The document discusses the basic structure and functions of a computer. It defines a computer as a digital electronic machine that can be programmed to perform arithmetic and logical operations automatically. The five basic operations of a computer are input, processing, output, storage, and control. The key components that enable these operations are the input and output units, central processing unit (CPU), and memory. The CPU contains the arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and control unit. Computers are classified by size from supercomputers to mainframes, minicomputers, and personal computers. Each functional unit works together under the control unit's coordination to process input data and produce useful output for the user.
B.sc. (micro) i em unit 4.1 staining techniquesRai University
This document provides information about different bacterial staining techniques used in microbiology. It discusses simple staining which uses a single dye and allows visualization of bacterial morphology but not differentiation. Gram staining differentiates bacteria as gram positive or negative based on cell wall composition. Acid-fast staining is used to identify mycobacteria by their acid-fast property. Special stains visualize specific bacterial structures like capsules, spores, flagella and metachromatic granules. Each staining method involves initial smear preparation followed by specific dye application and visualization steps to highlight features of interest.
The term isolation refers to the separation of a strain from a natural, mixed population of living microbes, as present in the environment. It becomes necessary to maintain the viability and purity of the microorganism by keeping the pure culture free from contamination.
This document discusses various chemical sterilization methods. It defines sterilization, disinfection, antiseptics and asepsis. The main chemical methods of sterilization discussed are alcohols, aldehydes, phenols, halogens, oxidizing agents, salts, surface active agents, dyes and vapor phase disinfectants. Specific chemicals under each category are explained, along with their modes of action and appropriate uses. Factors affecting the potency of disinfectants are also outlined. The document provides a detailed overview of chemical sterilization.
This document discusses organic composting. It defines compost as organic matter that has been decomposed and recycled as fertilizer. Compost is made by collecting plant materials like leaves and food scraps and letting them decompose with bacteria and fungi. There are two main types of composting - cold composting which is slower, and hot composting which is faster but requires more maintenance. The document also outlines various methods of composting including aerobic, anaerobic, vermicomposting, turned piles, aerated static piles, and in-vessel composting. Compost provides important nutrients and improves soil health.
This document provides an overview of sterilization and disinfection methods. It begins with a brief history of sterilization practices from ancient times through modern developments. Key terms are defined, including sterilization, disinfection, and asepsis. Materials are classified based on the sterilization level required. Physical sterilization methods like heat, radiation, filtration and chemical methods are described. Specific sterilization protocols for dental equipment and impressions are also outlined. The document concludes that adherence to sterilization guidelines is essential for safe medical device use.
Here is detailed view on fumigation, their types and methods. Equipments needed during the process is also dealt here. Aeration is essential after a commodity or a place is being fumigated. Some lists of fumigants are also discussed here. we also have to know why we are practicing fumigation?
Identification of bacteria by staining methodsNAGALAKSHMI R
The document discusses the importance of identifying bacteria, including determining clinical significance, guiding patient care, and identifying appropriate antibiotic therapy. It describes various identification methods, including traditional phenotypic methods examining morphology, staining characteristics, and biochemical tests, as well as newer genotypic and molecular methods. Specific staining techniques are explained in detail, including simple staining, differential staining, Gram staining, and acid-fast staining. The staining methods allow visualization of bacteria and differentiation of structures under a microscope.
A poor housing condition favors disease occurrence and reduce the productivity.
Most communicable diseases are found among people living in poor housing condition.
B.sc. (micro) i em unit 4.1 staining techniquesRai University
This document provides information about different bacterial staining techniques used in microbiology. It discusses simple staining which uses a single dye and allows visualization of bacterial morphology but not differentiation. Gram staining differentiates bacteria as gram positive or negative based on cell wall composition. Acid-fast staining is used to identify mycobacteria by their acid-fast property. Special stains visualize specific bacterial structures like capsules, spores, flagella and metachromatic granules. Each staining method involves initial smear preparation followed by specific dye application and visualization steps to highlight features of interest.
The term isolation refers to the separation of a strain from a natural, mixed population of living microbes, as present in the environment. It becomes necessary to maintain the viability and purity of the microorganism by keeping the pure culture free from contamination.
This document discusses various chemical sterilization methods. It defines sterilization, disinfection, antiseptics and asepsis. The main chemical methods of sterilization discussed are alcohols, aldehydes, phenols, halogens, oxidizing agents, salts, surface active agents, dyes and vapor phase disinfectants. Specific chemicals under each category are explained, along with their modes of action and appropriate uses. Factors affecting the potency of disinfectants are also outlined. The document provides a detailed overview of chemical sterilization.
This document discusses organic composting. It defines compost as organic matter that has been decomposed and recycled as fertilizer. Compost is made by collecting plant materials like leaves and food scraps and letting them decompose with bacteria and fungi. There are two main types of composting - cold composting which is slower, and hot composting which is faster but requires more maintenance. The document also outlines various methods of composting including aerobic, anaerobic, vermicomposting, turned piles, aerated static piles, and in-vessel composting. Compost provides important nutrients and improves soil health.
This document provides an overview of sterilization and disinfection methods. It begins with a brief history of sterilization practices from ancient times through modern developments. Key terms are defined, including sterilization, disinfection, and asepsis. Materials are classified based on the sterilization level required. Physical sterilization methods like heat, radiation, filtration and chemical methods are described. Specific sterilization protocols for dental equipment and impressions are also outlined. The document concludes that adherence to sterilization guidelines is essential for safe medical device use.
Here is detailed view on fumigation, their types and methods. Equipments needed during the process is also dealt here. Aeration is essential after a commodity or a place is being fumigated. Some lists of fumigants are also discussed here. we also have to know why we are practicing fumigation?
Identification of bacteria by staining methodsNAGALAKSHMI R
The document discusses the importance of identifying bacteria, including determining clinical significance, guiding patient care, and identifying appropriate antibiotic therapy. It describes various identification methods, including traditional phenotypic methods examining morphology, staining characteristics, and biochemical tests, as well as newer genotypic and molecular methods. Specific staining techniques are explained in detail, including simple staining, differential staining, Gram staining, and acid-fast staining. The staining methods allow visualization of bacteria and differentiation of structures under a microscope.
A poor housing condition favors disease occurrence and reduce the productivity.
Most communicable diseases are found among people living in poor housing condition.
