the belief that “She”
was born on Monday.

10.54646/bijcees.2023.02 17
TABLE 5 | Individual taboos and practice surrounding rivers in the respective communities.
Tepa (Abu and Kwasu River) Ejisu (Baffoe and Oda rivers)
1. It is forbidden to fetch water in the stream with black pots
2. Dogs are not allowed to the stream
3. Women on menstruation are forbidden to go to the stream
4. Livestock rearing is only allowed half a mile away from the streams
5. Customs allow fishing only with specific period in the year from
September to February
6. Customs also disallows laundering of cloths along the banks of the streams
1. Fishes in the Baffoe is revered as children of the river goddess
2. It is an abomination to kill and eat fishes in the Baffoe at all
3. Fishing in the Oda river is allowed but not on sacred days
4. forbidden to visit the two rivers on Tuesdays and Wednesdays as well as
other sacred days respectively
Tanoso (Tano River) Fomena (Ankafo & Bemin)
1. It is an abomination for a woman to visit the river on her menstrual period
2. Killing and eating fishes from the river is abominable
3. Fishes in the Tano are revered as children of the river goddess
4. For some reasons goats are not reared in the Tanoso community because
the river goddess forbids it
5. The river is not visited on Mondays.
6. It is believing she was born on Monday hence called (Adwoa Tano)
7. It is an abomination to cross the river with corps unless rituals are
performed
8. Goats are not allowed to be reared in Tanoso due to the Tano river
1. Women on their menstrual period are forbidden to go to the stream
2. Killing and eating of fishes is an abomination
3. It is a taboo to cross the stream with a bunch of palm fruits and bind
firewood
4. Black objects are not allowed to be used to fetch water in it.
5. It is a taboo to visit the stream on Sundays
6. It is prohibited to wash or bath in both streams
7. Both serve as the abode of gods in the community
8. It is a taboo to take cattle into the streams
9. It is observed as an abomination to defecate in or around them
Source: Fieldwork (2021).
“Every Sunday, a very big alligator comes and lies at the
banks of the Ankafo. Because people are afraid it will
harm them, they wouldn’t even make any attempt to go
there such sacred day” (Community Elder, Fomena)
The rivers serve as the abode of deities in all the
communities. This is similar to the findings of Asante (2011)
who found out from his work that Ashanti’s reserved forests
as the abode of their gods. More so, it is forbidden to cross
the streams with a bunch of palm fruits and bind firewood
on both the Tano River and Ankafo at Tanoso and Fomena,
respectively. Cattle are also forbidden to be reared or be
taken into the rivers. Black objects are also not allowed
to be used to fetch water from the rivers. This is similar
to the findings of Adom (16) on the Bosomtwe lake as
reviewed in the literature. Furthermore, washing of clothes
and bathing in or along the streams is prohibited as found
in the work of (6) in Uli in Nigeria. Summary of all the
taboos and practices observed by the various communities
concerning their respective rivers has been outlined in the
Table 5.
Notwithstanding that, offenders do not go scot-free,
punishment, as well as sanctions, are put in place to enforce
the adherence of the various inhibitions in other to safeguard
the streams. It is believed by the communities that curses
are invoked on offenders instantly. For instance, in the
case of a menstruating woman who may visit the respective
rivers, she shall experience or suffer continuous bleeding
and if the required sacrifices are not performed to please
the gods, the individual may die. It is done for anyone
who falls a victim of eating fishes in communities where
it is a taboo to kill and eat fishes. More so, victims, when
caught, are sanction to the chief’s palace, such people are
made to pay a fine or buy an animal like sheep, fowl
or maybe schnapps.
