This document provides definitions and explanations of key concepts in algorithm design and analysis including:
- Performance measurement is concerned with obtaining the space and time requirements of algorithms.
- An algorithm is a finite set of instructions that accomplishes a task given certain inputs and criteria.
- Time complexity refers to the amount of computer time needed for an algorithm to complete, while space complexity refers to the memory required.
- Common asymptotic notations like Big-O, Omega, and Theta are used to describe an algorithm's scalability.
- Divide-and-conquer and greedy algorithms are important design techniques that break problems into subproblems.
1) The document describes the divide-and-conquer algorithm design paradigm. It splits problems into smaller subproblems, solves the subproblems recursively, and then combines the solutions to solve the original problem.
2) Binary search is provided as an example algorithm that uses divide-and-conquer. It divides the search space in half at each step to quickly determine if an element is present.
3) Finding the maximum and minimum elements in an array is another problem solved using divide-and-conquer. It recursively finds the max and min of halves of the array and combines the results.
Analysis and design of algorithms part2Deepak John
Analysis of searching and sorting. Insertion sort, Quick sort, Merge sort and Heap sort. Binomial Heaps and Fibonacci Heaps, Lower bounds for sorting by comparison of keys. Comparison of sorting algorithms. Amortized Time Analysis. Red-Black Trees – Insertion & Deletion.
The document discusses greedy algorithms and their properties. It describes how greedy algorithms work by making locally optimal choices at each step in the hope of reaching a globally optimal solution. Two examples are given: the activity selection problem and finding minimum spanning trees. Prim's algorithm for finding minimum spanning trees is described in detail, showing how it works by always selecting the lightest edge between the growing tree and remaining vertices.
The document discusses the divide-and-conquer algorithm design paradigm. It defines divide-and-conquer as breaking a problem down into smaller subproblems, solving those subproblems recursively, and combining the solutions to solve the original problem. Examples of algorithms that use this approach include merge sort, quicksort, and matrix multiplication. Divide-and-conquer allows for problems to be solved in parallel and more efficiently uses memory caches. The closest pair problem is then presented as a detailed example of how a divide-and-conquer algorithm works to solve this problem in O(n log n) time compared to the brute force O(n2) approach.
This document contains information about Kamalesh Karmakar, an assistant professor in the computer science department at Meghnad Saha Institute of Technology. It lists the algorithm topics he teaches, including algorithm analysis, design techniques, complexity theory, and more. It also provides references for algorithm textbooks and notes on time and space complexity analysis, asymptotic notation, and different algorithm design techniques like divide-and-conquer, dynamic programming, backtracking, and greedy methods.
This document discusses algorithms for sorting and searching data structures. It introduces binary search, which can search an ordered array in O(log n) time by recursively searching either the left or right half of the array. Quicksort is also discussed, which works by recursively sorting partitions of the array around a pivot element. In the average case, quicksort runs in O(n log n) time, but in the worst case of an already sorted array it runs in O(n^2) time. The document covers methods for solving algorithm recurrences like substitution, iteration, and the master method, and applies these techniques to analyze the time complexity of binary search and quicksort.
This document contains exercises, hints, and solutions for Chapter 1 of the book "Introduction to the Design and Analysis of Algorithms." It includes 11 exercises related to algorithms for computing greatest common divisors, square roots, binary representations, and other topics. The document also provides hints for each exercise to help students solve them and includes the solutions.
1) The document describes the divide-and-conquer algorithm design paradigm. It splits problems into smaller subproblems, solves the subproblems recursively, and then combines the solutions to solve the original problem.
2) Binary search is provided as an example algorithm that uses divide-and-conquer. It divides the search space in half at each step to quickly determine if an element is present.
3) Finding the maximum and minimum elements in an array is another problem solved using divide-and-conquer. It recursively finds the max and min of halves of the array and combines the results.
Analysis and design of algorithms part2Deepak John
Analysis of searching and sorting. Insertion sort, Quick sort, Merge sort and Heap sort. Binomial Heaps and Fibonacci Heaps, Lower bounds for sorting by comparison of keys. Comparison of sorting algorithms. Amortized Time Analysis. Red-Black Trees – Insertion & Deletion.
The document discusses greedy algorithms and their properties. It describes how greedy algorithms work by making locally optimal choices at each step in the hope of reaching a globally optimal solution. Two examples are given: the activity selection problem and finding minimum spanning trees. Prim's algorithm for finding minimum spanning trees is described in detail, showing how it works by always selecting the lightest edge between the growing tree and remaining vertices.
The document discusses the divide-and-conquer algorithm design paradigm. It defines divide-and-conquer as breaking a problem down into smaller subproblems, solving those subproblems recursively, and combining the solutions to solve the original problem. Examples of algorithms that use this approach include merge sort, quicksort, and matrix multiplication. Divide-and-conquer allows for problems to be solved in parallel and more efficiently uses memory caches. The closest pair problem is then presented as a detailed example of how a divide-and-conquer algorithm works to solve this problem in O(n log n) time compared to the brute force O(n2) approach.
This document contains information about Kamalesh Karmakar, an assistant professor in the computer science department at Meghnad Saha Institute of Technology. It lists the algorithm topics he teaches, including algorithm analysis, design techniques, complexity theory, and more. It also provides references for algorithm textbooks and notes on time and space complexity analysis, asymptotic notation, and different algorithm design techniques like divide-and-conquer, dynamic programming, backtracking, and greedy methods.
