This document provides an introduction to steel bridges, including:
1. It discusses the history and evolution of bridge engineering and the key components of bridge structures.
2. It describes different classifications of bridges according to materials, usage, position, and structural forms. The structural forms include beam bridges, frame bridges, arch bridges, cable-stayed bridges, and suspension bridges.
3. It provides examples of different types of bridges and explains the basic structural systems used in bridges, including simply supported, cantilever, and continuous beams as well as rigid frames.
Howrah Bridge is a cantilever bridge built between 1936-1943 that connects Howrah and Kolkata. It was the longest cantilever bridge when completed and constructed without nuts and bolts using steel. The bridge experiences heavy traffic that causes pollution and overloading, though trams no longer run to reduce the load. Regular maintenance is required to address issues like damage from traffic, corrosion, and biological waste.
Steel structures involve structural steel members designed to carry loads and provide rigidity. Some famous steel structures include the Walt Disney Concert Hall, Tyne Bridge, and Howrah Bridge. Steel structures have advantages like high strength, ductility, elasticity, and ease of fabrication and erection. The Howrah Bridge is a steel cantilever bridge that connects Howrah and Kolkata. When built, it was the 3rd longest cantilever bridge in the world. It uses steel components like I-beams, rivets, and expansion joints and was constructed between 1936-1942.
This document discusses the analysis of cable-stayed bridges. It begins with an introduction to cable-stayed bridges, noting that they usually span 200 to 800 meters and have towers from which cables support the bridge deck. It then discusses the various components of cable-stayed bridges such as the pylons, cables, and deck. The document also summarizes the different modeling, analysis methods like linear and non-linear, and software that can be used to analyze cable-stayed bridges. It concludes by stating that cable-stayed bridges are more economical than suspension bridges and that area object modeling is more accurate than spine modeling.
This document provides an overview of steel structures. It defines steel as an alloy of iron with carbon and other elements. It then discusses the classification of steels based on carbon content and introduces the basic components of structures like beams and columns. The document outlines the advantages of steel structures such as lower costs, strength, recyclability, and flexibility. It also notes some disadvantages like maintenance costs and reduced strength in fires. Finally, it discusses common steel sections, connection types, and provides examples of famous steel buildings.
This document discusses and compares cable-stayed and suspension bridge structures. It defines cables as flexible structural components that can only support tensile loading. There are two main types of cable structures: suspension and stayed cables. Suspension bridges hang the deck below suspension cables on vertical suspenders, while cable-stayed bridges support the deck with cables running directly from towers. Cable-stayed bridges have advantages like faster construction and higher stiffness compared to more flexible suspension bridges.
The document discusses bridge types, components, selection criteria, and design considerations. It begins by defining what a bridge is and its purpose in transportation systems. It then covers typical bridge components and various structural forms for bridges based on material, span length, and other factors. Key criteria for selecting bridge types include span length, site conditions, cost, and aesthetics. The document emphasizes that aesthetic design requires considering function, proportion, harmony, order/rhythm, and contrast/texture to create pleasing structures that blend with their environments.
Undergraduate major project_-_design_ofVijay Singh
This document describes the design of a T-beam rail-over-bridge submitted by 9 students for their Bachelor of Technology degree in Civil Engineering. It includes an introduction to bridge types and T-beam bridges. It then outlines the contents which will cover the design of the deck slab, cantilever slab, longitudinal and cross girders, and bearings. Design calculations and reinforcement details will be provided for each component.
This document discusses prestressed concrete, which uses tensioned steel cables or bars to put concrete members into compression and increase their strength. It describes three main methods: pre-tensioned concrete where the steel is tensioned before the concrete is cast; bonded post-tensioned concrete where steel is tensioned after casting to compress the concrete; and unbonded post-tensioned concrete where greased steel is used to allow individual adjustment. Applications include buildings, bridges, nuclear reactors and earthquake resistant structures. Advantages are lower costs, thinner members, and increased spans.
Howrah Bridge is a cantilever bridge built between 1936-1943 that connects Howrah and Kolkata. It was the longest cantilever bridge when completed and constructed without nuts and bolts using steel. The bridge experiences heavy traffic that causes pollution and overloading, though trams no longer run to reduce the load. Regular maintenance is required to address issues like damage from traffic, corrosion, and biological waste.
Steel structures involve structural steel members designed to carry loads and provide rigidity. Some famous steel structures include the Walt Disney Concert Hall, Tyne Bridge, and Howrah Bridge. Steel structures have advantages like high strength, ductility, elasticity, and ease of fabrication and erection. The Howrah Bridge is a steel cantilever bridge that connects Howrah and Kolkata. When built, it was the 3rd longest cantilever bridge in the world. It uses steel components like I-beams, rivets, and expansion joints and was constructed between 1936-1942.
This document discusses the analysis of cable-stayed bridges. It begins with an introduction to cable-stayed bridges, noting that they usually span 200 to 800 meters and have towers from which cables support the bridge deck. It then discusses the various components of cable-stayed bridges such as the pylons, cables, and deck. The document also summarizes the different modeling, analysis methods like linear and non-linear, and software that can be used to analyze cable-stayed bridges. It concludes by stating that cable-stayed bridges are more economical than suspension bridges and that area object modeling is more accurate than spine modeling.
This document provides an overview of steel structures. It defines steel as an alloy of iron with carbon and other elements. It then discusses the classification of steels based on carbon content and introduces the basic components of structures like beams and columns. The document outlines the advantages of steel structures such as lower costs, strength, recyclability, and flexibility. It also notes some disadvantages like maintenance costs and reduced strength in fires. Finally, it discusses common steel sections, connection types, and provides examples of famous steel buildings.
This document discusses and compares cable-stayed and suspension bridge structures. It defines cables as flexible structural components that can only support tensile loading. There are two main types of cable structures: suspension and stayed cables. Suspension bridges hang the deck below suspension cables on vertical suspenders, while cable-stayed bridges support the deck with cables running directly from towers. Cable-stayed bridges have advantages like faster construction and higher stiffness compared to more flexible suspension bridges.
The document discusses bridge types, components, selection criteria, and design considerations. It begins by defining what a bridge is and its purpose in transportation systems. It then covers typical bridge components and various structural forms for bridges based on material, span length, and other factors. Key criteria for selecting bridge types include span length, site conditions, cost, and aesthetics. The document emphasizes that aesthetic design requires considering function, proportion, harmony, order/rhythm, and contrast/texture to create pleasing structures that blend with their environments.
Undergraduate major project_-_design_ofVijay Singh
This document describes the design of a T-beam rail-over-bridge submitted by 9 students for their Bachelor of Technology degree in Civil Engineering. It includes an introduction to bridge types and T-beam bridges. It then outlines the contents which will cover the design of the deck slab, cantilever slab, longitudinal and cross girders, and bearings. Design calculations and reinforcement details will be provided for each component.
This document discusses prestressed concrete, which uses tensioned steel cables or bars to put concrete members into compression and increase their strength. It describes three main methods: pre-tensioned concrete where the steel is tensioned before the concrete is cast; bonded post-tensioned concrete where steel is tensioned after casting to compress the concrete; and unbonded post-tensioned concrete where greased steel is used to allow individual adjustment. Applications include buildings, bridges, nuclear reactors and earthquake resistant structures. Advantages are lower costs, thinner members, and increased spans.