One participant has this to say;
“I have heard that anyone who tries to eat fishes (Adwene)
from the Baffoe river goes blind so I am always afraid to
eat any fish from it, although I always see them playing in
the river untouched” (Participant at Ejisu)
“My Aunt is a traditional priestess and she recorded a case
about someone who went blind from eating fish from the
Baffoe. After some rituals were performed, she could see
again” (Participant at Ejisu)
“the spirit in the Abu river will strike anyone who eats
fishes from it. A woman could go completely barren or
also lose a child” (Participant at Tepa)
“The spirits or deities in the stream are just and quick
to act to punish anyone who commits. So, for the fear
of engulfing their anger, people are careful about their
actions and inactions toward the Ankafo and Bemin
stream and hence help in their smooth conservation and
management” (Community Elder at Fomena)
Observably, the researcher had notice from the various
beliefs and practices that some of them are common to
the various communities. However, there are instances
where some practices are peculiar to specific rivers and
communities as observed in Table 5. It’s interesting to
note that Adom (16) noted similarities between Ghanaian
ethnic communities’ cultural structures and indigenous
knowledge systems. Gyekye (35) added that among the
indigenous knowledge systems of Ghana’s other ethnic

TABLE 6 | Effectiveness of the traditional beliefs and practices.
Beliefs and practices were effective in the
conservation and management of rivers in the
olden
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
42
7
1
46
4
0
40
10
0
44
6
0
172(86.0)
27(13.5)
1(0.5)
Beliefs and practices that protect rivers are still
effective
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
30
10
10
33
3
14
15
14
21
13
27
10
91(45.5)
54(27.0)
55(27.5)
Continuous adherences of beliefs and practices
will help influence or prosper social, economic
and cultural activities
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
42
3
5
40
6
4
34
16
0
43
7
0
159(79.5)
32(16.5)
9(4.5)
Total 50 50 50 50 200(100)
TABLE 7 | Respondents level of adherence to the traditional beliefs and practices.
Level of adherence to the beliefs and practices High
Average
Low
32
11
7
29
17
4
22
15
13
18
22
10
101(50.5)
65(32.5)
34(17.5)
Total 50 50 50 50 200(100.0)
cultures, the Asante knowledge systems have the most in
common with the other knowledge systems. He continued
by saying that Asante indigenous knowledge systems
might be used to address problems in other sections
of the nation. But it is observed here that among the
Asante communities, practices slightly differ. Also, some
traditional practices use in conserving and managing one
river to another in same communities sometimes differ.
This is an issue of concern that conservationist must
consider critical. This is because integration of traditional
knowledge in conservation practice will require a great deal
of careful evaluation of the various cultural practices in
other to substantiate their ability to adequately conserve
natural resources most especially water bodies. Issues of
conformity and differences in traditional practices that
different cultures emulate must be addressed. Therefore,
according to Gambrill (36), culturally responsive practice
necessitates understanding of other groups’ values, historical
experiences, and potential behavioral influences. As a
result, various groups may favor various approaches to
tackling issues and hold various perspectives on how to
address environmental problems. This will be helpful to
ensure successful integration and application of localized
policies/practices of natural resource conservation and
management. Identifying the various differences will also
be of help to conservationist to plan policies specific
to particular natural resources and societies, and hence,
ensure efficiency and the effectiveness of the use of
local knowledge in the management and conservation
of water bodies.
3.3. Effectiveness of the use of traditional
beliefs and practice in managing rivers in
the communities
Here the study sought the respondents’ knowledge on how
effective the beliefs and practices have been in the past and
presently and analyzes respondents’ adherence level. The
information is presented in Table 6.
Although majority (82.5%) of the respondents from the
various communities were between (25−35◦years), most
(86%) agreed that the beliefs and practices were effective
mechanisms toward the conservation and management of
the rivers. According to Table 7, only few (0.5%) had no idea
and were objective to the statement. This means that, in times
past the use of indigenous beliefs and practices in conserving
and managing water bodies were successful. More so, high
number (45.5%) of them mentions that these practices and
beliefs are still effective these days. Meanwhile, the number
of people who were neutral and disagreed to this statement
considerably increased as observed in the table. This means
that, some of the respondents have observed some counter
characteristics and behaviors toward the indigenous practices
managing the rivers in the communities.
Here the study found that, 50.5% out the total respondents
ranked their level of adherence to the traditional beliefs and
practices protecting the rivers as high. 65 percent averagely
adhere and few (17.5%) indicated their level of adherence
to the beliefs and practices regarding the river as low.
Specific to some of the communities, it was recorded that
majority of respondents in Tanoso were averagely adherent,

10.54646/bijcees.2023.02 19
this implies that their level of adherence to the beliefs and
practices governing the Tano River is gradually loosening.