This document discusses algorithms for sorting and searching data structures. It introduces binary search, which can search an ordered array in O(log n) time by recursively searching either the left or right half of the array. Quicksort is also discussed, which works by recursively sorting partitions of the array around a pivot element. In the average case, quicksort runs in O(n log n) time, but in the worst case of an already sorted array it runs in O(n^2) time. The document covers methods for solving algorithm recurrences like substitution, iteration, and the master method, and applies these techniques to analyze the time complexity of binary search and quicksort.
This document contains exercises, hints, and solutions for Chapter 1 of the book "Introduction to the Design and Analysis of Algorithms." It includes 11 exercises related to algorithms for computing greatest common divisors, square roots, binary representations, and other topics. The document also provides hints for each exercise to help students solve them and includes the solutions.
The document discusses analyzing the running time of algorithms using Big-O notation. It begins by introducing Big-O notation and how it is used to generalize the running time of algorithms as input size grows. It then provides examples of calculating the Big-O running time of simple programs and algorithms with loops but no subprogram calls or recursion. Key concepts covered include analyzing worst-case and average-case running times, and rules for analyzing the running time of programs with basic operations and loops.
The document discusses the framework for analyzing the efficiency of algorithms by measuring how the running time and space requirements grow as the input size increases, focusing on determining the order of growth of the number of basic operations using asymptotic notation such as O(), Ω(), and Θ() to classify algorithms based on their worst-case, best-case, and average-case time complexities.
Dynamic Programming design technique is one of the fundamental algorithm design techniques, and possibly one of the ones that are hardest to master for those who did not study it formally. In these slides (which are continuation of part 1 slides), we cover two problems: maximum value contiguous subarray, and maximum increasing subsequence.
The document discusses backtracking and branch and bound algorithms. Backtracking incrementally builds candidates and abandons them (backtracks) when they cannot lead to a valid solution. Branch and bound systematically enumerates solutions and discards branches that cannot produce a better solution than the best found so far based on upper bounds. Examples provided are the N-Queens problem solved with backtracking and the knapsack problem solved with branch and bound. Pseudocode is given for both algorithms.
The document discusses greedy algorithms and provides examples of problems that can be solved using greedy techniques. It introduces the coin changing problem and activity selection problem. For activity selection, it demonstrates that a greedy approach of always selecting the activity with the earliest finish time results in an optimal solution. It provides pseudo-code for a greedy algorithm and proves that the greedy solution is optimal for the activity selection problem by showing there is always an optimal solution that makes the greedy choice and combining the greedy choice with the optimal solution to the remaining subproblem yields an optimal solution to the original problem.
This document discusses dynamic programming and algorithms for solving all-pair shortest path problems. It begins by explaining dynamic programming as an optimization technique that works bottom-up by solving subproblems once and storing their solutions, rather than recomputing them. It then presents Floyd's algorithm for finding shortest paths between all pairs of nodes in a graph. The algorithm iterates through nodes, updating the shortest path lengths between all pairs that include that node by exploring paths through it. Finally, it discusses solving multistage graph problems using forward and backward methods that work through the graph stages in different orders.
The document discusses the greedy method algorithmic approach. It provides an overview of greedy algorithms including that they make locally optimal choices at each step to find a global optimal solution. The document also provides examples of problems that can be solved using greedy methods like job sequencing, the knapsack problem, finding minimum spanning trees, and single source shortest paths. It summarizes control flow and applications of greedy algorithms.
This document discusses algorithm analysis and complexity. It introduces algorithm analysis as a way to predict and compare algorithm performance. Different algorithms for computing factorials and finding the maximum subsequence sum are presented, along with their time complexities. The importance of efficient algorithms for problems involving large datasets is discussed.
Algorithm Design and Complexity - Course 1&2Traian Rebedea
Courses 1 & 2 for the Algorithm Design and Complexity course at the Faculty of Engineering in Foreign Languages - Politehnica University of Bucharest, Romania
The document discusses the divide-and-conquer algorithm design paradigm. It explains that a problem is divided into smaller subproblems, the subproblems are solved independently, and then the solutions are combined. Recurrence equations can be used to analyze the running time of divide-and-conquer algorithms. The document provides examples of solving recurrences using methods like the recursion tree method and the master theorem.
This document discusses dynamic programming techniques. It covers matrix chain multiplication and all pairs shortest paths problems. Dynamic programming involves breaking down problems into overlapping subproblems and storing the results of already solved subproblems to avoid recomputing them. It has four main steps - defining a mathematical notation for subproblems, proving optimal substructure, deriving a recurrence relation, and developing an algorithm using the relation.
The document discusses time and space complexity analysis of algorithms. Time complexity measures the number of steps to solve a problem based on input size, with common orders being O(log n), O(n), O(n log n), O(n^2). Space complexity measures memory usage, which can be reused unlike time. Big O notation describes asymptotic growth rates to compare algorithm efficiencies, with constant O(1) being best and exponential O(c^n) being worst.
The document discusses algorithm analysis and design. It begins with an introduction to analyzing algorithms including average case analysis and solving recurrences. It then provides definitions of algorithms both informal and formal. Key aspects of algorithm study and specification methods like pseudocode are outlined. Selection sort and tower of Hanoi problems are presented as examples and analyzed for time and space complexity. Average case analysis is discussed assuming all inputs are equally likely.
Performance analysis is important for algorithms and software features. Asymptotic analysis evaluates how an algorithm's time or space requirements grow with increasing input size, ignoring constants and machine-specific factors. This allows algorithms to be analyzed and compared regardless of machine or small inputs. The document discusses common time complexities like O(1), O(n), O(n log n), and analyzing worst, average, and best cases. It also covers techniques like recursion, amortized analysis, and the master method for solving algorithm recurrences.