08-Strength of Welded Connections (Steel Structural Design & Prof. Shehab Mou...Hossam Shafiq II
The document discusses the strength of welded connections, including fillet and groove welds. It provides the equations to calculate the strength of fillet welds based on weld size and length. It also provides equations for calculating the strength of gusset plates based on yield strength, tensile strength, and area. An example calculation is shown for a welded connection with longitudinal and transverse welds. The strength is calculated for the welds, angles, and gusset plate. The governing strength is found to be the yielding of the gusset plate at 457.2 kN.
Bridges provide passage over obstacles without blocking the way below. They carry traffic and loads over channels, roads, or railways. Bridges are classified based on their function, materials, form, position, construction method, and more. Common types include girder, truss, arch, cable-stayed, and suspension bridges, which vary in their typical spans and forces. Joints are often included to allow for movement from temperature changes and material shrinkage/expansion without compromising the bridge's integrity.
The document provides a training report for a bridge construction project in Jaipur, India during May-June 2016. It summarizes the key components of the bridge, including pile foundations, substructures like piers and pedestals, and superstructures such as prestressed concrete girders and deck slabs. The training helped the author gain practical knowledge of bridge construction techniques and management that supplemented their theoretical classroom learning.
Connections are devices used to join structural elements together to safely transfer forces between them. There are different types of connections classified by their means of connection, such as welded, riveted, and bolted, and by the forces transferred, such as truss connections, fully restrained connections, and partially restrained connections. Fully restrained connections provide continuity between structural members and allow over 90% of moment to be transferred to provide greater flexural resistance. Partially restrained connections have less rigidity than fully restrained connections and allow some percentage of moment and full shear to be transferred. Semi-rigid connections provide rigidity between fully restrained and simple connections and transfer approximately 20-90% of moment.
Bridges allow crossing over obstacles and come in different types. A basic beam or plank bridge will sag under its own weight if too long. Proper design must account for the bridge's dead load (its own weight), live load (weight of users), and wind load. Common modern bridge types include beam, arch, truss, suspension, and cable-stayed bridges. Each type has distinct structural properties and advantages/disadvantages for different uses and spans. Bridges have evolved significantly over history as materials and engineering have advanced.
The document discusses the design of footings for structures. It begins by explaining that footings are needed to transfer structural loads from members made of materials like steel and concrete to the underlying soil. It then describes different types of shallow and deep foundations, including spread, strap, combined, and raft footings. The document provides details on designing isolated and combined footings to resist vertical loads and moments based on provisions in IS 456. It also discusses wall footings and combined footings that support multiple columns. In summary, the document covers the purpose of footings, various footing types, and design of isolated and combined footings.
This document describes an experimental study comparing the structural behavior of monolithic and precast concrete portal frames. Scaled models of a monolithic frame and two precast frames (one with a corbel connection and one without) were tested under a two-point load. Test results showed that the monolithic frame had the highest deflections but lowest load capacity, while the precast frame with a corbel connection had the lowest deflections but highest load capacity. Cracks were first observed in the monolithic frame, followed by the precast frame without a corbel, with the frame with a corbel cracking at the highest loads. In conclusion, the monolithic frame was found to be the most ductile but least stiff, while
The document discusses the history and details of the Howrah Bridge in Kolkata, India. It was constructed in 1943 and was the only connector between Howrah and Kolkata until 1992. The bridge is a famous landmark and symbol of the city. It is a cantilever bridge that is 457.5 meters long and constructed out of 26,000 tons of steel. Maintenance of the bridge is handled by the Kolkata Port Trust and involves regular cleaning and corrosion prevention.
Training report done on Bridge ConstructionSukhdeep Jat
The document provides details about an in-plant training report submitted by Sukhdeep Singh Jat at BSCPL Infrastructure Pvt. Ltd during the construction of a bridge over the Mahanadi River in NH-53 in India. It discusses the company profile, ongoing major projects including road and bridge construction projects, and specifics of the bridge project over the Mahanadi River including the design process, materials used such as different grades of concrete, and machinery employed.
This document provides an analysis and design overview of a cable-stayed bridge project. It introduces cable-stayed bridges and their components, including pylons, decks, cables, and bearings. The project involves the design of a three-span cable-stayed bridge with two 130m pylons and an 80-cable system arranged in a double plane configuration. The bridge deck is 28m wide with 6 lanes and consists of I-girders, X-girders, and stringers. Cables are initially 12cm in diameter and spaced 12m apart. Bridge components and construction are further described. Tests on cable-stayed bridge models are also outlined.
The document discusses rigid frame systems used in high-rise buildings. It provides a history of rigid frames, an introduction to what they are, and examples of their applications. It describes the material properties and connections used. It discusses considerations for rigid frame design like behavior under lateral loads. It notes advantages like architectural freedom but also disadvantages like increased drift. It concludes with a case study on using hybrid rigid/semi-rigid frames to improve seismic performance.
This document discusses different types of structural systems. It defines structure and explains that structures can be man-made or natural. Man-made structures are constructed by humans, while natural structures occur without human involvement. The document then discusses four main types of structural systems: section/bulk active systems using rigid elements to redirect forces through bending; vector active systems using tension and compression elements; form active systems relying on flexible elements and particular shapes; and surface active systems using planar elements under tension, compression or shear. Examples are provided for each type of structural system.
The document discusses different types of high-rise buildings. It defines high-rises and provides reasons for their increasing demand, including scarcity of land and desire for aesthetics. It describes various structural loads high-rises must withstand and common construction materials used. It also lists top 10 high-rise buildings worldwide and examples in Pakistan. Finally, it outlines different high-rise structural systems such as braced frames, shear walls, tube structures, and their advantages.
This document discusses prestressed concrete and provides details on:
- The definition and principle of prestressing concrete by applying compression prior to external loads
- Common prestressing methods like hydraulic, mechanical, electrical, and chemical prestressing
- Tests conducted on prestressed concrete components like post-tensioned splices and cast-in-place splices
- Advantages of prestressed concrete like reduced materials and increased strength
- Applications in bridges, buildings, water tanks, and more
- A case study on widening the Harrods Creek Arch Bridge using prestressed concrete
powerpoint presentation on bridge designingAyush Kumar
This document discusses how to build a bridge out of popsicle sticks and provides instructions in 5 steps: planning the bridge design, drawing a blueprint, constructing the deck, adding the sides, and assembling the completed bridge. It also briefly mentions different types of truss bridges and that popsicle sticks can be used as a material for building small bridges.
This document discusses the stability of high-rise buildings. It defines high-rise buildings and describes their structural systems, which must withstand both vertical gravity loads and lateral loads from wind and earthquakes. Stability becomes more important with increasing building height. Factors that affect stability include seismic forces at the base and wind loads higher up. The document outlines methods to stabilize structures against wind loads, noting wind speed increases with height and causes both static and dynamic effects that structures must withstand.