It also means that some of the community members are
not conscious of their actions in relations to what beliefs or
practices they are obeying or not.
The study sort from the respondents, whether continuous
adherence of the beliefs and practices governing the rivers
has any social, cultural and economic implications. Almost
all the responses were in agreement with this position. One
participant has this to say;
“because we don’t eat fishes in the river, the fishes have
become big and it will attract people to the scene”
(Community Elder at Tanoso)
“God has blessed us with a gift (Tano River) with many
benefits and for that matter we must enjoy as such.
Earthenware production is vehement here which has
made Tanoso to be known as “Ayewa Kurom” literally
earthenware town, if you come to cause a fight here, you
will be beaten with “ayewa” (earthenware)” (Participant
at Tanoso)
The above implies that continuous adherence will promote
some commercial activities at Tanoso where water from
the Tano River helps in the production of Earthenware
bowls. It may also ginger tourism activities because of
the attractive nature of the sacred fishes in the river.
Culturally, the observance of the beliefs and practices are
helpful in sustaining the cultural indigeneity of the various
communities. Similar responses were obtained from the
other communities as well.
3.3.1. Implications of traditional beliefs and
practices on conservation of rivers in the
communities
The adherence to the traditional beliefs and customary
practice used in the management and conservation of the
rivers in the various communities to the researchers implies
that living species (aquatic organisms) could be conserved
and extensively be used to ensure tourism and recreation
development. Again, it will lead to the management of fresh
water for whatever purpose appropriate. In essence, the
traditional beliefs and practices to the researcher contribute
to the sustainability of ecological diversity and water bodies
that are great resources or of good services to human life.
These agree with the findings of Adu-Boahen et al. (12) on
the use of traditional management practices of the Muni
Lagoon. Apart from protecting the inhabitants in the rivers,
the inhibitions of visiting the stream on the various sacred
days is helpful for the rivers to rejuvenate itself after the long
period of continuous disturbances from its users during other
days. The prohibition of menstruating women, defecation,
washing as well as bathing in and along the rivers is also
helpful to ensure that, the stream is not contaminated with its
ramifications on both human health and aquatic life. These
again coincide with the work of (12, 16). The prohibition of
cattle rearing in the rivers is also helpful to maintain sanity of
its environment and to swerve pollution.
“If the taboos were not in place, things would have been
very difficult for us when the water cuts, the streams
serve as alternative source of fresh water” “The traditional
measures have been very beneficial, because it is the only
anchor to be confident with, that the streams are hygienic
all things being equal” (Queen Mother at Fomena)
“If not the adherence to the traditional beliefs and
customary practices, the river would have been polluted”
(Community Elder, Tanoso)
The above result is close to that of Asante (2011), as he
clarified that Ghana can boast of different forest reserves
that have been protected by traditional people by socio-
cultural beliefs.
3.4. Challenges of adherence to the use of
traditional beliefs and practices
This section is about the influence of respondent’s religion on
their adherence as well as their views on factors that lead to
the neglect of the traditional beliefs and practices governing
rivers in the various communities see Table 8 for the results
on the issues under discussion.
Research has shown that, religion and for that matter
western religion have had some influence on some of the
traditional religious endeavors; however, this study revealed
that about 80% of the overall respondents mention that their
religion does not prevent them from observing the beliefs
and practices used in the conservation and management
of rivers in their communities. This finding disagrees with
the revelation that Christianity and Islamic religions are the
causes of neglect for taboos, totems, and customs in the
Ghanaian and African traditions as a whole as espoused by
((17), (37)).
“erm. . .being a Christian does not mean forsake your
traditional beliefs, as an adage goes; “if you forget
the sound of your King’s trumpet, you get missing at
a function”, and as indicated in the holy bible thus,
Matthew 22:21 that “they say unto him, Caesar’s. Then
saith he unto them, Render therefore unto Caesar the
things which are Caesar’s; and unto God the things that
are God’s. So as we should do.” (Queen Mother at
Tanoso)
“if I abide by the traditional measures it doesn’t make
me an idol worshipper. It contributes to the protection of
nature’s resources of which I benefit from” (Community
Elder at Fomena)

TABLE 8 | Respondents religion and observance of the beliefs and practices.