This document discusses various techniques for isolating and preserving pure cultures of microorganisms. It describes common isolation methods like streak plating, pour plating, and spread plating which aim to separate individual microbial cells on a growth medium. Preservation methods to maintain viability for long periods are also outlined, including refrigeration, cryopreservation in liquid nitrogen, storage in sterile soil, overlaying with mineral oil, and lyophilization or freeze drying. Maintaining pure cultures is important for accurate identification and experimentation in microbiology.
Microbiology is the study of microorganisms that are invisible to the naked eye, including viruses, bacteria, algae, fungi and protozoa. Antony van Leewenhoek first observed microorganisms in the 1600s using an early microscope. Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch established the germ theory of disease, proving that specific microbes cause specific diseases. Koch developed guidelines for proving causation that are still used today. Microbiology now impacts many fields including medicine, agriculture, food science and biotechnology.
Classification and mode of action of disinfectants PHARMACEUTICAL MICROBIOLOG...Ms. Pooja Bhandare
PHARMACEUTICAL MICROBIOLOGY (BP303T)Unit-III Classification and mode of action of disinfectants. DISINFECTANT
Definition: Ideal properties of disinfectants: CLASSIFICATION OF DISINFECTANTS: Based on consistency 1. Liquid (E.g., Alcohols, Phenols) 2.Gaseous (Formaldehyde vapor, Ethylene oxide). Based on spectrum of activity 1. High level disinfectant
2. Intermediate level disinfectant
3. Low level disinfectant .Based on mechanism of action: 1.Action on membrane2.Denaturation of cellular proteins 3.Damage to nucleic acids 4.Oxidation of essential sulfhydryl groups of enzymes 5.Alkylation of amino-, carboxyl- and hydroxyl group. MODE OF ACTION AND APPICATION OF DISINFECTANT
Acid and alkalies
Halogens
Heavy metals
Phenols and its derivatives
Alcohol
Aldehydes
Dyes:
Quaternary ammonium compounds
Detergents and soaps.
This document discusses citric acid production through fermentation. It begins by introducing citric acid and describing its isolation from lemon juice. It is most commonly produced using the fungus Aspergillus niger through submerged fermentation. Several microorganisms can be used including bacteria, fungi and yeasts. Aspergillus niger is commonly used as it is easy to handle and can ferment a variety of raw materials like molasses to produce high citric acid yields. Citric acid can be produced through surface, submerged, and solid-state fermentation methods. Submerged fermentation is widely used as it allows for easier control and product recovery from the liquid fermentation broth. Citric acid has various applications in
This document discusses sterilization and various sterilization methods. It defines sterilization as making something free from all microorganisms, including bacteria and spores. It then describes different terms used in sterilization like disinfection, antisepsis, and discusses physical sterilization methods like dry heat, moist heat and radiation. Chemical sterilization methods using agents like alcohol, aldehydes, dyes, halogens and phenols are also outlined. Finally, the document briefly discusses the mechanical sterilization method of passing solutions through filters to remove microorganisms.
This document provides an overview of refuse disposal systems and incineration. It defines terms like refuse, municipal solid waste, and solid waste management. It describes sources of refuse and how improper disposal can impact health. Methods of disposal discussed include dumping, landfilling, composting, incineration, and burial. Incineration is described as a method that reduces volume and sterilizes waste through controlled burning at high temperatures. The document outlines the incineration process and types of incinerators used.
Mushrooms are the fruiting bodies of fungi that lack chlorophyll and reproduce via spores. While Asia provides a suitable environment for mushroom cultivation, the process involves identifying optimal growing conditions, sterilizing compost, inoculating it with mushroom spawn, and maintaining humidity and temperature as the mushrooms grow and are harvested over several months. Key steps include composting organic materials, spreading spawn to initiate mycelial growth, covering it to induce pinning and fruiting, and periodically harvesting mature mushrooms. Common varieties like white button mushrooms are cultivated indoors using these methods to produce nutritional and commercially valuable crops.
Fungal pretreatment is a biological pretreatment method that has several advantages over physical and chemical pretreatment methods. It uses lignin-degrading fungi like white-rot fungi to degrade lignin through oxidative enzymes. This breaks down the structure of lignocellulose and increases accessibility for downstream processing like enzymatic hydrolysis. The key advantages are that it is a simple and low-energy technique that avoids forming fermentation inhibitors and waste streams while reducing costs. White-rot fungi are most effective as they can completely mineralize lignin using oxidative enzymes like lignin peroxidase, manganese peroxidase, and laccases. Factors like moisture content, temperature, and pretreatment time must be optimized for effective fungal pretreatment of
Bacterial growth follows four phases: lag, log (exponential), stationary, and decline. During lag phase, bacteria adapt to their environment and prepare for growth. The log phase is characterized by rapid, exponential cell division. As nutrients become depleted, growth slows and enters stationary phase where the cell population levels off. In decline phase, bacteria run out of nutrients and die off, though a small number of survivors may persist. Bacterial growth is influenced by numerous environmental factors like nutrient levels, temperature, pH, oxygen, and water availability. The optimal conditions allow bacteria to enter log phase and multiply at their highest rate.
This ppt includes all the key points of process of sterilization and its different techniques like physical,chemical,thermal,etc. sterilization is very important topic to go through during education as well as during practice to maintain a nice infection free environment of your health care office or clinic.
This document discusses several topics related to food microbiology. It begins by listing intrinsic and extrinsic factors that affect microbial growth in food, such as pH, moisture content, temperature, and nutrients. It then discusses how these various factors like pH, water activity, and salt/sugar concentrations specifically impact the growth of microorganisms like bacteria, molds, and yeasts. The document also covers chemical changes caused by microbes in different foods, how microbes are classified based on structure and temperature tolerance, and provides examples of diseases caused by different viruses.
This document provides an overview of the beer making process in 3 sentences or less:
The document discusses the key ingredients in beer including malted barley, hops, yeast and water, and explains the brewing process from malting the barley to fermentation and lagering. It also covers different beer styles, storage, drafting, and issues like reducing alcohol content.
The document discusses various aspects of building planning including proportion, orientation, and site plans. It defines proportion as the visual relationships between objects and spaces that make up a structure. Orientation refers to fixing the direction of a building plan in relation to north. Site plans show the layout of a property including locations of buildings, driveways, walkways, and landscaping. There are 2D and 3D site plans, with 2D being simple diagrams and 3D being full-colored 3D renderings. Building planning aims to arrange various building components systematically to meet functional needs.