A short and elaborate Case Study on Suspension Structures for the course of Advanced Building Construction from students of 8th Semester Architecture at VNIT, Nagpur (January- April 2017)
About Suspension Bridges:
A suspension bridge is a type of bridge in which the deck (the load-bearing portion) is hung below suspension cables on vertical suspenders. The first modern examples of this type of bridge were built in the early 19th century. Bridges without vertical suspenders have a long history in many mountainous parts of the world.
This document provides information about truss bridges, including their history, types, and design principles. It discusses the evolution of bridge construction from natural bridges to modern designs. Key truss designs discussed include the Kingpost, Queenpost, Howe, Pratt, and Warren trusses. The document also covers truss components, optimal truss geometry, design of compression/tension members, and design of vertical and diagonal members. Overall, the document provides a technical overview of truss bridge design and the various truss configurations used in steel bridges.
The document discusses different types of bridges including steel, reinforced concrete, and suspension bridges. It describes the key components and classifications of bridges. Some of the most important bridges in India are highlighted such as the Bandra-Worli Sea Link, Howrah Bridge, and Saraighat Bridge. Bridges serve important purposes by connecting difficult terrains, enabling trade and transportation, and reducing travel time. Proper maintenance and avoiding design defects are crucial to prevent bridge failures.
08-Strength of Welded Connections (Steel Structural Design & Prof. Shehab Mou...Hossam Shafiq II
The document discusses the strength of welded connections, including fillet and groove welds. It provides the equations to calculate the strength of fillet welds based on weld size and length. It also provides equations for calculating the strength of gusset plates based on yield strength, tensile strength, and area. An example calculation is shown for a welded connection with longitudinal and transverse welds. The strength is calculated for the welds, angles, and gusset plate. The governing strength is found to be the yielding of the gusset plate at 457.2 kN.
Bridges provide passage over obstacles without blocking the way below. They carry traffic and loads over channels, roads, or railways. Bridges are classified based on their function, materials, form, position, construction method, and more. Common types include girder, truss, arch, cable-stayed, and suspension bridges, which vary in their typical spans and forces. Joints are often included to allow for movement from temperature changes and material shrinkage/expansion without compromising the bridge's integrity.
The document provides a training report for a bridge construction project in Jaipur, India during May-June 2016. It summarizes the key components of the bridge, including pile foundations, substructures like piers and pedestals, and superstructures such as prestressed concrete girders and deck slabs. The training helped the author gain practical knowledge of bridge construction techniques and management that supplemented their theoretical classroom learning.
Connections are devices used to join structural elements together to safely transfer forces between them. There are different types of connections classified by their means of connection, such as welded, riveted, and bolted, and by the forces transferred, such as truss connections, fully restrained connections, and partially restrained connections. Fully restrained connections provide continuity between structural members and allow over 90% of moment to be transferred to provide greater flexural resistance. Partially restrained connections have less rigidity than fully restrained connections and allow some percentage of moment and full shear to be transferred. Semi-rigid connections provide rigidity between fully restrained and simple connections and transfer approximately 20-90% of moment.
Bridges allow crossing over obstacles and come in different types. A basic beam or plank bridge will sag under its own weight if too long. Proper design must account for the bridge's dead load (its own weight), live load (weight of users), and wind load. Common modern bridge types include beam, arch, truss, suspension, and cable-stayed bridges. Each type has distinct structural properties and advantages/disadvantages for different uses and spans. Bridges have evolved significantly over history as materials and engineering have advanced.
The document discusses the design of footings for structures. It begins by explaining that footings are needed to transfer structural loads from members made of materials like steel and concrete to the underlying soil. It then describes different types of shallow and deep foundations, including spread, strap, combined, and raft footings. The document provides details on designing isolated and combined footings to resist vertical loads and moments based on provisions in IS 456. It also discusses wall footings and combined footings that support multiple columns. In summary, the document covers the purpose of footings, various footing types, and design of isolated and combined footings.
This document describes an experimental study comparing the structural behavior of monolithic and precast concrete portal frames. Scaled models of a monolithic frame and two precast frames (one with a corbel connection and one without) were tested under a two-point load. Test results showed that the monolithic frame had the highest deflections but lowest load capacity, while the precast frame with a corbel connection had the lowest deflections but highest load capacity. Cracks were first observed in the monolithic frame, followed by the precast frame without a corbel, with the frame with a corbel cracking at the highest loads. In conclusion, the monolithic frame was found to be the most ductile but least stiff, while
The document discusses the history and details of the Howrah Bridge in Kolkata, India. It was constructed in 1943 and was the only connector between Howrah and Kolkata until 1992. The bridge is a famous landmark and symbol of the city. It is a cantilever bridge that is 457.5 meters long and constructed out of 26,000 tons of steel. Maintenance of the bridge is handled by the Kolkata Port Trust and involves regular cleaning and corrosion prevention.
Training report done on Bridge ConstructionSukhdeep Jat
The document provides details about an in-plant training report submitted by Sukhdeep Singh Jat at BSCPL Infrastructure Pvt. Ltd during the construction of a bridge over the Mahanadi River in NH-53 in India. It discusses the company profile, ongoing major projects including road and bridge construction projects, and specifics of the bridge project over the Mahanadi River including the design process, materials used such as different grades of concrete, and machinery employed.
This document provides an analysis and design overview of a cable-stayed bridge project. It introduces cable-stayed bridges and their components, including pylons, decks, cables, and bearings. The project involves the design of a three-span cable-stayed bridge with two 130m pylons and an 80-cable system arranged in a double plane configuration. The bridge deck is 28m wide with 6 lanes and consists of I-girders, X-girders, and stringers. Cables are initially 12cm in diameter and spaced 12m apart. Bridge components and construction are further described. Tests on cable-stayed bridge models are also outlined.
The document discusses rigid frame systems used in high-rise buildings. It provides a history of rigid frames, an introduction to what they are, and examples of their applications. It describes the material properties and connections used. It discusses considerations for rigid frame design like behavior under lateral loads. It notes advantages like architectural freedom but also disadvantages like increased drift. It concludes with a case study on using hybrid rigid/semi-rigid frames to improve seismic performance.
This document discusses different types of structural systems. It defines structure and explains that structures can be man-made or natural. Man-made structures are constructed by humans, while natural structures occur without human involvement. The document then discusses four main types of structural systems: section/bulk active systems using rigid elements to redirect forces through bending; vector active systems using tension and compression elements; form active systems relying on flexible elements and particular shapes; and surface active systems using planar elements under tension, compression or shear. Examples are provided for each type of structural system.
The document discusses different types of high-rise buildings. It defines high-rises and provides reasons for their increasing demand, including scarcity of land and desire for aesthetics. It describes various structural loads high-rises must withstand and common construction materials used. It also lists top 10 high-rise buildings worldwide and examples in Pakistan. Finally, it outlines different high-rise structural systems such as braced frames, shear walls, tube structures, and their advantages.