Comparitive Analysis of Algorithm strategiesTalha Shaikh
The document discusses various algorithm strategies including decrease and conquer, greedy approach, backtracking, and transform and conquer. It provides definitions, examples, advantages and disadvantages for each strategy. Decrease and conquer algorithms like insertion sort reduce the problem size at each step. Greedy algorithms make locally optimal choices at each step. Backtracking algorithms systematically explore all solutions using a depth first search approach.
Basic Computer Engineering Unit II as per RGPV SyllabusNANDINI SHARMA
The document provides an overview of algorithms and computational complexity. It defines an algorithm as a set of unambiguous steps to solve a problem, and discusses how algorithms can be expressed using different languages. It then covers algorithmic complexity and how to analyze the time complexity of algorithms using asymptotic notation like Big-O notation. Specific time complexities like constant, linear, logarithmic, and quadratic time are defined. The document also discusses flowcharts as a way to represent algorithms graphically and introduces some basic programming concepts.
This document discusses algorithms for finding minimum and maximum elements in an array, including simultaneous minimum and maximum algorithms. It introduces dynamic programming as a technique for improving inefficient divide-and-conquer algorithms by storing results of subproblems to avoid recomputing them. Examples of dynamic programming include calculating the Fibonacci sequence and solving an assembly line scheduling problem to minimize total time.
Ch-2 final exam documet compler design elementsMAHERMOHAMED27
The "Project Risk Management" course transformed me from a passive observer of risk to a proactive risk management champion. Here are some key learnings that will forever change my approach to projects:
The Proactive Mindset: I transitioned from simply reacting to problems to anticipating and mitigating them. The course emphasized the importance of proactive risk identification through techniques like brainstorming, SWOT analysis, and FMEA (Failure Mode and Effect Analysis). This allows for early intervention and prevents minor issues from snowballing into major roadblocks.
Risk Assessment and Prioritization: I learned to assess the likelihood and impact of each identified risk. The course introduced qualitative and quantitative risk analysis methods, allowing me to prioritize risks based on their potential severity. This empowers me to focus resources on the most critical threats to project success.
Developing Response Strategies: The course equipped me with a toolbox of risk response strategies. I learned about risk avoidance, mitigation, transference, and acceptance strategies, allowing me to choose the most appropriate approach for each risk. For example, I can now advocate for additional training to mitigate a knowledge gap risk or build buffer time into the schedule to address potential delays.
Communication and Monitoring: The course highlighted the importance of clear communication regarding risks. I learned to effectively communicate risks to stakeholders, ensuring everyone is aware of potential challenges and mitigation plans. Additionally, I gained valuable insights into risk monitoring and tracking, allowing for continuous evaluation and adaptation as the project progresses.
In essence, "Project Risk Management" equipped me with the knowledge and tools to navigate the inevitable uncertainties of projects. By embracing a proactive approach, I can now lead projects with greater confidence, increasing the chances of achieving successful outcomes.
The document discusses analyzing the running time of algorithms using Big-O notation. It begins by introducing Big-O notation and how it is used to generalize the running time of algorithms as input size grows. It then provides examples of calculating the Big-O running time of simple programs and algorithms with loops but no subprogram calls or recursion. Key concepts covered include analyzing worst-case and average-case running times, and rules for analyzing the running time of programs with basic operations and loops.
The document discusses the framework for analyzing the efficiency of algorithms by measuring how the running time and space requirements grow as the input size increases, focusing on determining the order of growth of the number of basic operations using asymptotic notation such as O(), Ω(), and Θ() to classify algorithms based on their worst-case, best-case, and average-case time complexities.
Dynamic Programming design technique is one of the fundamental algorithm design techniques, and possibly one of the ones that are hardest to master for those who did not study it formally. In these slides (which are continuation of part 1 slides), we cover two problems: maximum value contiguous subarray, and maximum increasing subsequence.
The document discusses backtracking and branch and bound algorithms. Backtracking incrementally builds candidates and abandons them (backtracks) when they cannot lead to a valid solution. Branch and bound systematically enumerates solutions and discards branches that cannot produce a better solution than the best found so far based on upper bounds. Examples provided are the N-Queens problem solved with backtracking and the knapsack problem solved with branch and bound. Pseudocode is given for both algorithms.
The document discusses greedy algorithms and provides examples of problems that can be solved using greedy techniques. It introduces the coin changing problem and activity selection problem. For activity selection, it demonstrates that a greedy approach of always selecting the activity with the earliest finish time results in an optimal solution. It provides pseudo-code for a greedy algorithm and proves that the greedy solution is optimal for the activity selection problem by showing there is always an optimal solution that makes the greedy choice and combining the greedy choice with the optimal solution to the remaining subproblem yields an optimal solution to the original problem.
This document discusses dynamic programming and algorithms for solving all-pair shortest path problems. It begins by explaining dynamic programming as an optimization technique that works bottom-up by solving subproblems once and storing their solutions, rather than recomputing them. It then presents Floyd's algorithm for finding shortest paths between all pairs of nodes in a graph. The algorithm iterates through nodes, updating the shortest path lengths between all pairs that include that node by exploring paths through it. Finally, it discusses solving multistage graph problems using forward and backward methods that work through the graph stages in different orders.