Variables Responses Fomena Ejisu Tepa Tanoso Total(%)
Does your religion forbid you from observing
traditions and practices used in the conservation
and management of rivers?
Yes
No
8
42
14
36
7
43
12
38
41(20.5)
159(79.5)
Total 50 50 50 50 200(100)
TABLE 9 | Model summary of demographic characteristics that
predicts the adherence level of respondents.
Model R R2 Adjusted R2 Std. Error of the Estimate
1 189a 0.036 0.026 0.74218
a. Predictors: (Constant), Education, Religion
However, few (about 20%) of the respondents who hold the
believe that abiding by beliefs and practices are obstructions
to their religious life had this to say;
“I am a Christian and I know Jesus Christ has sanctified
and made everything whole so I am free to eat everything
I want without anything holding me back. I don’t believe
anything will happen to me if I eat from the Baffoe river”
(Community Elder at Ejisu).
“Being a Christian, my beliefs are against these traditional
beliefs and believe I can fish and consume the fishes in
the river, just that I respect the authorities and have not
planned to consume the fishes as well” (Church Elder,
Tanoso).
3.4.1. Demographic characteristics of respondents
and level of adherence to beliefs and practices
Religion and educational level of respondents were
considered as against the level of adherence to the beliefs and
practices. Multiple regression analysis was run to ascertain
the extent to which the considered background information
of respondents predicts and explains their adherence to
the beliefs and practices, respectively. The information is
presented on Table 9.
Table 9 indicate that, the observed background
information of respondents used in the regression
analysis, thus, religion and educational level of respondents
indiscriminately explains 2.6% of the variance in their
adherence to the beliefs and practices used in the protection
and management of the rivers in the various communities. It
is inferred from the statistics above that other factors apart
from the religion and educational level of respondents
contribute greatly to predicting their adherence to
the beliefs and practices used in the conservation and
management of the rivers.
Peculiar to the two background characteristics,
educational levels of respondents uniquely make significant
contribution to the prediction of their adherence to the
traditional beliefs and practices as 3.6% of the variance
in respondents’ adherence to the beliefs and practices as
explained by their educational attainment. Whereas, the
contributions of respondents’ religion were less significant to
explaining the variance in respondents’ level of adherence to
the beliefs and practices used in the management of rivers
in the communities at 0.6% as observed from Table 10.
Conclusively, it can be deduced from the above discussion
that, although religion and educational levels of respondents
are contributing factors in predicting their adherence to the
traditions and customs, they are minimal in influencing the
adherence of the respondents. There may be other factors
than just their religion and educational background. This
discovery is quite distinctive, but somehow contradicts
Boamah (9) Anane (7), and Appiah-Opoku (4), who
claimed that the advent of monotheistic religions and formal
schooling leads to the extinction of indigenous traditions
and activities. They may have underestimated the statistically
significant levels among the variables
3.4.2. Factors influencing neglect of traditional
beliefs and customs in conservation and
management
Respondents shared their views on whether civilization,
western religious beliefs, formal education, and migration
contributes to non-adherence of traditional beliefs and
practices. Surprisingly, majority of the respondents in the
various communities were positive to the various positions
as displayed in the Table 11.
Majority (76%) of the overall respondent agreed that
civilization has contributed to the neglect of traditional
beliefs and practices. 20.5% were neutral to the statement
whiles only few (3.5%) disagreed to the statement. It is
observed from the table that responses follow a consistent
pattern where the number of people who agreed to the
various positions outlined are higher. This indicates that
majority of the respondents believe that formal education,
western religion, civilization and migration are the major
reasons why people disregard, traditional practices governing
rivers in the various communities. Undoubtedly, the
researchers conjure from this that, modernity, urbanization;
migration, etc., are gradually killing the African indigenous

10.54646/bijcees.2023.02 21
TABLE 10 | Effects of respondents’ demographic characteristic on their adherence to the traditional beliefs and practices
Model Unstandardized
coefficients
Standardized
coefficients
T Sig. Correlations Collinearity statistics
B Std. Error Beta Zero-order Partial Part Tolerance VIF
(Constant) 1.716 0.245 7.008 0.000
Religion 0.071 0.068 0.078 1.058 0.291 0.013 0.075 0.074 0.892 1.121
Education 0.152 0.056 0.200 2.703 0.007 0.174 0.189 0.189 0.892 1.121
a. Dependent Variable: level of your adherence to the beliefs and practices.
p < 0.05 significant.