This document discusses prestressed concrete and provides details on:
- The definition and principle of prestressing concrete by applying compression prior to external loads
- Common prestressing methods like hydraulic, mechanical, electrical, and chemical prestressing
- Tests conducted on prestressed concrete components like post-tensioned splices and cast-in-place splices
- Advantages of prestressed concrete like reduced materials and increased strength
- Applications in bridges, buildings, water tanks, and more
- A case study on widening the Harrods Creek Arch Bridge using prestressed concrete
powerpoint presentation on bridge designingAyush Kumar
This document discusses how to build a bridge out of popsicle sticks and provides instructions in 5 steps: planning the bridge design, drawing a blueprint, constructing the deck, adding the sides, and assembling the completed bridge. It also briefly mentions different types of truss bridges and that popsicle sticks can be used as a material for building small bridges.
This document discusses the stability of high-rise buildings. It defines high-rise buildings and describes their structural systems, which must withstand both vertical gravity loads and lateral loads from wind and earthquakes. Stability becomes more important with increasing building height. Factors that affect stability include seismic forces at the base and wind loads higher up. The document outlines methods to stabilize structures against wind loads, noting wind speed increases with height and causes both static and dynamic effects that structures must withstand.
A short and elaborate Case Study on Suspension Structures for the course of Advanced Building Construction from students of 8th Semester Architecture at VNIT, Nagpur (January- April 2017)
About Suspension Bridges:
A suspension bridge is a type of bridge in which the deck (the load-bearing portion) is hung below suspension cables on vertical suspenders. The first modern examples of this type of bridge were built in the early 19th century. Bridges without vertical suspenders have a long history in many mountainous parts of the world.
This document provides information about truss bridges, including their history, types, and design principles. It discusses the evolution of bridge construction from natural bridges to modern designs. Key truss designs discussed include the Kingpost, Queenpost, Howe, Pratt, and Warren trusses. The document also covers truss components, optimal truss geometry, design of compression/tension members, and design of vertical and diagonal members. Overall, the document provides a technical overview of truss bridge design and the various truss configurations used in steel bridges.
The document discusses different types of bridges including steel, reinforced concrete, and suspension bridges. It describes the key components and classifications of bridges. Some of the most important bridges in India are highlighted such as the Bandra-Worli Sea Link, Howrah Bridge, and Saraighat Bridge. Bridges serve important purposes by connecting difficult terrains, enabling trade and transportation, and reducing travel time. Proper maintenance and avoiding design defects are crucial to prevent bridge failures.
This document presents the analysis report for a fettuccine truss bridge project. It includes a precedent study of two existing truss bridges, an analysis of the materials used including fettuccine and different types of adhesive, and a description of the process for designing, constructing, and testing multiple models of the fettuccine bridge. The goals of the project were to understand force distribution in trusses and maximize the efficiency of the designed bridge model. Various tests were conducted to determine the optimal material properties, construction techniques, and joint designs.
The document discusses various topics related to bridges including their purpose, importance, components, classifications, loadings, aesthetics, materials used such as steel and reinforced concrete, types of bridges like suspension bridges, causes of bridge failures, maintenance, and some landmark bridges in India. Bridges are structures built to provide passage over physical obstacles without closing the gap below and have been developing in sophistication since early human civilization. They are important for connecting difficult terrains, aiding trade and transportation, and reducing travel time.
This document discusses reinforced concrete (RC) girder bridges. It begins by defining girder bridges as the simplest bridge type, consisting of horizontal beams supported at each end. RC girder bridges are comprised of deck slabs that vehicles drive on, supported by main girders. There are three main types of girder bridges: box girders, which can handle twisting forces and are suitable for longer spans; concrete girders made of pre-stressed concrete; and I-beam girders made of steel. RC girder bridges must be designed to support dead loads from the structure itself, live loads from traffic, and dynamic loads from wind and weather.
The document is a report on analyzing the strength of a fettuccine truss bridge model. It includes sections on precedent studies of real truss bridges, testing the strength of fettuccine material, constructing four prototype bridges with different designs, and analyzing their failures under loading. The final section describes amendments made to the design and construction of a fifth and final bridge model, which was loaded and analyzed to evaluate its strength and efficiency.
The document is a report on analyzing and testing fettuccine truss bridges. It details the group's process of conducting precedent studies on real truss bridges, testing the strength of fettuccine material, designing and building multiple bridge models through trial and error, and analyzing why the bridges failed under loading. The goal was to design a fettuccine truss bridge that meets requirements of spanning 350mm with less than 80g weight and understanding force distribution in the truss.
This document provides details about the construction and maintenance of bridges. It discusses the various elements of bridge design, including basic forms, common materials, and methods of construction. Specifically, it outlines the construction processes for different bridge types, such as beam bridges, cable-stayed bridges, and suspension bridges. It emphasizes the importance of periodic maintenance to ensure bridges remain in good condition and last as long as intended during their design lifetime.
Analyze and design of suspension bridge using sap2000vivatechijri
Structural design requires a full understanding and knowledge of all the components comprising the structure. A suspension bridge is a type of bridge in which the deck (the load-bearing portion) is hung below suspension cables on vertical suspenders. The design of modern suspension bridges allows them to cover longer distances than other types of bridges. The main element of a cable suspended bridge is the cable system. Bridges are normally designed for dead load, live load and other occasional loads. All loading and unloading conditions in analysis and design are provided as per IRC codal specifications. The whole modeling of the suspension parts of the bridge was done by using SAP2000. Suspension cable bridge having 1km span with single lane road, the intensity of road is given has 20 numbers of vehicles each loaded with 350KN (heavy loading class A-A track load) is analyzed by SAP2000. The output of the software presents results including moments, axial loads, shear force and displacements. Moreover, moments and axial load at each node and at any point within the element can be easily obtained from the software output. This thesis examines issues analysis and design calculation in over a structure will safe under all conditions.
application of modern timber structure in short and medium spanAditya Sanyal
The document analyzes problems with short and medium span bridges in China, such as monotonous structural forms, environmental pollution, defects, and maintenance difficulties. It proposes that modern timber structures are necessary and feasible alternatives for such bridges. Timber structures offer advantages like light weight, environmental friendliness, strength, durability, and diverse forms. With developments in timber products, connections, and maintenance technology, modern timber can help address issues with China's many short and medium span bridges.
This document is a seminar report submitted by Alok B. Rathod for the degree of Master of Technology in Structural Engineering at Bhartiya Vidya Bhavan’s Sardar Patel College of Engineering in Mumbai, India. The report reviews the development of concrete-filled steel tubular structures, including their material properties and behavior under various loads. It summarizes research on their static, dynamic, and fire performance, as well as construction and durability. Design criteria from different codes are examined and examples of CFST applications in buildings, bridges, and other structures are provided.
Cable stay bridges, summary of a lecture delivered at Uni of Surrey, UKDavid Collings
Cable stay bridges, summary of a lecture delivered as part of MSc course at University of Surrey UK. Outlines key issues for sizing major bridges. The work draws on Manual of bridge Enginnering, the authors book Steel Concrete composite bridges - which has a chapter on cable stay bridges, and recent research on cable stay and extradosed bridges.
This document provides an overview of steel bridge design and components. It begins with an abstract describing the primary functions of a bridge deck and various decking options. It then introduces bridges and their history, describing how designs have evolved from simple log bridges to modern steel and cable-stayed bridges. The document outlines various bridge types including beam, truss, arch, suspension, and cable-stayed bridges. It also defines basic bridge concepts such as span, force, compression, tension, and loads.