Microorganisms can cause infection and are present everywhere. Sterilization aims to remove or destroy microorganisms from surfaces and materials. Various physical and chemical methods are used for sterilization with different effectiveness against bacterial vegetative cells, spores, viruses, and other microbes. Common physical sterilization methods include heat, radiation, and filtration, while chemical methods include alcohols, aldehydes, phenols, halogens, and other disinfecting agents. The choice of sterilization method depends on the type of material or substance being sterilized.
The bacterial growth curve shows changes in the number of bacteria over time in a culture. It consists of four phases: lag phase as bacteria adapt to their environment, exponential or log phase as bacteria divide exponentially, stationary phase as nutrients are depleted and waste builds up slowing growth, and death phase as bacteria die off due to lack of nutrients and buildup of toxins. The curve represents the growth of heterotrophic bacteria that obtain nutrients from external sources.
Food Science - Unit-4 - Milk and Milk Products - Pasteurization process.
Pasteurization or pasteurisation is a process in which packaged and non-packaged foods (milk and fruit juice) are treated with mild heat, usually to less than 100 °C (212 °F), to kill pathogens and extend shelf life.
This document discusses sterilization methods used in dentistry, focusing on autoclaves. It describes how autoclaves use steam under pressure and high heat to sterilize instruments in 15-20 minutes. Two main types are discussed: downward displacement and vacuum. Proper use requires loading, pressurizing to 15 PSI and heating to 121 degrees Celsius for 30 minutes to effectively kill microbes. Autoclaves provide rapid and effective sterilization but items must be heat tolerant and safety precautions like protective equipment are important when using the high pressure and temperature equipment.
STERILISATION, PHYSICAL METHODS OF STERILISATION, METHODS OF STERILISATION, VARIOUS METHODS OF STERILISATION, AUTOCLAVES, HOT AIR OVEN, DRY HEAT STERILISATION, MOIST HEAT STERILISATION
Computers can perform a variety of tasks and are present in many fields. A computer is a programmable electronic device that takes in data as input, processes it, and provides output. It has various hardware components like a central processing unit (CPU) and memory. The CPU contains an arithmetic logic unit and control unit and works with various input/output devices. Computers are fast, accurate, reliable, versatile and can store vast amounts of data. They are classified by size into supercomputers, mainframes, microcomputers, minicomputers, and workstations.
This file contains complete information about computer Architecture.
1. What is a computer.
2. Types of computers
3. Block Diagram of Computer.
4 . Processor, Memory
5. Computer Generati
This document discusses various techniques for isolating and preserving pure cultures of microorganisms. It describes common isolation methods like streak plating, pour plating, and spread plating which aim to separate individual microbial cells on a growth medium. Preservation methods to maintain viability for long periods are also outlined, including refrigeration, cryopreservation in liquid nitrogen, storage in sterile soil, overlaying with mineral oil, and lyophilization or freeze drying. Maintaining pure cultures is important for accurate identification and experimentation in microbiology.
Microbiology is the study of microorganisms that are invisible to the naked eye, including viruses, bacteria, algae, fungi and protozoa. Antony van Leewenhoek first observed microorganisms in the 1600s using an early microscope. Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch established the germ theory of disease, proving that specific microbes cause specific diseases. Koch developed guidelines for proving causation that are still used today. Microbiology now impacts many fields including medicine, agriculture, food science and biotechnology.
Classification and mode of action of disinfectants PHARMACEUTICAL MICROBIOLOG...Ms. Pooja Bhandare
PHARMACEUTICAL MICROBIOLOGY (BP303T)Unit-III Classification and mode of action of disinfectants. DISINFECTANT
Definition: Ideal properties of disinfectants: CLASSIFICATION OF DISINFECTANTS: Based on consistency 1. Liquid (E.g., Alcohols, Phenols) 2.Gaseous (Formaldehyde vapor, Ethylene oxide). Based on spectrum of activity 1. High level disinfectant
2. Intermediate level disinfectant
3. Low level disinfectant .Based on mechanism of action: 1.Action on membrane2.Denaturation of cellular proteins 3.Damage to nucleic acids 4.Oxidation of essential sulfhydryl groups of enzymes 5.Alkylation of amino-, carboxyl- and hydroxyl group. MODE OF ACTION AND APPICATION OF DISINFECTANT
Acid and alkalies
Halogens
Heavy metals
Phenols and its derivatives
Alcohol
Aldehydes
Dyes:
Quaternary ammonium compounds
Detergents and soaps.
This document discusses citric acid production through fermentation. It begins by introducing citric acid and describing its isolation from lemon juice. It is most commonly produced using the fungus Aspergillus niger through submerged fermentation. Several microorganisms can be used including bacteria, fungi and yeasts. Aspergillus niger is commonly used as it is easy to handle and can ferment a variety of raw materials like molasses to produce high citric acid yields. Citric acid can be produced through surface, submerged, and solid-state fermentation methods. Submerged fermentation is widely used as it allows for easier control and product recovery from the liquid fermentation broth. Citric acid has various applications in
This document discusses sterilization and various sterilization methods. It defines sterilization as making something free from all microorganisms, including bacteria and spores. It then describes different terms used in sterilization like disinfection, antisepsis, and discusses physical sterilization methods like dry heat, moist heat and radiation. Chemical sterilization methods using agents like alcohol, aldehydes, dyes, halogens and phenols are also outlined. Finally, the document briefly discusses the mechanical sterilization method of passing solutions through filters to remove microorganisms.
This document provides an overview of refuse disposal systems and incineration. It defines terms like refuse, municipal solid waste, and solid waste management. It describes sources of refuse and how improper disposal can impact health. Methods of disposal discussed include dumping, landfilling, composting, incineration, and burial. Incineration is described as a method that reduces volume and sterilizes waste through controlled burning at high temperatures. The document outlines the incineration process and types of incinerators used.
Mushrooms are the fruiting bodies of fungi that lack chlorophyll and reproduce via spores. While Asia provides a suitable environment for mushroom cultivation, the process involves identifying optimal growing conditions, sterilizing compost, inoculating it with mushroom spawn, and maintaining humidity and temperature as the mushrooms grow and are harvested over several months. Key steps include composting organic materials, spreading spawn to initiate mycelial growth, covering it to induce pinning and fruiting, and periodically harvesting mature mushrooms. Common varieties like white button mushrooms are cultivated indoors using these methods to produce nutritional and commercially valuable crops.