The document discusses the greedy method algorithmic approach. It provides an overview of greedy algorithms including that they make locally optimal choices at each step to find a global optimal solution. The document also provides examples of problems that can be solved using greedy methods like job sequencing, the knapsack problem, finding minimum spanning trees, and single source shortest paths. It summarizes control flow and applications of greedy algorithms.
This document discusses algorithm analysis and complexity. It introduces algorithm analysis as a way to predict and compare algorithm performance. Different algorithms for computing factorials and finding the maximum subsequence sum are presented, along with their time complexities. The importance of efficient algorithms for problems involving large datasets is discussed.
Algorithm Design and Complexity - Course 1&2Traian Rebedea
Courses 1 & 2 for the Algorithm Design and Complexity course at the Faculty of Engineering in Foreign Languages - Politehnica University of Bucharest, Romania
The document discusses the divide-and-conquer algorithm design paradigm. It explains that a problem is divided into smaller subproblems, the subproblems are solved independently, and then the solutions are combined. Recurrence equations can be used to analyze the running time of divide-and-conquer algorithms. The document provides examples of solving recurrences using methods like the recursion tree method and the master theorem.
This document discusses dynamic programming techniques. It covers matrix chain multiplication and all pairs shortest paths problems. Dynamic programming involves breaking down problems into overlapping subproblems and storing the results of already solved subproblems to avoid recomputing them. It has four main steps - defining a mathematical notation for subproblems, proving optimal substructure, deriving a recurrence relation, and developing an algorithm using the relation.
The document discusses time and space complexity analysis of algorithms. Time complexity measures the number of steps to solve a problem based on input size, with common orders being O(log n), O(n), O(n log n), O(n^2). Space complexity measures memory usage, which can be reused unlike time. Big O notation describes asymptotic growth rates to compare algorithm efficiencies, with constant O(1) being best and exponential O(c^n) being worst.
The document discusses algorithm analysis and design. It begins with an introduction to analyzing algorithms including average case analysis and solving recurrences. It then provides definitions of algorithms both informal and formal. Key aspects of algorithm study and specification methods like pseudocode are outlined. Selection sort and tower of Hanoi problems are presented as examples and analyzed for time and space complexity. Average case analysis is discussed assuming all inputs are equally likely.
Performance analysis is important for algorithms and software features. Asymptotic analysis evaluates how an algorithm's time or space requirements grow with increasing input size, ignoring constants and machine-specific factors. This allows algorithms to be analyzed and compared regardless of machine or small inputs. The document discusses common time complexities like O(1), O(n), O(n log n), and analyzing worst, average, and best cases. It also covers techniques like recursion, amortized analysis, and the master method for solving algorithm recurrences.
Comparitive Analysis of Algorithm strategiesTalha Shaikh
The document discusses various algorithm strategies including decrease and conquer, greedy approach, backtracking, and transform and conquer. It provides definitions, examples, advantages and disadvantages for each strategy. Decrease and conquer algorithms like insertion sort reduce the problem size at each step. Greedy algorithms make locally optimal choices at each step. Backtracking algorithms systematically explore all solutions using a depth first search approach.
Basic Computer Engineering Unit II as per RGPV SyllabusNANDINI SHARMA
The document provides an overview of algorithms and computational complexity. It defines an algorithm as a set of unambiguous steps to solve a problem, and discusses how algorithms can be expressed using different languages. It then covers algorithmic complexity and how to analyze the time complexity of algorithms using asymptotic notation like Big-O notation. Specific time complexities like constant, linear, logarithmic, and quadratic time are defined. The document also discusses flowcharts as a way to represent algorithms graphically and introduces some basic programming concepts.
This document discusses algorithms for finding minimum and maximum elements in an array, including simultaneous minimum and maximum algorithms. It introduces dynamic programming as a technique for improving inefficient divide-and-conquer algorithms by storing results of subproblems to avoid recomputing them. Examples of dynamic programming include calculating the Fibonacci sequence and solving an assembly line scheduling problem to minimize total time.
Ch-2 final exam documet compler design elementsMAHERMOHAMED27
The "Project Risk Management" course transformed me from a passive observer of risk to a proactive risk management champion. Here are some key learnings that will forever change my approach to projects:
The Proactive Mindset: I transitioned from simply reacting to problems to anticipating and mitigating them. The course emphasized the importance of proactive risk identification through techniques like brainstorming, SWOT analysis, and FMEA (Failure Mode and Effect Analysis). This allows for early intervention and prevents minor issues from snowballing into major roadblocks.
Risk Assessment and Prioritization: I learned to assess the likelihood and impact of each identified risk. The course introduced qualitative and quantitative risk analysis methods, allowing me to prioritize risks based on their potential severity. This empowers me to focus resources on the most critical threats to project success.
Developing Response Strategies: The course equipped me with a toolbox of risk response strategies. I learned about risk avoidance, mitigation, transference, and acceptance strategies, allowing me to choose the most appropriate approach for each risk. For example, I can now advocate for additional training to mitigate a knowledge gap risk or build buffer time into the schedule to address potential delays.
Communication and Monitoring: The course highlighted the importance of clear communication regarding risks. I learned to effectively communicate risks to stakeholders, ensuring everyone is aware of potential challenges and mitigation plans. Additionally, I gained valuable insights into risk monitoring and tracking, allowing for continuous evaluation and adaptation as the project progresses.
In essence, "Project Risk Management" equipped me with the knowledge and tools to navigate the inevitable uncertainties of projects. By embracing a proactive approach, I can now lead projects with greater confidence, increasing the chances of achieving successful outcomes.