What are the components of the bridge?
Image result for bridge-engg-components
The main components of a bridge are the foundation, substructure, and the superstructure. Each of these core areas have other parts within them. Piles and pile caps are constructed as the foundation of the bridge
This document provides information on the design of a T-beam bridge using the working stress method. It discusses the key components of a T-beam bridge including the deck slab, longitudinal girders, cross girders, abutments, and foundations. It also describes the design procedures for these components, focusing on the deck slab, cantilever slab, longitudinal girders, and cross girders. Methods for calculating bending moments and determining reinforcement are covered.
The document describes the analysis and design of a steel truss footbridge with an isolated foundation. It discusses modeling the superstructure in STAAD PRO and Tekla Structure software. The bridge is a 9.63m high steel structure. Methodology includes drafting plans in AutoCAD, modeling in Tekla Structure, analysis in STAAD PRO, material properties, design of truss components, fabrication of steel, and conclusion. A modified queen post steel truss is analyzed and designed to be economical, safe, and easily assembled for pedestrian use.
This document provides information on bridge planning, design, classification and components. It discusses:
1. The key steps in bridge planning including studying needs, alternatives, design and implementation.
2. Common bridge classifications including material (masonry, concrete, steel), structural type (slab, girder, truss), and purpose (road, rail).
3. The main components of a typical T-beam bridge including the deck slab, longitudinal girders, cross girders, abutments and foundations. Methods for designing the deck slab and cantilever portions are outlined.
Ch7 Box Girder Bridges (Steel Bridges تصميم الكباري المعدنية & Prof. Dr. Metw...Hossam Shafiq II
1. Box girder bridges have two key advantages over plate girder bridges: they possess torsional stiffness and can have much wider flanges.
2. For medium span bridges between 45-100 meters, box girder bridges offer an attractive form of construction as they maintain simplicity while allowing larger span-to-depth ratios compared to plate girders.
3. Advances in welding and cutting techniques have expanded the structural possibilities for box girders, allowing for more economical designs of large welded units.
This document discusses the design of concrete bridges. It begins by defining what a bridge is and providing some background on bridge building technology. It then covers the importance of bridges, components of bridges, classifications of bridges, loadings on bridges, aesthetics of bridges, reinforced concrete bridges, steel bridges, suspension bridges, bridge failures, and bridge maintenance. The document provides information on various bridge types, their advantages and disadvantages, design considerations, and factors influencing bridge design.
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Ch1 Introduction (Steel Bridges تصميم الكباري المعدنية & Prof. Dr. Metwally Abu-Hamd)
1. STEEL BRIDGES
METWALLY ABU-HAMD
Head of Structural Engineering Dept
Professor of Bridge and Steel Structures
Faculty of Engineering, Cairo University
2. Any part of this book may be reproduced by any means
WITHOUT the written permission of the author.
3. Preface
___________________________________________
Bridges have always fascinated people, be it a primitive bridge over a
canal or one of the magnificent long span modern bridges. People built
bridges to challenge nature where some obstacles like rivers, valleys, or
traffic block the way they want to pass through. Our transportation system
would not exist without bridges. Their existence allows million of people,
cars, and trains to travel every day and everywhere they want to go. It is
obvious that both our economy and our society could not function without the
technology of bridge engineering.
Bridge building is one of the difficult constructional endeavors that both
attracts and challenges structural engineers. The design of such complex
structures requires a great deal of knowledge and experience. Depending on
the bridge span to be covered, several types of bridge systems exist.
Examples of bridge systems are beam bridges for short and moderate spans,
arch bridges for moderate spans, and cable stayed bridges and suspension
bridges for long spans.
This book covers the design of steel bridges in general with emphasis on
bridge systems commonly used to cover short and moderate spans, namely
plate girder bridges, box girder bridges, and truss bridges. The book is
intended for senior year college students and practicing bridge engineers.
The contents of the book are organized into two parts: the first four
chapters cover the design of steel bridges in general while the other four
chapters cover the design of specific bridge types. Chapter 1 describes the
different structural systems of steel bridges. Chapter 2 presents the design
loads on roadway and railway bridges. Chapter 3 presents the design
considerations. Chapter 4 covers the design of roadway and railway bridge
floor. Chapter 5 covers the design of plate girder bridges. Chapter 6 covers
the design of composite plate girders. Chapter 7 covers the design of box
girder bridges. Chapter 8 covers the design of truss bridges.
The author hopes that this book will enable structural engineers to design
and construct steel bridges with better safety and economy.
Dr Metwally Abu-Hamd
Professor of Steel and Bridge Structures
Faculty of Engineering
Cairo University
Giza, 2007
4. CONTENTS
___________________________________________
1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 GENERAL 2
1.2 TYPES OF BRIDGES 5
1.3 MATERIALS FOR BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION 20
2: DESIGN LOADS ON BRIDGES
2.1 INTRODUCTION 26
2.2 ROADWAY DESIGN LOADINGS 26
2.3 RAILWAY DESIGN LOADINGS 32
2.4 OTHER LOADS ON BRIDGES 36
3: DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
3.1 DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES 42
3.2 ALLOWABLE STRESSES FOR STRUCTURAL STEEL 43
3.3 FATIGUE 65
3.4 ALLOWABLE STRESSES FOR WELDED JOINTS 106
3.5 ALLOWABLE STRESSES FOR BOLTED JOINTS 107
4: BRIDGE FLOORS
4.1 INTRODUCTION 116
4.2 STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS OF BRIDGE FLOORS 117
4.3 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 122
4.4 DESIGN EXAMPLES 125
5. 5: PLATE GIRDER BRIDGES
5.1 INTRODUCTION 146
5.2 GENERAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 148
5.3 INFLUENCE OF BUCKLING ON GIRDERS DESIGN 154
5.4 ACTUAL STRENGTH OF PLATE GIRDER ELEMENTS 173
5.5 FLANGE PLATE CURTAILMENT 181
5.6 DESIGN DETAILS 183
5.7 FLANGE-TO-WEB CONNECTION 183
5.8 STIFFENERS 187
5.9 SPLICES 194
5.9.4 DESIGN 200
5.10 BRIDGE BRACINGS 203
5.11 BRIDGE BEARINGS 208
5.12 DESIGN EXAMPLE 218
6: COMPOSITE PLATE GIRDER BRIDGES
6.1 GENERAL 240
6.2 COMPONENTS OF COMPOSITE GIRDERS 243
6.3 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 245
6.4 SHEAR CONNECTORS 257
7: BOX GIRDER BRIDGES
7.1 INTRODUCTION 276
7.2 CROSS SECTION ARRANGEMENTS 278
7.3 BEHAVIOR OF BOX GIRDER BRIDGES 282
7.4 EFFECT BENDING 284
7.5 EFFECT OF TORSION 291
7.6 DESIGN EXAMPLE 306
8: TRUSS BRIDGES
8.1 TRUSS TYPES & CHARACTERISTICS 312
8.2 DESIGN OF TRUSS MEMBERS 318
8.3 GENERAL DESIGN PRINCIPLES 320
8.4 DESIGN OF TRUSS MEMBERS 322
8.5 DESIGN OF TRUSS CONNECTIONS 329
8. Steel Bridges
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 GENERAL
1.1.1 Historical Background
People have always needed to transport themselves and their goods from
one place to another. In early times, waterways were used wherever possible.