Fungal pretreatment is a biological pretreatment method that has several advantages over physical and chemical pretreatment methods. It uses lignin-degrading fungi like white-rot fungi to degrade lignin through oxidative enzymes. This breaks down the structure of lignocellulose and increases accessibility for downstream processing like enzymatic hydrolysis. The key advantages are that it is a simple and low-energy technique that avoids forming fermentation inhibitors and waste streams while reducing costs. White-rot fungi are most effective as they can completely mineralize lignin using oxidative enzymes like lignin peroxidase, manganese peroxidase, and laccases. Factors like moisture content, temperature, and pretreatment time must be optimized for effective fungal pretreatment of
Bacterial growth follows four phases: lag, log (exponential), stationary, and decline. During lag phase, bacteria adapt to their environment and prepare for growth. The log phase is characterized by rapid, exponential cell division. As nutrients become depleted, growth slows and enters stationary phase where the cell population levels off. In decline phase, bacteria run out of nutrients and die off, though a small number of survivors may persist. Bacterial growth is influenced by numerous environmental factors like nutrient levels, temperature, pH, oxygen, and water availability. The optimal conditions allow bacteria to enter log phase and multiply at their highest rate.
This ppt includes all the key points of process of sterilization and its different techniques like physical,chemical,thermal,etc. sterilization is very important topic to go through during education as well as during practice to maintain a nice infection free environment of your health care office or clinic.
This document discusses several topics related to food microbiology. It begins by listing intrinsic and extrinsic factors that affect microbial growth in food, such as pH, moisture content, temperature, and nutrients. It then discusses how these various factors like pH, water activity, and salt/sugar concentrations specifically impact the growth of microorganisms like bacteria, molds, and yeasts. The document also covers chemical changes caused by microbes in different foods, how microbes are classified based on structure and temperature tolerance, and provides examples of diseases caused by different viruses.
This document provides an overview of the beer making process in 3 sentences or less:
The document discusses the key ingredients in beer including malted barley, hops, yeast and water, and explains the brewing process from malting the barley to fermentation and lagering. It also covers different beer styles, storage, drafting, and issues like reducing alcohol content.
The document discusses various aspects of building planning including proportion, orientation, and site plans. It defines proportion as the visual relationships between objects and spaces that make up a structure. Orientation refers to fixing the direction of a building plan in relation to north. Site plans show the layout of a property including locations of buildings, driveways, walkways, and landscaping. There are 2D and 3D site plans, with 2D being simple diagrams and 3D being full-colored 3D renderings. Building planning aims to arrange various building components systematically to meet functional needs.
Microorganisms can cause infection and are present everywhere. Sterilization aims to remove or destroy microorganisms from surfaces and materials. Various physical and chemical methods are used for sterilization with different effectiveness against bacterial vegetative cells, spores, viruses, and other microbes. Common physical sterilization methods include heat, radiation, and filtration, while chemical methods include alcohols, aldehydes, phenols, halogens, and other disinfecting agents. The choice of sterilization method depends on the type of material or substance being sterilized.
The bacterial growth curve shows changes in the number of bacteria over time in a culture. It consists of four phases: lag phase as bacteria adapt to their environment, exponential or log phase as bacteria divide exponentially, stationary phase as nutrients are depleted and waste builds up slowing growth, and death phase as bacteria die off due to lack of nutrients and buildup of toxins. The curve represents the growth of heterotrophic bacteria that obtain nutrients from external sources.
Food Science - Unit-4 - Milk and Milk Products - Pasteurization process.
Pasteurization or pasteurisation is a process in which packaged and non-packaged foods (milk and fruit juice) are treated with mild heat, usually to less than 100 °C (212 °F), to kill pathogens and extend shelf life.
This document discusses sterilization methods used in dentistry, focusing on autoclaves. It describes how autoclaves use steam under pressure and high heat to sterilize instruments in 15-20 minutes. Two main types are discussed: downward displacement and vacuum. Proper use requires loading, pressurizing to 15 PSI and heating to 121 degrees Celsius for 30 minutes to effectively kill microbes. Autoclaves provide rapid and effective sterilization but items must be heat tolerant and safety precautions like protective equipment are important when using the high pressure and temperature equipment.
STERILISATION, PHYSICAL METHODS OF STERILISATION, METHODS OF STERILISATION, VARIOUS METHODS OF STERILISATION, AUTOCLAVES, HOT AIR OVEN, DRY HEAT STERILISATION, MOIST HEAT STERILISATION
Computers can perform a variety of tasks and are present in many fields. A computer is a programmable electronic device that takes in data as input, processes it, and provides output. It has various hardware components like a central processing unit (CPU) and memory. The CPU contains an arithmetic logic unit and control unit and works with various input/output devices. Computers are fast, accurate, reliable, versatile and can store vast amounts of data. They are classified by size into supercomputers, mainframes, microcomputers, minicomputers, and workstations.
This file contains complete information about computer Architecture.
1. What is a computer.
2. Types of computers
3. Block Diagram of Computer.
4 . Processor, Memory
5. Computer Generati
Computer software is used to analyze data. There are three main types of software: system software that controls computer operations like the operating system; application software designed for specific tasks like word processing; and programming software that helps developers create other software. Hardware are the physical parts of a computer while software are the instructions that direct the hardware. Together, hardware and software work to accept input, process data, and produce output.
Computer basic knowledge from 0 to advance. Computer Knowledge is necessary for all, these notes can help you to build basic knowledge , history of computer, application of computer, etc.
This document provides an overview of computers and their applications in business. It discusses what a computer is and its key characteristics like accuracy, speed, storage and versatility. It then covers the major components of a computer like the CPU, memory and input/output devices. The document also outlines common areas where computers are applied, such as banking, business, hospitals and entertainment. It provides details on the IPO cycle and concludes with definitions of hardware, software and different types of operating systems.
A computer accepts data as input, processes it, and produces output which is stored for future use. It consists of three main components - the CPU for processing data, input devices to enter data, and output devices to display results. The CPU has an ALU for calculations, memory for storage, and a control unit for directing operations. Computers can process data quickly, accurately, and reliably compared to humans.
1. A computer is an electronic device that can accept data as input, process that data, produce output, and store information for future use. It consists of both hardware and software.
2. Computers are now essential tools used in many aspects of modern life including business, education, entertainment, healthcare, and more. They are used to store and process information, perform calculations, and automate tasks.
3. Key components of a computer include a motherboard, central processing unit (CPU), graphics processing unit (GPU), random access memory (RAM), and storage devices. The CPU retrieves and executes instructions, the motherboard facilitates connectivity, and memory and storage hold data and programs.