This document provides an introduction to algorithms and data structures. It discusses algorithm design and analysis tools like Big O notation and recurrence relations. Selecting the smallest element from a list, sorting a list using selection sort and merge sort, and merging two sorted lists are used as examples. Key points made are that merge sort has better time complexity than selection sort, and any sorting algorithm requires at least O(n log n) comparisons. The document also introduces data structures like arrays and linked lists, and how the organization of data impacts algorithm performance.
This document discusses algorithms and their analysis. It begins with definitions of algorithms and their characteristics. Different methods for specifying algorithms are described, including pseudocode. The goal of algorithm analysis is introduced as comparing algorithms based on running time and other factors. Common algorithm analysis methods like worst-case, best-case, and average-case are defined. Big-O notation and time/space complexity are explained. Common algorithm design strategies like divide-and-conquer and randomized algorithms are summarized. Specific algorithms like repeated element detection and primality testing are mentioned.
This document provides an introduction to algorithms and their analysis. It defines what an algorithm is and discusses different aspects of analyzing algorithm performance, including time complexity, space complexity, asymptotic analysis using Big O, Big Theta, and Big Omega notations. It also covers greedy algorithms, their characteristics, and examples like the knapsack problem. Greedy algorithms make locally optimal choices at each step without reconsidering prior decisions. Not all problems can be solved greedily, and the document discusses when greedy algorithms can and cannot be applied.
This document discusses algorithm analysis tools. It explains that algorithm analysis is used to determine which of several algorithms to solve a problem is most efficient. Theoretical analysis counts primitive operations to approximate runtime as a function of input size. Common complexity classes like constant, linear, quadratic, and exponential time are defined based on how quickly runtime grows with size. Big-O notation represents the asymptotic upper bound of a function's growth rate to classify algorithms.
Cs6402 design and analysis of algorithms may june 2016 answer keyappasami
The document discusses algorithms and complexity analysis. It provides Euclid's algorithm for computing greatest common divisor, compares the orders of growth of n(n-1)/2 and n^2, and describes the general strategy of divide and conquer methods. It also defines problems like the closest pair problem, single source shortest path problem, and assignment problem. Finally, it discusses topics like state space trees, the extreme point theorem, and lower bounds.
This document discusses analyzing the efficiency of algorithms. It begins by explaining how to measure algorithm efficiency using Big O notation, which estimates how fast an algorithm's execution time grows as the input size increases. Common growth rates like constant, logarithmic, linear, and quadratic time are described. Examples are provided to demonstrate determining the Big O of various algorithms. Specific algorithms analyzed in more depth include binary search, selection sort, insertion sort, and Towers of Hanoi. The document aims to introduce techniques for developing efficient algorithms using approaches like dynamic programming, divide-and-conquer, and backtracking.
DSA Complexity.pptx What is Complexity Analysis? What is the need for Compl...2022cspaawan12556
What is Complexity Analysis?
What is the need for Complexity Analysis?
Asymptotic Notations
How to measure complexity?
1. Time Complexity
2. Space Complexity
3. Auxiliary Space
How does Complexity affect any algorithm?
How to optimize the time and space complexity of an Algorithm?
Different types of Complexity exist in the program:
1. Constant Complexity
2. Logarithmic Complexity
3. Linear Complexity
4. Quadratic Complexity
5. Factorial Complexity
6. Exponential Complexity
Worst Case time complexity of different data structures for different operations
Complexity Analysis Of Popular Algorithms
Practice some questions on Complexity Analysis
practice with giving Quiz
Conclusion
TIME EXECUTION OF DIFFERENT SORTED ALGORITHMSTanya Makkar
what is Algorithm and classification and its complexity
Time Complexity
Time Space trade-off
Asymptotic time complexity of algorithm and its notation
Why do we need to classify running time of algorithm into growth rates?
Big O-h notation and example
Big omega notation and example
Big theta notation and its example
best among the 3 notation
finding complexity f(n) for certain cases
1. Average case
2.Best case
3.Worst case
Searching
Sorting
complexity of Sorting
Conclusion
/
p
This document provides an overview of the CS-2251 DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OF ALGORITHMS course. It defines algorithms and discusses algorithm design and analysis processes. It covers different algorithm efficiency measures, specification methods, important problem types, classification techniques, and examples like the Euclid algorithm. Key aspects of sorting, searching, graph, combinatorial, and numerical problems are outlined. The features of efficient algorithms and orders of algorithms are defined.
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Data structures notes for college students btech.pptxKarthikVijay59
The document provides information about data structures and algorithms. It defines key concepts such as data structures, algorithms, time complexity, space complexity, asymptotic notation (Big O, Big Omega, Big Theta). It discusses various data structures like stacks, queues, trees, graphs and sorting/searching techniques. It also lists the objectives of learning data structures as understanding linear and non-linear data structures and their applications, sorting/searching techniques, and memory management.
Algorithm And analysis Lecture 03& 04-time complexity.Tariq Khan
This document discusses algorithm efficiency and complexity analysis. It defines key terms like algorithms, asymptotic complexity, Big O notation, and different complexity classes. It provides examples of analyzing time complexity for different algorithms like loops, nested loops, and recursive functions. The document explains that Big O notation allows analyzing algorithms independent of machine or input by focusing on the highest order term as the problem size increases. Overall, the document introduces methods for measuring an algorithm's efficiency and analyzing its time and space complexity asymptotically.