Navigable waterways, however, do not always go in the direction desired or
may not be always available. Therefore, it has been necessary to develop land
transportation methods and means of crossing waterways and valleys.
Roadway and railway development have therefore become an absolute
necessity for economic development. The rapid economic development in
Europe, USA, and Japan could not take place until land transportation was
developed. Even today, one important factor that has caused many countries
to lag behind in economic development is the lack of good land
transportation systems.
An important element of land transportation systems is the bridge. A
bridge is a structure that carries a service (which may be highway or railway
traffic, a footpath, public utilities, etc.) over an obstacle (which may be
another road or railway, a river, a valley, etc.), and then transfers the loads
from the service to the foundations at ground level.
The history of bridge engineering, which began with stone and wooden
structures in the first century BC, can be said to be the history of the
evolution of civil engineering. It is not possible to date humanity’s
conception and creation of the first bridge. Perhaps people derived the first
concept in bridge building from nature. The idea of a bridge might have
developed from a tree trunk that had fallen across a canal. Early bridges
consisted of simple short spans of stone slabs or tree trunks. For longer spans,
9. Chapter 1: Introduction 3
strands of bamboo or vine were hung between two trees across a stream to
make a suspension bridge.
The introduction of new materials – plain, reinforced, and pre-stressed
concrete; cast iron; wrought iron; and steel – evolved gradually within the
last two centuries. According to known records, the first use of iron in
bridges was a chain bridge built in 1734 in Prussia. Concrete was first used in
1840 for a 12-m span bridge in France. Reinforced concrete was not used in
bridge construction until the beginning of the twentieth century. Pre-stressed
concrete was introduced in 1927. These developments, coupled with
advances in structural engineering and construction technology, led to the
introduction of different forms of bridges having increasingly longer spans
and more load carrying capacities.
1.1.2 Bridge Components
In Figure 1.1 the principal components of a bridge structure are shown.
The two basic parts are:
(1) the UsubstructureU; which includes the piers, the abutments and the
foundations.
(2) the UsuperstructureU; which consists of:
a) the bridge deck, which supports the direct loads due to traffic and all
the other permanent loads to which the structure is subjected.
In roadway bridges it includes the deck slab, Fig. 1.1b.
In railway bridges it includes the rails and sleepers, Fig. 1.1c
b) the floor beams, which transmit loads from the bridge deck to the
bridge main girders. They consist of longitudinal beams, called
stringers, and transversal beams, called cross girders, Fig. 1.1c.
c) the main girders, which transmit the bridge vertical loads to the
supports.
d) the bracings, which transmit lateral loads to the supports and also
provide lateral stability to compression members in the bridge, Fig.
1.1b.
The connection between the substructure and the superstructure is usually
made through bearings. However, rigid connections between the piers (and
sometimes the abutments) may be adopted, such as in frame bridges, Figs.
1.4a and 1.4b.
10. Steel Bridges
a) Bridge Elevation
b) Cross Section of a Roadway Bridge
c) Cross Section of a Railway Bridge
Fig. 1.1 Principal Components of a Bridge Structure
stringer
bracing
main girder
Bridge deck
11. Chapter 1: Introduction 5
1.2 TYPES OF BRIDGES
Bridges can be classified in several ways depending on the objective of
classification. The necessity of classifying bridges in various ways has grown
as bridges have evolved from short simple beam bridges to very long
suspension bridges. Bridges may be classified in terms of the bridge’s
superstructure according to any of the following classifications:
1. Materials of Construction
2. Usage
3. Position
4. Structural Forms.
5. Span Lengths
A brief description of these bridge classifications is given next.
1.2.1 Bridge Classification by Materials of Construction
Bridges can be identified by the materials from which their main girders
are constructed. The most commonly used materials are steel and concrete.
This classification does not mean that only one kind of material is used
exclusively to build these bridges in their entirety. Often, a combination of
materials is used in bridge construction. For example, a bridge may have a
reinforced concrete deck and steel main girders.
1.2.2 Bridge Classification by Usage
Bridges can be classified according to the traffic they carry as roadway,
railway, Fig. 1.2, and footbridges, Fig. 1.3. In addition, there are bridges that
carry non-vehicular traffic and loads such as pipeline bridges and conveyor
bridges.
13. Chapter 1: Introduction 7
1.2.3 Bridge Classification by Position
Most bridges are fixed in place. However, to provide sufficient vertical
clearance to facilitate navigation through spanned waterways, bridges are
made movable; i.e., the bridge superstructure changes its position relative to
the roads that they link. In general, three kinds of movable bridges exist:
1. The bascule bridge, which has a rotational motion in the vertical
plane, Fig. 1.4a.
Fig. 1.4 a) Bascule Bridge
2. The lift bridge, which has a translational motion in the vertical plane,
Fig. 1.4b,
Fig. 1.4 b) Lift Bridge
14. Steel Bridges
3. The swing bridge, which has a rotational motion in the horizontal plane,
Fig. 1.4c.
Fig. 1.4 c) Swing Bridge
1.2.4 Bridge Classification by Structural Form
From an engineering perspective, bridges are best classified by their
structural forms because the methods of analysis used in bridge design
depend on the structural system of the bridge. Also, certain types of structural
forms are suitable for certain span ranges.
Structural form refers to the load resisting mechanism of a bridge by which
it transfers various loads from the bridge deck to the foundation. In different
types of bridges, loads follow different paths as they are first applied on the
deck and finally resolved in the earth below. From this perspective, several
structural systems are used in the elements of the bridge superstructure. It is
common in bridge terminology to distinguish between:
a. structural systems in the transversal direction, and
b. structural systems in the longitudinal direction.
The structural systems in the transversal direction are those used for the
bridge deck and floor structure to transfer loads to the bridge main girder.
Details of different systems used in both roadway and railway bridges are
given in Chapter 4.
The structural systems in the longitudinal direction are those used for the
bridge main girders to transfer loads to the supporting foundations. It should
be understood that bridge structures are basically three-dimensional systems
15. Chapter 1: Introduction 9
which are only split into these two basic systems for the sake of
understanding their behavior and simplifying structural analysis.
The longitudinal structural system of a bridge may be one of the following
types:
i) Bridges Carrying Loads Mainly by Bending: a) beam bridges
b) frame bridges
ii)Bridges Carrying Loads Mainly by Axial Forces: a) arch bridges
b) cable stayed bridges
c) suspension bridges.
The cross-section of the main girder incorporated in all these bridge types
may be a solid web girder or a truss girder depending on the values of the
design straining actions. Solid web girders dimensions are limited by the
requirements imposed by fabrication, transportation, and erection. Practical
maximum section depths of solid web girders range from 3 to 4 m for
economical design. If the required design exceeds this limit, a truss girder has
to be used, see Fig. 1.5.