TABLE 11 | Factors that cause neglect of traditional beliefs and practices.
Variables Responses Fomena Ejisu Tepa Tanoso Total(%)
Civilization has contributed to the neglect of
traditions practices and beliefs
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
42
8
0
49
1
0
24
19
7
37
13
0
152(76)
41(20.5)
7(3.5)
Formal Education has contributed to the neglect
of traditions practices and beliefs
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
41
9
0
32
15
3
19
16
15
40
5
5
132(66)
45(22.5)
23(11.5)
Western Religion has contributed to the neglect
of traditional practices and beliefs
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
30
14
6
39
7
4
14
7
29
43
7
0
126(63)
35(17.5)
39(19.5)
Migration of non-indigenous people or
foreigners has contributed to the neglect of
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
38
12
0
33
17
0
34
7
9
41
4
5
146(73)
40(20)
14(7)
Ignorance has contributed to the neglect of
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
29
21
0
44
6
0
35
15
0
45
0
5
153(76)
42(21.0)
5(2.5)
Total 50 50 50 50 200(100)
traditions, which is embedded with much benevolence and
environmentally friendly measures. These are true with the
findings of Ntiamoa-Baidu (38). Also, because of education,
believe in such things has depreciated or vanished as seen
in the work of Appiah-Opoku (4). The Queen mother at
Fomena commented that it is not possible to tell when
someone is in the menstrual period these days because
of civilization. Sanitary pads have taken care of that. She
mentioned again that this problem could have been solved
easily if puberty rights that used to be performed for young
upcoming girls were still effective. Many residents in the
community are foreigners, which makes it difficult and very
complicated to enforce and to monitor the adherence to
traditional practices and beliefs used in the conservation and
management of rivers. This finding is similar to the finding
of Yoseph (2014) about the Gedeo community. Peculiar to
some communities, 58% of respondents in Tepa disagree
to the statement that western religion contributes to the
neglect of traditional beliefs and practices surrounding rivers.
Meanwhile, majority (76%) of the respondents also believe
that when people are ignorant about these traditions and
practices, they tend to go contrary to them.
3.4.3. Respondents’ perceptions of traditional
values and practices in conservation and
management
Truly, the thought or idea perceived by people about a feature
or phenomena determines how they react toward the object
in question. As long as the traditional values and practices
used in the protection of waterways are concerned, people
would have their own way of looking at them and therefore
affect attitudes toward the object in question.
Although 55% of the overall respondent disagree to
beliefs and practices being barbaric. Among respondents in
the Fomena community, majority (46%) view beliefs and
practices governing their river are barbaric. More so, 37%
of the total respondents indicated they trust such beliefs
and practices in whatsoever manner has demonic strings or
spirits barking them. 32.5% of them were indifferent to the
statement whiles 30.5% believe traditional beliefs are mere
considerations. See Table 12 showing the views expressed by
the respondents. The study again sought to know the views of
the respondents whether those who observed traditions and
practices are the uneducated. Surprisingly, higher number

TABLE 12 | Perceptions on traditional beliefs and practices.