The document provides information on the fundamentals of digital computers. It defines a computer as a device that performs calculations at high speeds using binary code. The key components of a computer are described as the input unit, central processing unit (CPU), arithmetic logic unit (ALU), control unit, memory unit, and output unit. Various storage devices used in computers are also explained, including hard disks, floppy disks, optical discs, tape, mobile storage media, smart cards, and Blu-ray discs. The roles of the system clock, word length, and bus width are outlined.
computer catagory and its organizationSheikh Salam
The document provides information on computer organization and architecture. It discusses the basic characteristics of computers such as speed, accuracy, reliability, versatility, and others. It also covers the classification of computers according to functionality, purpose, and size. The key structural components of a computer are described as the central processing unit (CPU), main memory, input/output (I/O), and interconnect system. The CPU contains a control unit, arithmetic logic unit (ALU), and registers. Computer organization refers to how the operational units are interconnected, while computer architecture describes the attributes visible to programmers.
This document provides an introduction to computing by discussing the basic components and functions of a computer system. It defines a computer as an electronic device that accepts raw data as input, processes it according to instructions, and produces the desired output. The key components discussed include input/output devices, storage devices, the central processing unit (CPU), memory (RAM and ROM), and how computer memory is measured. The document also provides a brief history of computing and explains how computers are programmed using software to process specific jobs.
A computer system consists of hardware and software components that work together to process data. The document discusses the basic components of a computer system including:
1) Input devices like keyboards, mice, and scanners that allow data to be entered into the system.
2) Processing devices like the CPU and motherboard that perform calculations and operations on the data.
3) Storage devices like RAM, ROM, hard disks, and flash drives that temporarily or permanently hold the data.
4) Output devices like monitors, printers and speakers that display or print the processed data for the user.
This document defines a computer and describes its main functional units. It states that a computer is an electronic device that takes in data as input, processes it to produce useful information as output, and can store information. The key functional units of a computer are then described as the input unit, central processing unit, memory unit, arithmetic & logical unit, and control unit. The input and output units are used to receive and display data, respectively. The memory unit stores programs and data in primary and secondary memory. The arithmetic & logical unit performs calculations, while the control unit coordinates the operations of all the other units. Diagrams are provided to illustrate some common input, output, and storage devices.
The document discusses the basic components of a computer system including the central processing unit (CPU), input devices, output devices, and storage. The CPU contains the arithmetic logic unit and control unit and is responsible for processing instructions. Input devices like keyboards allow users to input data and instructions. Output devices like monitors display the results of processed data for users. Storage units both primary memory like RAM and secondary memory like hard disks are used to store data and instructions. The document also provides examples of how computers are used in various fields like education, business, healthcare and at home.
The document provides an introduction to computers. It defines a computer as an electronic device that can accept data as input, process it according to instructions, produce output, and store information. The main components of a computer are the hardware (physical parts) and software (programs). Hardware includes devices like the screen and internal components like the central processing unit (CPU) which contains the arithmetic logic unit and control unit to process data. Software allows the hardware to perform tasks and comes in types like application, system, and programming software. The document outlines the history of computers and types including personal computers, mainframes, supercomputers, and minicomputers. It describes the basic units of a computer system as the input, output, CPU,
Introduction, Central Processing Unit (CPU) Memory, Communication between Various Units of a Computer System, The Instruction Format, Instruction Set, Processor Speed, Multiprocessor Systems.
Computer organization and architecture are related but distinct fields. Computer organization deals with how hardware components are interconnected and work together to realize the specifications set by computer architecture. Computer architecture determines attributes like instruction sets, memory organization, and input/output mechanisms. Studying computer organization and architecture is important for understanding how computers work at both the hardware and software levels. It provides knowledge about system design, components, and performance.
This document discusses computer architecture and organization. It defines computer architecture as the attributes visible to the programmer and computer organization as the operational units and their interconnections. It then classifies computers based on size, cost, computational power, and application. The basic functional units of a computer are described as the input, output, memory, arithmetic logic unit, and control unit. Common computer components like the CPU, registers, and buses are also explained.
The document summarizes the Von Neumann architecture, which is a design model for stored programs. It describes the key components of the architecture including the input/output subsystem, central processing unit (CPU), arithmetic logic unit (ALU), control unit, and main memory. The CPU is where computations take place via four main functions: fetch, decode, execute, and write back. The ALU performs arithmetic and logic operations while the control unit coordinates activity within the CPU. The main memory is divided into volatile RAM and non-volatile ROM for temporary and permanent storage.
Basics Of Computers | The Computer SystemNehaRohtagi1
Created By: neharohtagi1
This PowerPoint will help the not only the students but also others to learn about the basic organization of the Computer System.
It will also help to know how the system interprets, process and saves the data and instructions safely and accurately.
Do not copy or repost.
Please give feedbacks and suggestions to get presentations on more interesting topics.
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Decolonizing Universal Design for LearningFrederic Fovet
UDL has gained in popularity over the last decade both in the K-12 and the post-secondary sectors. The usefulness of UDL to create inclusive learning experiences for the full array of diverse learners has been well documented in the literature, and there is now increasing scholarship examining the process of integrating UDL strategically across organisations. One concern, however, remains under-reported and under-researched. Much of the scholarship on UDL ironically remains while and Eurocentric. Even if UDL, as a discourse, considers the decolonization of the curriculum, it is abundantly clear that the research and advocacy related to UDL originates almost exclusively from the Global North and from a Euro-Caucasian authorship. It is argued that it is high time for the way UDL has been monopolized by Global North scholars and practitioners to be challenged. Voices discussing and framing UDL, from the Global South and Indigenous communities, must be amplified and showcased in order to rectify this glaring imbalance and contradiction.
This session represents an opportunity for the author to reflect on a volume he has just finished editing entitled Decolonizing UDL and to highlight and share insights into the key innovations, promising practices, and calls for change, originating from the Global South and Indigenous Communities, that have woven the canvas of this book. The session seeks to create a space for critical dialogue, for the challenging of existing power dynamics within the UDL scholarship, and for the emergence of transformative voices from underrepresented communities. The workshop will use the UDL principles scrupulously to engage participants in diverse ways (challenging single story approaches to the narrative that surrounds UDL implementation) , as well as offer multiple means of action and expression for them to gain ownership over the key themes and concerns of the session (by encouraging a broad range of interventions, contributions, and stances).