Fig. 1.5 Truss Bridge
A truss used as a girder in flexure carries its bending moments by
developing axial loads in its chords, and its shears by developing axial loads
in its web members. Truss bridges are not specific bridge forms in themselves
– rather, trusses are used to perform the functions of specific members in one
of the types above. For example, a girder in flexure or an arch rib in axial
compression may be designed as a truss rather than as a solid web plate
girder.
16. Steel Bridges
1.2.4.1) Bridges Carrying Loads by Bending
By far the majority of bridges are of this type. The loads are transferred to
the bearings and piers and hence to the ground by beams acting in bending,
i.e. the bridges obtain their load-carrying resistance from the ability of the
beams to resist bending moments and shear forces. This type of bridge will
thus be referred to generally as a girder bridge.
Beam bridges are the most common and the simplest type of bridges.
These may use statically determinate beams (simply supported, Fig. 1.6a, or
cantilever beams, Fig. 1.6b) or continuous beams, Fig. 1.6c. Examples of
beam bridges are shown in Fig. 1.7:
Calculation Models
(a) Simply supported
(b) Cantilever Beam
(c) Continuous Beam
Structural System
Fig. 1.6 Bridge Systems Carrying Loads by Bending, Beam Bridges
17. Chapter 1: Introduction 11
(a) 14th Street Bridge over the Potomac River (USA). Continuous riveted
steel girders. Note the absence of internal hinges, and the roller supports
at the piers
(b) Continuous steel box girder bridge over the Rhine, Bonn, Germany,
1967. Note the varying depth of the box sections
Fig. 1.7 Examples of Beam Bridges
18. Steel Bridges
Simply supported beams are usually adopted only for very small spans (up
to 25m). Continuous beams are one of the most common types of bridge.
Spans for this system may vary from short (less than 20 m) to medium (20 -
50 m) or long spans (> 100 m). In medium and long spans, continuous beams
with variable depth section are very often adopted for reasons of structural
behavior, economy and aesthetics. These systems are suitable for bridge
spans up to 200 m for solid web girders and up to 300 m for truss girders.
Frame bridges are one of the possible alternatives to continuous beams.
Avoiding bearings and providing a good structural system to support
horizontal longitudinal loads, e.g. earthquakes, frames have been adopted in
modern bridge either with vertical piers or with inclined columns (Fig. 1.8).
Fig. 1.8 Bridge Systems Carrying Loads by Bending,
Rigid Frames with Vertical or Inclined Legs
19. Chapter 1: Introduction 13
1.2.4.2) Bridges carrying Loads by Axial Forces
This type can be further subdivided into those bridges in which the primary
axial forces are compressive, e.g.; arches, Fig. 1.9, and those in which these
forces are tensile, e.g.; suspension bridges, Fig. 1.11, and cable-stayed
bridges, Fig. 1.13.
Arches have played an important role in the history of bridges. Several
outstanding examples have been built ranging from masonry arches built by
the Romans to modern pre-stressed concrete or steel arches with spans
reaching the order of 500 m.. The arch may work from below the deck, Fig.
1.9a, from above the deck, Fig. 1.9b, or be intermediate to the deck level, Fig.
1.9c. The most convenient solution is basically dependent on the topography
of the bridge site. In rocky sites and good geotechnical conditions for the
footings, an arch bridge of the type represented in Fig. 1.9a is usually an
appropriate solution both from the structural and aesthetic point of view.
Arches work basically as a structure under compressive stress.. The shape is
chosen in order to minimize bending moments under permanent loads. The
resultant force of the normal stresses at each cross-section must remain
within the central core of the cross-section in order to avoid tensile stresses in
the arch.
(a) Deck Bridge
(b) Through Bridge (Bow String)
(c) Semi-DeckSemi Through
Fig. 1.9 Bridge Systems Carrying Loads by Axial Forces; Arch Systems
20. Steel Bridges
a) Solid Web Arch Bridge
b) Sydney Harbor Arch Bridge, completed 1932. Almost the longest arch
bridge in the world (longest is Bayonne Bridge, New York, completed a
few months earlier, 1.5 m longer). Two-hinge arch, span between
abutments is 503 m to allow unobstructed passage for ships in Sydney
Harbor. Contains 50,300 tons of steel (37,000 in the arch). The widest
(49 m) bridge in the world.
Fig. 1.10 Examples of Arch Bridges
21. Chapter 1: Introduction 15
The ideal "inverted arch" in its simplest form is a cable. Cables are
adopted as principal structural elements in suspension bridges where the
main cable supports permanent and imposed loads on the deck (Fig. 1.11).
Good support conditions are required to resist the anchorage forces of the
cable. This system is suitable for bridge spans between 300 and 2000 m.
Fig. 1.11a Bridge Systems Carrying Loads by Axial Forces;
Suspension Bridges
Fig. 1.11b Section of a suspension bridge cable, showing it is made up
of a bundle of small cables
22. Steel Bridges
a) Golden Gate Bridge, 1937. Main span of 1280 m, was the longest
single span at that time and for 29 years afterwards.
b) Akashi-Kaiyko Suspension Bridge, Japan. Links city of Kobe with
Awaji Island. World’s longest bridge (Main Span 1991 m)
Fig. 1.12 Examples of Suspension Bridges
23. Chapter 1: Introduction 17
A simpler form of cable bridges has been used - Cable stayed bridges
(Fig. 1.13). They have been used for a range of spans, generally between 100
m and 500 m, where the suspension bridge is not an economical solution.
Cable stayed bridges may be used with a deck made of concrete or in steel.
Fig. 1.13 Bridge Systems Carrying Loads by Axial Forces;
Cable-Stayed Bridges
Pont du Normandie (River Seine, Le Harve, France). 856 m main span,
longest cable stayed bridge in the world up to 1999. Longest now is
Tatara Bridge, Japan, 890 m
Fig. 1.14 Example of Cable-Stayed Bridges
24. Steel Bridges
1.2.5 Bridge Classification by Span Lengths
In bridge engineering, it is customary to identify bridges according to their
span lengths as short span, medium span, and long span. Presently there are
no established criteria to exactly define the range of spans for these different
classifications. A common practice is to classify bridges by span lengths as
follows:
Short-span bridges less than 50 m
Medium-span bridges 50 to 200 m
Long-span bridges Over 200 m
This classification of bridges is useful only in selecting the structural form
most suitable for the bridge span considered, as shown in the following table.
Each form of bridge is suited to a particular range of spans. The Table also
records the longest span for each type of construction.
1.2.6 Selection of Structural System
Flat girders, i.e. girders of constant depth, are used for all shorter span
bridges of both simple spans and continuous construction up to spans of
around 30 m. Rolled sections are feasible and usually offer greater economy.
Above this span fabricated sections will be required.
Haunched girders are frequently used for continuous structures where the
main span exceeds 50m. They are more attractive in appearance and the
25. Chapter 1: Introduction 19
greater efficiency of the varying depth of construction usually more than
offsets the extra fabrication costs. Both haunched and flat girders can be
either plate girders or box girders. Development in the semi-automatic
manufacture of plate girders has markedly improved their relative economy.
This form of construction is likely to be the preferred solution for spans up to
60 m or so, if depth of construction is not unduly limited. Above 60 m span,
and significantly below that figure if either depth of construction is limited or
there is plan curvature, the box girder is likely to give greater economy.