Variables Response Fomea Ejiu Tepa Tano Total(%)
Traditional beliefs and practices protecting
rivers are barbaric
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
23(46)
7
20
13
9
28
7
0
43
15
16
19
58(29)
32(16)
110(55)
Traditional beliefs and practice protecting rivers
have demonic strings attached to them
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
19
13
18
19
12
19
23
24
3
13
16
21
74(37)
65(32.5)
61(30.5)
Illiterates obey traditional beliefs and practices
protecting rivers
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
18
11
21
15
16
19
7
0
43
3
24
23
43(21.5)
51(25.5)
106(53)
Beliefs and practices governing rivers are not
relevant
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
14
13
23
7
13
30
0
7
43
3
22
25
24(12)
55(27.5)
121(60)
Traditional beliefs and practices are unscientific Agree
Neutral
Disagree
28
10
12
31
11
8
25
19
6
24
16
10
108(54)
56(28)
36(18)
Total 50 50 50 50 200(10)
(53%) disagree to that. 25.5% were in between 21.5% think
it is so. This revelation disagrees with the finding of Appiah-
Opoku (4) that as people become educated, they tend to see
traditions as uncivilized. This to the researcher is good news
to conservationist in their quest to bringing different people
of various background on board in matters of concern to
natural resource conservation and management. In addition,
60.5% agree that values and traditions are important when
it comes to the protection and maintenance of rivers. This
finding is consistent with the earlier revelation from the
study that continuous adherence of the traditional beliefs and
practices could help prosper social, cultural and economic
activities in the various communities. Also, almost all the
respondents (54%) think that traditional beliefs and practices
that are used in the protection and management of rivers
in the various communities have no scientific basis. Others
28% had no idea whiles 18% perceived that beliefs and
practices governing rivers may have scientific underpinnings.
Meanwhile, Boamah (9) clarified that there are fundamental
empirical or logical theories with vital consequences for
biodiversity at the back of the well-known personal and
mystical reason for taboos.
4. Conclusions
The following conclusions are taken based on the study’s
results. Almost all the respondents benefited from the rivers
and were aware of the traditional beliefs and practices used
in their management. Taboos, totems, practices and other
inhibition are the major traditional instruments used by the
various communities in the conservation and management
of the rivers. These indigenous mechanisms are effective and
can be very useful tool in managing local natural resources in
other to sustain environmental resources as well as maintain
ecological resilience.
Despite the crucial roles played by beliefs and practices in
the conservation and management of rivers, their adherence
is, however, in one way or the other challenge with formal
education, western religion, civilization, immigration,
urbanization etc. However, respondents’ religion and
educational level does not necessarily contribute to neglect of
traditional beliefs and practices. More so, as established from
the findings, most people possess negative perceptions about
the use of traditional beliefs and practices especially when it
comes to applying them in conservation and management of
natural resources.
The responsible environmental protection institutions, as
well as the water resource management unit in the districts
and various communities’, have not been effective and up
to the task. Environmental laws concerning the use of
natural resources like the rivers are weakly enforced and
implemented and hence demanded to be integrated with
indigenous resources management practices.
4.1. Policy recommendation
The following recommendations are drawn;
• The traditional authorities should take advantage
of durbars organized in their communities and
educate most especially the youth on the traditional
measures of conservation and the role it plays in
protecting nature’s resource. And also stress the
difference between Traditional African Religion
and African Tradition so that issues of contrasting
faith will be solved.

10.54646/bijcees.2023.02 23
• The chiefs and their council of elders should again
encourage and enforce community participation
as a key component in the conservation and
management of water resources. This could be done
when the various communities embark on frequent
rehabilitation endeavors on their rivers in order to
regain their quality and portability.
• The community authorities should strengthen
disciplinary measures against perpetrators who
break the established traditions and customs by
engaging people as taskforce.
• The government should support and provide
the necessary resources which will aid the
traditional authorities to effectively enforce
their taboos concerning the use of the rivers in their
respective communities.
• Western religious denominations should implore
on their members, moral values that respect
traditional measure which protects environmental
resources (e.g., Water bodies).
• The government or local governmental agencies
(like the Environmental Protection Agency
and the local assembly unit) responsible for
taking care of the environment and its resources
should incorporate the traditional measures in
their policies and action plans toward natural
or environmental resource conservation and
management
Author contributions
The author contributed in various ways. The KA-B mooted
the ideas and the conception of the paper. The KF supported
in data collection and analysis. The DM supported in the
methodological section. The EO did the proofreading and
part of the data collection. It is worthy to note that all the
authors were on the field during the data collection and took
part in shaping the manuscript.
Acknowledgments
We thank the GIS and Remote Sensing Unit of the
Department of Geography Education, Winneba, Ghana for
assisting in the production of the map. We are also grateful
to the environment and physical landscape research group.
Profound gratitude goes to Opoku Charles, Obiri Yaw
Emmanuel and Pokuaah Grace for their support in gathering
data for the study.
Conflict of interest
We hereby certify that the study described in this publication
was not influenced by any known conflicting financial
interests or personal connections between us.
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