CapTechTalks Webinar Slides June 2024 Donovan Wright.pptxCapitolTechU
Slides from a Capitol Technology University webinar held June 20, 2024. The webinar featured Dr. Donovan Wright, presenting on the Department of Defense Digital Transformation.
How to stay relevant as a cyber professional: Skills, trends and career paths...Infosec
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2. WHAT IS COMPUTER
• A computer is a digital electronic machine that can be programmed to carry out
sequences of arithmetic or logical operations (computation) automatically.
Modern computers can perform generic sets of operations known as programs.
These programs enable computers to perform a wide range of task
4. • All types of computers follow a same basic logical structure and perform the following five basic operations for
converting raw input data into information useful to their users.
• Input Unit
• This unit contains devices with the help of which we enter data into computer. This unit makes link between user
and computer. The input devices translate the information into the form understandable by computer.
• CPU (Central Processing Unit)
• CPU is considered as the brain of the computer. CPU performs all types of data processing operations. It stores
data, intermediate results and instructions(program). It controls the operation of all parts of computer.
• CPU itself has following three components
• ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)
• Memory Unit
• Control Unit
• Output Unit
• Output unit consists of devices with the help of which we get the information from computer. This unit is a link
between computer and users. Output devices translate the computer’s output into the form understandable by
users.
5. Computer types
• Classification of Computers by Size
• Supercomputers
• Mainframe computers
• Minicomputers
• Personal computers (PCs) or microcomputers
6. Supercomputers
• a powerful computer that can process large amounts of data and do a great
amount of computation very quickly.
• Supercomputers are used for areas related to:
• Science
• Engineering
• Education
• Defence
• Aerospace
• Supercomputers are useful for applications involving very large databases or that
require a great amount of computation.
7. • Supercomputers are used for complex tasks, such as:
• Weather forecasting
• Climate research
• Scientific simulation
• Oil and gas exploration
• Quantum mechanics
• Cryptanalysis
8. Mainframe computers
• a high-performance computer used for large information processing jobs.
• Mainframe computers are primarily used in :
• Institutions
• Research
• Academics
• Health care
• Libraries
• Large businesses
• Financial institutions
• Stock brokerage firms
• Insurance agencies
9. • Mainframe computers are useful for tasks related to:
• Census taking
• Industry and consumer statistics
• Enterprise resource planning
• Transaction processing
• e-business and e-commerce
10. Minicomputers
• a mid-range computer that is intermediate in size, power, speed, storage
capacity, etc., between a mainframe and a microcomputer.
• Minicomputers are used by small organizations.
• “Minicomputer” is a term that is no longer used much. In recent years,
minicomputers are often referred to as small or midsize servers.
• A server is a central computer that provides information to other computers.
11. Personal computers
• a small computer designed for use by a single user at a time.
• A PC or microcomputer uses a single chip (microprocessor) for its central
processing unit (CPU).
• “Microcomputer” is now primarily used to mean a PC, but it can refer to any kind
of small computer, such as a desktop computer, laptop computer, tablet,
smartphone, or wearable.
12. Types of personal computers
• desktop computer
• laptop computer
• tablet
• Smart phone
1. desktop computer: a personal computer that is designed to stay at one location
and fits on or under a desk. It typically has a monitor, keyboard, mouse, and a
tower (system unit).
13. laptop computer
• A portable personal computer that is small enough to rest on the
user’s lap and can be powered by a battery. It includes a flip down
screen and a keyboard with a touchpad.
14. tablet
• A wireless touchscreen PC that is slightly smaller and weighs less than the
average laptop.
15. Smart phone
• A mobile phone that performs many of the functions of a personal
computer.
16. Functional Units of Computer
• The functional units of a computer i.e. input unit, arithmetic and logic unit,
memory, control unit, output unit all are connected with the interconnection
network that helps them in exchanging the information as you can see in the
image below. Now, let us explore each functional unit separately
17. Input Unit
• The input to the computer is either a data or instruction, that guides the
arithmetic and logic unit about what operations have to be performed and also
controls the movement of data between the computer and its I/O devices.
• Now, the input i.e. data or instruction are accepted with the help of input units
such as a keyboard, mouse, touchpad. The most familiar device that we use to
accept input is the ‘keyboard’ and ‘mouse’. All of these input devices are graphic
input devices and you can see their effect on the display unit.
• Whenever you strike any key on the keyboard it gets converts to the binary code
and is handed over to the processor which would interpret the code and perform
the appropriate action.
• For audio and video input, microphones and cameras are used respectively. Now
a day, the internet can also be used to issue an input to a computer from other
computers or databases.
18. Memory Unit
• A memory unit is required to store the programs that have the set of
instructions that instructs Arithmetic and logic unit which operation has to be
performed. It also stores the data associated with the program. The memory can
further be classified into three types:
• Primary Memory
• primary memory is also known as the main memory or the random-access
memory (RAM). It is the fastest accessible memory of the computer. If a program
has to be executed it first needs to be placed in the primary memory.
• The memory is organized in such a way that in one basic operation, one-word
can be retrieved from the memory or one word can be stored to the memory. A
word length could be 16, 32, or 64 bits.
• The primary memory is expensive as well as faster. But primary memory is
volatile in nature it does not retain its content when the power gets off.
19. Secondary Memory
• Secondary memory is the hard disk of your system, it also includes flash drive,
optical disks, magnetic disk. The secondary memory is slower and less
expensive as compared to primary memory.
• It doesn’t lose its contents even if the supply of power gets off.
We require secondary memory to store a large volume of data or program
permanently or the data that is less likely to be retrieved.
• Cache Memory
• Cache memory can be accessed much faster as compared to primary memory
and it is even smaller in size. It is stored with the data that is required frequently
by the processor.
• As we know the program to be executed and the data associated with it is
brought to the primary memory and the processor fetches the program
instructions from there.
20. • The process also places a copy of the instructions and associated data in the
cache memory. Now, the instructions that are required to be executed repeatedly
such as loops are retrieved from the cache memory to improve the execution
rate.
• Arithmetic Logic Unit
• All the arithmetic operations are performed by the arithmetic logic unit of the
processors. Arithmetic operations such as addition, subtraction, division,
multiplication, comparison between the numbers, etc.
• The ALU unit performs the operations present in the instruction and stores the
result into the memory. It also stores the intermediate results of the operation in
the registers.
• The arithmetic operation is performed on the operands. The operands are placed
into the registers which store one word at a time which is sufficient for an
operand.
21. Output Unit
• A computer is a functional unit and as it has an input unit to accept the input it
also has the output unit to provide the generated output by the system. The most
familiar device used to output a result is a printer.