Cantilever trusses were used during the early evolution of steel bridges.
They are rarely adopted for modern construction.
Arches or rigid frames may be suitable for special locations. For example,
an arch is the logical solution for a medium span across a steep-sided valley.
A tied arch is a suitable solution for a single span where construction depth is
limited and the presence of curved highway geometry or some other
obstruction conflicts with the back stays of a cable stayed bridge. Frame
bridges are usually suitable for short or medium spans. In a three span form
with sloping legs, they can provide an economic solution by reducing the
main span; they also have an attractive appearance. The risk of shipping
collision must be considered if sloping legs are used over navigable rivers.
Cable stayed bridges, being self anchored, are less dependent on good
ground conditions. However, the deck must be designed for the significant
axial forces from the horizontal component of the cable force. The
construction process is quicker than for a suspension bridge because the
cables and the deck are erected at the same time. Suspension or cable stayed
bridges are the only forms capable of achieving the longest spans. They are
clearly less suitable for road or rail bridges of short or medium spans.
The following Figure shows the development of different bridge systems
with the span over the years.
26. Steel Bridges
1.3 MATERIALS FOR BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION
Steel and concrete are the two major materials used in bridge construction.
For bridge decks, concrete is predominant. However, for long span bridges,
there can be a saving in using steel orthotropic plate decks with an asphalt
wearing surface. Concrete is also the predominant material for curbs,
sidewalks, parapets, and substructure.
1.3.1 Structural Steels
Structural steel used in bridge construction can be categorized into three
main types: (1) Carbon steel, (2) High-strength low-alloy steel, and (3) heat-
treated alloy steel. Fig. 1.15 shows typical stress strain curves.
a) Carbon Steel
b) High Strength Steel
Fig. 1.15 Stress Strain Curves for Structural Steels
27. Chapter 1: Introduction 21
1. Carbon steel: This is the cheapest steel available for structural use. This
type of steel is characterized by the following chemical analysis contents:
Carbon : 0.15 - 0.29 %
Copper : 0.60 %
Manganese: 1.65 %
Examples of these steels are St. 37 which has a minimum yield stress of 24
kg/mmP
2
P.
2. High-strength low-alloy steel: Structural steels included in this category
have a minimum yield stress of 28 kg/mmP
2
P. The improvement in the
mechanical properties is achieved by adding small amounts of alloy
elements such as chromium, columbium, molybdenum, nickel, or
vanadium. The total of alloying elements does not exceed 5 % of the total
composition of steel, hence the term 'low-alloy'. Examples of these steels
are St. 44 and St. 52.
3. Heat-treated alloy steel: These steels are obtained by heat-treating the
low-alloy steels to obtain higher yield strength, 60 to 90 kg/mmP
2
P. The
process of heat treating involves quenching or rapid cooling with water or
oil from 900 P
o
PC to about 150 - 200 P
o
PC, then tempering by reheating to at
least 600 P
o
PC, and then controlled cooling. These steels do not exhibit a
well-defined yield point like the carbon and low-alloy steel.
Consequently, their yield strengths are determined by the 0.2 percent
offset method.
1.3.1.1 Physical Properties of Steel:
Mass Density ρ = 7.85 t/mP
3
Modulus of Elasticity E = 2100 t/cmP
2
Shear Modulus G = 810 t/cmP
2
Poisson's Ratio υ = 0.3
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion α = 1.2 x 10P
-5
/ P
o
PC
28. Steel Bridges
1.3.1.2 Mechanical Properties of Steel
Egyptian Standard Specification No.260/71
Grade of
Steel
Nominal Values of Yield Stress FR
yR
and Ultimate Strength FR
u
Thickness t
t 40 mm 40 mm < t 100 mm
FR
y
(t/cmP
2
P)
FR
u
(t/cmP
2
P)
FR
y
(t/cmP
2
P)
FR
u
(t/cmP
2
P)
St 37 2.40 3.70 2.15 3.4
St 44 2.80 4.40 2.55 4.1
St 52 3.60 5.20 3.35 4.9
1.3.2 Welding Materials
Welding has become the predominant method for connecting parts of steel
bridges, especially with respect to shop fabrication. The development of
automatic welding has been a major factor in the fabrication of welded
bridges.
Structural steels may be welded by one of the following welding processes:
- Shielded Metal Arc Welding (S.M.A.W.): used for manual welding.
- Submerged Arc Welding (S.A.W.): used for automatic welding.
- Gas Metal Arc Welding (G.M.A.W.): used for semi-automatic welding.
The appropriate electrode types used in the weld process as well as their
yield and tensile strengths are given in Table 1 according to ECP 2001.
29. Chapter 1: Introduction 23
Table (1) Electrodes Used for Welding (ECP 2001)
Process
Electrode Strength *
Chemical Composition
Weld
Position
RemarksMin. Yield
Stress
(t/cmP
2
P)
Min.
Tensile
Strength
(t/cmP
2
P)
Shield Metal
Arc
WELDING
(S.M.A.W.)
3.45 – 6.75 4.25 – 7.6
UElectrodeU: Low Carbon
UCoatingU: Aluminium, Silicon,
other deoxidizers
All weld
positions
Storage of
electrodes in
drying ovens
near the points is
a must.
Submerged
Arc
WELDING
(S.A.W.)
3.45 – 6.75
4.25 –
8.95
UElectrodeU: Medium Mn (1.0%)
Nominal Carbon (0.12%)
UFluxU: Finely powdered
constituents glued together with
silitales.
Flat or
horizontal
weld
position
-Fluxes must be
kept in storage.
-usually used in
shop.
Gas Metal
Arc
WELDING
(G.M.A.W.)
4.15 – 6.75 4.95 – 7.6
UElectrodeU: Uncoated mild steel,
dioxidized carbon manganese
steel
UShielding GasU: 75% Argon +
25% COR
2R or 10% COR
2
Flat or
horizontal
weld
position
CoR
2R is the least
shielding used in
buildings and
bridges.
Flux Cored
Arc
WELDING
(F.C.A.W.)
3.45 – 6.75 4.25 – 8.6
UElectrodeU: Low Carbon (0.05%
Max.)
UFluxU: Filled inside the electrode
core (Self Shielded)
All weld
positions
Useful for field
welding in severe
cold weather
conditions.
(*) The minimum value depends on the electrode type.
1.3.3 Bolts
Bolts used in bridge construction come in two general categories:
1. Ordinary Bolts: which are made from low-carbon steel. Example of
this type of bolts are grade 4.6 bolts. Because of their low strength,
they are not generally used in joints of main members. They should not
be used in joints subjected to fatigue.
2. High Strength Bolts: which are made from high strength alloy steels.
Examples of these bolts are grade 8.8 and 10.9 bolts. All high-strength
bolts carry markings on their heads to indicate the bolt grade; i.e., 8.8
or 10.9.
The usual bolt diameters used in bridge construction are 20, 22, 24, and 27
mm. The nominal values of the yield stress FR
ybR and the ultimate tensile
strength FR
ubR are as given in Table 2 according to ECP 2001. These bolt grades
are used in conjunction with structural components in steel up to St 52.