The document discusses algorithms, data abstraction, asymptotic analysis, arrays, polynomials, and sparse matrices. It defines algorithms and discusses their advantages and disadvantages. It explains how to design an algorithm and describes iterative and recursive algorithms. It defines data abstraction and gives an example using smartphones. It discusses time and space complexity analysis and different asymptotic notations like Big O, Omega, and Theta. It describes what arrays are, different types of arrays, and applications of arrays. It explains how to represent and add polynomials using linked lists. Finally, it defines sparse matrices and two methods to represent them using arrays and linked lists.
how to calclute time complexity of algortihmSajid Marwat
This document discusses algorithm analysis and complexity. It defines key terms like asymptotic complexity, Big-O notation, and time complexity. It provides examples of analyzing simple algorithms like a sum function to determine their time complexity. Common analyses include looking at loops, nested loops, and sequences of statements. The goal is to classify algorithms according to their complexity, which is important for large inputs and machine-independent. Algorithms are classified based on worst, average, and best case analyses.
This document discusses algorithm analysis and complexity. It defines key terms like algorithm, asymptotic complexity, Big-O notation, and time complexity. It provides examples of analyzing simple algorithms like summing array elements. The running time is expressed as a function of input size n. Common complexities like constant, linear, quadratic, and exponential time are introduced. Nested loops and sequences of statements are analyzed. The goal of analysis is to classify algorithms into complexity classes to understand how input size affects runtime.
The document discusses stacks and queues as linear data structures. A stack follows LIFO (last in first out) where the last element inserted is the first removed. Common stack operations are push to insert and pop to remove elements. Stacks can be implemented using arrays or linked lists. A queue follows FIFO (first in first out) where the first element inserted is the first removed. Common queue operations are enqueue to insert and dequeue to remove elements. Queues can also be implemented using arrays or linked lists. Circular queues and priority queues are also introduced.
The document discusses stacks and queues as linear data structures. A stack follows LIFO (last in first out) where the last element inserted is the first to be removed. Common stack operations are push to add an element and pop to remove an element. Stacks can be implemented using arrays or linked lists. A queue follows FIFO (first in first out) where the first element inserted is the first to be removed. Common queue operations are enqueue to add an element and dequeue to remove an element. Queues can also be implemented using arrays or linked lists. Circular queues and priority queues are also discussed briefly.
This document provides an introduction to algorithms and algorithm analysis. It defines an algorithm as a set of unambiguous instructions to solve a problem in a finite amount of time. The most famous early algorithm is Euclid's algorithm for calculating greatest common divisors. Algorithm analysis involves proving an algorithm's correctness and analyzing its running time and space complexity. Common notations for analyzing complexity include Big-O, which provides upper bounds, Big-Omega, which provides lower bounds, and Big-Theta, which provides tight bounds. The goal of analysis is to determine the most efficient algorithm by evaluating performance as problem size increases.
This document discusses algorithms and their analysis. It begins by defining an algorithm and its key characteristics like being finite, definite, and terminating after a finite number of steps. It then discusses designing algorithms to minimize cost and analyzing algorithms to predict their performance. Various algorithm design techniques are covered like divide and conquer, binary search, and its recursive implementation. Asymptotic notations like Big-O, Omega, and Theta are introduced to analyze time and space complexity. Specific algorithms like merge sort, quicksort, and their recursive implementations are explained in detail.
Object Oriented Programming -- Dr Robert Harlesuthi
This document provides an overview of an Object Oriented Programming course taught by Dr. Robert Harle at the University of Cambridge. The course covers four main parts: computer fundamentals, object-oriented concepts, the Java platform, and design patterns. It will teach object-oriented programming principles using the Java language, but will also discuss other languages to illustrate concepts. The course complements practical Java labs and is meant to help students understand both OOP concepts and how to implement them in Java.
THE ROLE OF EDGE COMPUTING IN INTERNET OF THINGSsuthi
This document discusses the role of edge computing in the Internet of Things (IoT). It begins by explaining how edge computing extends cloud computing capabilities by bringing services closer to the edge of networks. It then presents a taxonomy that categorizes edge computing literature based on features like network technologies, computing paradigms, applications, and more. Finally, it outlines key requirements for successful deployment of edge computing in IoT, such as low latency, proximity, location awareness, and network context awareness. The document provides an overview of edge computing technologies and their role in supporting IoT applications and services.
The proliferation of Internet of Things (IoT) and the success of rich cloud services have pushed the horizon of a new computing paradigm, edge computing, which calls for processing the data at the edge of the network. Edge computing has the potential to address the concerns of response time requirement, battery life constraint, bandwidth cost saving, as well as data safety and privacy. In this paper, we introduce the definition of edge computing, followed by several case studies, ranging from cloud offloading to smart home and city, as well as collaborative edge to materialize the concept of edge computing. Finally, we present several challenges and opportunities in the field of edge computing, and hope this paper will gain attention from the community and inspire more research in this direction.
Edge computing refers to the enabling technologies allowing computation to be performed at the edge of the network, on downstream data on behalf of cloud services and upstream data on behalf of IoT services. Here we define “edge” as any computing and network resources along the path between data sources and cloud data centers. For example, a smart phone is the edge between body things and cloud, a gateway in a smart home is the edge between home things and cloud, a micro data center and a cloudlet is the edge between a mobile device and cloud. The rationale of edge computing is that computing should happen at the proximity of data sources. From our point of view, edge computing is interchangeable with fog computing, but edge computing focus more toward the things side, while fog computing focus more on the infrastructure side. Edge computing could have as big an impact on our society as has the cloud computing.