• A display screen is also an output unit as it displays the generated result, but it
also displays the input provided to the system. That’s why the display screen is
termed as the ‘I/O unit’ because of its dual function.
• Control Unit
• The functions of input, ALU, memory, and output unit must be coordinated so
that everything goes in sequence i.e. the processor accepts input, place it in
memory, processes the stored input, and generates output. This entire sequence
is coordinate by the control unit.
• In this way, the functional units of computers cooperate to generate useful
output. We have discussed each of the functional units of the computer in brief
and understood their functional behaviour.
22. • What is an operation?
• An operation in computer science is the completion of a task achieved through a
series of actions carried out by the computer. There are a total of five basic
operations of a computer:
• Input – This means giving an input to the computer by an action like left-clicking
an icon on the computer or typing on the keyboard to search for something on
Google.
• Processing – processors carry out the calculations and equations needed to get
the desired results. An example of a processor is an arithmetic logic unit used to
carry out all the mathematical calculations on the computer.
• Output – This is when the outcome derived from the processing stage is
displayed as a final result for the user. Output can be of different types. For
example, a user inputs a maths calculation in the device’s calculator so that the
screen will show the results.
23. • Storage – Several software, apps, and websites keep track of the user history. The
storage comes in handy for these. The storage means memory keeps a copy of all
the inputs and outputs that are done on the computer as a memory. It can be as
a primary memory- which means the data is stored for a short period and the
data is deleted once the computer or app is closed or shut down, or secondary
memory- this is usually used as a long term storage device like a hard disk drive
or Pendrive that can store vast amounts of data in a small space and is portable.
• Control – The central processing unit comes into action at this point; during the
process of computer operation, all the input, information processing, and
displaying an output can become challenging to manage for the computer,
making it slow . The CPU prevents glitches in the program’s running by controlling
all these actions and executing everything in order.
24. What is the concept of basic computer organization?
• The instructions that a computer follows to produce the output are stored in the
memory of the computer
• The devices store their instructions in memory devices, also known as registers
• Function registers are situated in a microprocessor. They control the smooth
running of the microprocessors
• Functional registers are divided into three parts:
• (PC) Program counters – The location of instructions on the memory device is
stored here so that it can be used when required.
• 2. (IR) Instruction registers – the instructions that will be used are located here.
They are encoded, so they will be decoded before the IR executes it.
• 3. (MAR) Memory address registers – Data locations from start to finish/ end of
the operation are stored here.
• MAR and MDR are two registers used to handle the transfers of data between the
processor and the device’s main memory.
• (MDR) Memory data register – The data that is transferred is stored here.
25. Bus Structure in Computer Architecture
• A system bus has typically from fifty to hundreds of distinct lines where each line
is meant for a certain function. These lines can be categories into three functional
groups i.e., data lines, address lines, and control lines. Let us discuss them one by
one each.
26. 1. Data Lines
• Data lines coordinate in transferring the data among the system components.
The data lines are collectively called data bus. A data bus may have 32 lines, 64
lines, 128 lines, or even more lines. The number of lines present in the data bus
defines the width of the data bus.
• Each data line is able to transfer only one bit at a time. So the number of data
lines in a data bus determines how many bits it can transfer at a time. The
performance of the system also depends on the width of the data bus.
27. 2.Address Lines
• The content of the address lines of the bus determines the source or destination
of the data present on the data bus. The number of address lines together is
referred to as address bus. The number of address lines in the address bus
determines its width.
• The width of the address bus determines the memory capacity of the system.
The content of address lines is also used for addressing I/O ports. The higher-
order bits determine the bus module and the lower ordered bits determine the
address of memory locations or I/O ports.
• Whenever the processor has to read a word from the memory it simply places
the address of the corresponding word on the address line.
28. 3. Control Lines
• The address lines and data lines are shared by all the components of
the system so there must some means to control the use and access
of data and address lines. The control signals placed on the control
lines control the use and access to address and data lines of the bus.
The control signal consists of the command and timing
information. Here the command in the control signal specify
the operation that has to be performed. And the timing information
over the control signals specify till when the data and address
information is valid .
29. Software
• Software is a set of programs, which is designed to perform a well-defined
function. A program is a sequence of instructions written to solve a particular
problem.
• There are two types of software −
• System Software
• Application Software
30. System Software
• The system software is a collection of programs designed to operate, control, and
extend the processing capabilities of the computer itself. System software is
generally prepared by the computer manufacturers.
• These software products comprise of programs written in low-level languages,
which interact with the hardware at a very basic level. System software serves as
the interface between the hardware and the end users. Some examples of system
software are Operating System, Compilers, Interpreter, Assemblers, etc.
31. • Here is a list of some of the most prominent features of a system software −
• Close to the system
• Fast in speed
• Difficult to design
• Difficult to understand
• Less interactive
• Smaller in size
• Difficult to manipulate
• Generally written in low-level language
32. Performance
• The most important measure of the performance of a computer is how quickly it
can execute programs. The speed with which a computer executes programs is
affected by the design of its hardware and its machine language instructions.
• Because programs are usually written in a high-level language, performance is
also affected by the compiler that translates programs into machine language.
• For best performance, it is necessary to design the compiler, the machine
instruction set, and the hardware in a coordinated way.
• The operating system overlaps processing, disk transfers, and printing for several
programs to make the best possible use of the resources available. The total time
required to execute the program is called elapsed time in operating system.
• This elapsed time is a measure of the performance of the entire computer
system. It is affected by the speed of the processor, the disk, and the printer.
33. Multiprocessor and Multicomputer
• Multiprocessor:-
• A Multiprocessor is a computer system with two or more central processing units
(CPUs) share full access to a common RAM.
• The main objective of using a multiprocessor is to boost the system’s execution
speed, with other objectives being fault tolerance and application matching.
• There are two types of multiprocessors, one is called shared memory
multiprocessor and another is distributed memory multiprocessor.
• In shared memory multiprocessors, all the CPUs shares the common memory but
in a distributed memory multiprocessor, every CPU has its own private memory.
34.
35.
36. • Benefits of using a Multiprocessor –
• Enhanced performance.
• Multiple applications.
• Multi-tasking inside an application.
• High throughput and responsiveness.
• Hardware sharing among CPUs.
37. Multicomputer
• A multicomputer system is a computer system with multiple processors that are
connected together to solve a problem.
• Each processor has its own memory and it is accessible by that particular
processor and those processors can communicate with each other via an
interconnection network.
• As the multicomputer is capable of messages passing between the processors, it
is possible to divide the task between the processors to complete the task.
• Hence, a multicomputer can be used for distributed computing. It is cost
effective and easier to build a multicomputer than a multiprocessor.
38.
39. Multiprocessor
•It consists of multiple processors within a single computer.
•It is a singly shared memory that is attached to the elements being processed.
•It is necessary for the processing elements to communicate with each other.
•It is a dynamic network.
•Example of multiprocessor is a sequent symmetry S-81.
Multicomputer
•It is an interlinked multiple autonomous computer.
•The memory attached to the processing elements are distributed in multiples.
•It is not required for elements being processed to communicate.
•It is a type of static network.
•Example of a multicomputer is a message passing multicomputer.
40. MACHINE INSTRUCTIONS AND PROGRAMS
• NUMBERS:
• Number systems are the technique to represent numbers in the computer
system architecture, every value that you are saving or getting into/from
computer memory has a defined number system.
• Computer architecture supports following number systems.
• Binary number system
• Octal number system
• Decimal number system
• Hexadecimal (hex) number system
41. • 1) Binary Number System
• A Binary number system has only two digits that are 0 and 1. Every number (value)
represents with 0 and 1 in this number system. The base of binary number system is 2,
because it has only two digits.
• 2) Octal number system
• Octal number system has only eight (8) digits from 0 to 7. Every number (value)
represents with 0,1,2,3,4,5,6 and 7 in this number system. The base of octal number
system is 8, because it has only 8 digits.
• 3) Decimal number system
• Decimal number system has only ten (10) digits from 0 to 9. Every number (value)
represents with 0,1,2,3,4,5,6, 7,8 and 9 in this number system. The base of decimal
number system is 10, because it has only 10 digits.
• 4) Hexadecimal number system
• A Hexadecimal number system has sixteen (16) alphanumeric values from 0 to 9 and A
to F. Every number (value) represents with 0,1,2,3,4,5,6, 7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E and F in this
number system. The base of hexadecimal number system is 16, because it has 16
alphanumeric values. Here A is 10, B is 11, C is 12, D is 13, E is 14 and F is 15.
42. INSTRUCTIONS AND INSTRUCTION SEQUENCING
• Four types of operations
• 1. Data transfer between memory and processor registers.
• 2. Arithmetic & logic operations on data
• 3. Program sequencing & control
• 4. I/O transfers.
• 1) Register transfer notations(RTN)
• R3<–[R1]+[R2]
• Right hand side of RTN-denotes a value.
• Left hand side of RTN-name of a location.
• 2) Assembly language notations(ALN)
• Add R1, R2, R3
• Adding contents of R1, R2 & place sum in R3.
43. • 3) Basic instruction types-4 types
• Three address instructions– Add A,B,C
• A, B-source operands
• C-destination operands
• Two address instructions-Add A,B
• B <–[A] + [B]
• One address instructions –Add A
• Add contents of A to accumulator & store sum back to accumulator.
• Zero address instructions
• Instruction store operands in a structure called push down stack.
44. • 4) Instruction execution & straight line sequencing
• The processor control circuits use information in PC to fetch & execute instructions one
at a time in order of increasing address.
• This is called straight line sequencing.
• Executing an instruction-2 phase procedures.
• 1st phase–“instruction fetch”-instruction is fetched from memory location whose
address is in PC.
• This instruction is placed in instruction register in processor
• 2nd phase-“instruction execute”-instruction in IR is examined to determine which
operation to be performed.
• 5) Branching
• Branch-type of instruction loads a new value into program counter.
• So processor fetches & executes instruction at this new address called “branch target”
• Conditional branch-causes a branch if a specified condition is satisfied.
• E.g. Branch>0 LOOP –conditional branch instruction .it executes only if it satisfies
condition.
45. • 6) Condition codes
• Recording required information in individual bits called “condition code flags”.
• These flags are grouped together in a special processor register called “condition
code register” or “status register”
• Individual condition code flags-1 or 0.
• 4 commonly used flags.
• 1) N (negative)-set to 1 if result is –ve or else 0.
• 2) Z (zero)-set to 1 if result is 0, or else 0 .
• 3) V (overflow)-set to 1if arithmetic overflow occurs or else 0.
• 4) C(carry)-set to 1 if carry out results from operation or else 0
46. Addressing Modes
• The operation field of an instruction specifies the operation to be performed. This
operation will be executed on some data which is stored in computer registers or
the main memory. The way any operand is selected during the program execution
is dependent on the addressing mode of the instruction.
• Types of Addressing Modes
• Immediate Mode
• In this mode, the operand is specified in the instruction itself. An immediate
mode instruction has an operand field rather than the address field.
• For EXAMPLE:ADD 7,which says Add 7 to contents of accumulator. 7 is the
operand here.
47.
48.
49. • Auto Increment/Decrement Mode
• In this the register is incremented or decremented after or before its value is
used.
• Direct Addressing Mode
• In this mode, effective address of operand is present in instruction itself.
• Single memory reference to access data.
• No additional calculations to find the effective address of the operand.
50.
51.
52. Relative Addressing Mode
• It is a version of Displacement addressing mode.
• In this the contents of PC(Program Counter) is added to address part of
instruction to obtain the effective address.
• EA=A+(PC),where EA is effective address and PC is program counter.
• The operand is A cells away from the current cell(the one pointed to by PC)
•Base Register Addressing Mode
• It is again a version of Displacement addressing mode. This can be defined as
• where
• EA=A+(R) ,where A is displacement and R holds pointer to base address.
53. • Stack Addressing Mode
• In this mode, operand is at the top of the stack.
• FOR EXAMPLE:ADD, this instruction will POP top two items from the stack, add
them, and will then PUSH the result to the top of the stack.
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
59.
60.
61.
62. subroutines
• A set of instructions that are used repeatedly in a program can be
referred to as Subroutine. Only one copy of this Instruction is stored
in the memory. When a Subroutine is required it can be called many
times during the Execution of a particular program. A call Subroutine
Instruction calls the Subroutine. Care Should be taken while returning
a Subroutine as Subroutine can be called from a different place from
the memory.
• The content of the PC must be Saved by the call Subroutine
Instruction to make a correct return to the calling program.
63. The subroutine linkage method is a way in which computers call and return the
Subroutine. The simplest way of Subroutine linkage is saving the return
address in a specific location, such as a register which can be called a link
register call Subroutine.
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