Document Classification Using KNN with Fuzzy Bags of Word Representationsuthi
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1. 1
DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OF ALGORITHMS
1. What is performance measurement?
Performance measurement is concerned with obtaining the space and the
time requirements of a particular algorithm.
2. What is an algorithm?
An algorithm is a finite set of instructions that, if followed, accomplishes a
particular task. In addition, all algorithms must satisfy the following criteria:
1) input
2) Output
3) Definiteness
4) Finiteness
5) Effectiveness.
3. Define Program.
A program is the expression of an algorithm in a programming language.
Sometimes works such as procedure, function and subroutine are used
synonymously program.
4. Write the For LOOP general format.
The general form of a for Loop is
For variable : = value 1 to value 2 step
Step do
{
statement 1
statement n
}
5. What is recursive algorithm?
An algorithm is said to be recursive if the same algorithm is invoked in the
body. An algorithm that calls itself is Direct recursive. Algorithm A is said to be
indeed recursive if it calls another algorithm, which in turn calls A.
6. What is space complexity?
The space complexity of an algorithm is the amount of memory it needs to
run to completion.
7. What is time complexity?
The time complexity of an algorithm is the amount of computer time it
needs to run to completion.
8. Give the two major phases of performance evaluation
Performance evaluation can be loosely divided into two major phases:
(i) a prior estimates (performance analysis)
(ii) a Posterior testing(performance measurement)
2. 2
9. Define input size.
The input size of any instance of a problem is defined to be the number of
words(or the number of elements) needed to describe that instance.
10. Define best-case step count.
The best-case step count is the minimum number of steps that can be
executed for the given parameters.
11. Define worst-case step count.
The worst-case step count is the maximum number of steps that can be
executed for the given parameters.
12. Define average step count.
The average step count is the average number of steps executed an
instances with the given parameters.
13. Define the asymptotic notation “Big on” (0)
The function f(n) = O(g(n)) iff there exist positive constants C and no such
that f(n)C * g(n) for all n, n n0.
14. Define the asymptotic notation “Omega” ( ).
The function f(n) =(g(n)) iff there exist positive constant C and no
such that f(n) C * g(n) for all n, n n0.
15. Define the asymptotic tnotation “theta” ()
The function f(n) =(g(n)) iff there exist positive constant C1, C2, and no
such that C1 g(n)f(n) C2 g(n) for all n, n n0.
16. Define Little “oh”.
The function f(n) = 0(g(n))
iff
Lim f(n) = 0
n - g(n)
17. Define Little Omega.
The function f(n) = (g(n))
iff
Lim f(n) = 0
n - g(n)
18. Write algorithm using iterative function to fine sum of n numbers.
Algorithm sum(a,n)
{
S : = 0.0
3. 3
For i=1 to n do
S : - S + a[i];
Return S;
}
19. Write an algorithm using Recursive function to fine sum of n numbers,
Algorithm Rsum (a,n)
{
If(n_ 0) then
Return 0.0;
Else
Return Rsum(a, n- 1) + a(n);
20. Define the divide an conquer method.
Given a function to compute on ‘n’ inputs the divide-and-comquer
strategy suggests splitting the inputs in to’k’ distinct susbsets, 1k n, yielding ‘k’
subproblems. The subproblems must be solved, and then a method must be
found to combine subsolutions into a solution of the whole. If the subproblems
are still relatively large, then the divide-and conquer strategy can possibly be
reapplied.
21. Define control abstraction.
A control abstraction we mean a procedure whose flow of control is clear
but whose primary operations are by other procedures whose precise meanings
are left undefined.
22. Write the Control abstraction for Divide-and conquer.
Algorithm DAnd()
{
if small(p) then return S();
else
{
divide P into smaller instance _ 1, _ 2, _ k, k 1;
Apply D and C to each of these subproblems
Return combine (DAnd C(_1) DAnd C(_2),----, DAnd ((_k));
}
}
23. What is the substitution method?
One of the methods for solving any such recurrence relation is called the
substitution method.
24. What is the binary search?
If ‘q’ is always chosen such that ‘aq’ is the middle element(that is,
q=[(n+1)/2), then the resulting search algorithm is known as binary search.
4. 4
25. Give computing time for Bianry search?
In conclusion we are now able completely describe the computing time of
binary search by giving formulas that describe the best, average and worst
cases.
Successful searches
(1) (logn) (Logn)
best average worst
unsuccessful searches
(logn)
best, average, worst
26. Define external path length?
The external path length E, is defines analogously as sum of the distance
of all external nodes from the root.
27. Define internal path length.
The internal path length ‘I’ is the sum of the distances of all internal nodes
from the root.
28. What is the maximum and minimum problem?
The problem is to find the maximum and minimum items in a set of ‘n’ elements.
Though this problem may look so simple as to be contrived, it allows us to
demonstrate
divide-and-comquer in simple setting.
29.What is merge sort and give it’s time complexity?
In merge sort, the elements are to be sorted in non-decreasing order. Given a
sequence of n elements i.e. a [1], a [2]…. a [n], the general idea is to imagine
them split
into 2 sets a [1], …a [(n/2)] and a [(n/2) +1], …. a [n].Each set is individually
sorted, and
the resulting sorted sequence are merge to produce a single sorted sequence of
‘n’elements. The time complexity is O (nlogn) for worst case.
30. What is the Quick sort?
n quicksort, the division into subarrays is made so that the sorted
subarrays do not need to be merged later.
30. Write the Anlysis for the Quick sot.
In analyzing QUICKSORT, we can only make the number of element
comparisions c(n). It is easy to see that the frequency count of other operations
is of the same order as C(n).
31. Is insertion sort better than the merge sort?
Insertion sort works exceedingly fast on arrays of less then 16 elements,
though for large ‘n’ its computing time is O(n2).
5. 5
32. Write a algorithm for straightforward maximum and minimum>
algorithm straight MaxMin(a,n,max,min)
//set max to the maximum and min to the minimum of a[1:n]
{
max := min: = a[i];
for i = 2 to n do
{
if(a[i] >max) then max: = a[i];
if(a[i] >min) then min: = a[i];
}
}
33. Give the recurrence relation of divide-and-conquer?
The recurrence relation is
T(n) = g(n)
T(n1) + T(n2) + ----+ T(nk) + f(n)
34. Write the algorithm for Iterative binary search?
Algorithm BinSearch(a,n,x)
//Given an array a[1:n] of elements in nondecreasing
// order, n>0, determine whether x is present
{
low : = 1;
high : = n;
while (low < high) do
{
mid : = [(low+high)/2];
if(x a[mid]) then high:= mid-1;
else if (x a[mid]) then low:=mid + 1;
else return mid;
}
return 0;
}
35. What are internal nodes?
The circular node is called the internal nodes.
36. Describe the recurrence relation ofr merge sort?
If the time for the merging operation is proportional to n, then the
computing time of merge sort is described by the recurrence relation
n = 1, a a constant
T(n) = a
2T (n/2) + n n 1, c a constant
37.What is meant by feasible solution?
Given n inputs and we are required to form a subset such that it satisfies some
6. 6
given constraints then such a subset is called feasible solution.
38. Write any two characteristics of Greedy Algorithm?
* To solve a problem in an optimal way construct the solution from given set of
candidates.
* As the algorithm proceeds, two other sets get accumulated among this one set
contains the candidates that have been already considered and chosen while the
other set contains the candidates that have been considered but rejected.
39. Define optimal solution?
A feasible solution either maximizes or minimizes the given objective function is
called as optimal solution
40. What is Knapsack problem?
A bag or sack is given capacity n and n objects are given. Each object has
weight wi and profit pi .Fraction of object is considered as xi (i.e) 0<=xi<=1 .If
fraction is 1 then entire object is put into sack. When we place this fraction into
the sack we get wixi and pixi.
41. Define weighted tree.
A directed binary tree for which each edge is labeled with a real number (weight)
is called as weighted tree.
42. What is the use of TVSP?
In places where the loss exceeds the tolerance level boosters have to the placed.
Given a network and loss tolerance level the tree vertex splitting problems is to
determine an optimal placement of boosters.
43. What is the Greedy choice property?
* The first component is greedy choice property (i.e.) a globally optimal solution
can arrive at by making a locally optimal choice.
* The choice made by greedy algorithm depends on choices made so far but it
cannot depend on any future choices or on solution to the sub problem.
* It progresses in top down fashion.
44. What is greedy method?
Greedy method is the most important design technique, which makes a choice
that looks best at that moment. A given ‘n’ inputs are required us to obtain a
subset that satisfies some constraints that is the feasible solution. A greedy
method suggests that one can device an algorithm that works in stages
considering one input at a time.
45. What are the steps required to develop a greedy algorithm?
* Determine the optimal substructure of the problem.
* Develop a recursive solution.
7. 7
* Prove that at any stage of recursion one of the optimal choices is greedy
choice. Thus it is always safe to make greedy choice.
* Show that all but one of the sub problems induced by having made the greedy
choice are empty.
* Develop a recursive algorithm and convert into iterative algorithm.
46. What is activity selection problem?
The ‘n’ task will be given with starting time si and finishing time fi. Feasible
solution is that the task should not overlap and optimal solution is that the task
should be completed in minimum number of machine set.
47. Write the specification of TVSP
Let T= (V, E, W) be a weighted directed binary tree where
V_ vertex set
E_ edge set
W_ weight function for the edge.
W is more commonly denoted as w (i,j) which is the weight of the edge <i,j> _ E.
48. Define forest.
Collection of sub trees that are obtained when root node is eliminated is known
as forest
55. Define optimal solution for TVSP.
An optimal solution is one in which the number of nodes in X is minimized.
56. Write the general algorithm for Greedy method control abstraction.
Algorithm Greedy (a, n)
{
solution=0;
for i=1 to n do
{
x= select(a);
if feasible(solution ,x) then
solution=Union(solution ,x);
}
return solution;
}
57. . Define optimal solution for Job sequencing with deadlines.
Feasible solution with maximum profit is optimal solution for Job sequencing
with deadlines.
58.Write the difference between the Greedy method and Dynamic
programming.
Greedy method Dynamic programming
1.Only one sequence of decision is generated.
8. 8
1.Many number of decisions are generated.
2.It does not guarantee to give an optimal solution always.
2.It definitely gives an optimal solution always.
59.Define dynamic programming.
Dynamic programming is an algorithm design method that can be used
when a solution to the problem is viewed as the result of sequence of decisions.
60.What are the features of dynamic programming?
_ Optimal solutions to sub problems are retained so as to avoid recomputing
their values.
_ Decision sequences containing subsequences that are sub optimal are not
considered.
_ It definitely gives the optimal solution always.
61.What are the drawbacks of dynamic programming?
_ Time and space requirements are high, since storage is needed for all level.
_ Optimality should be checked at all levels.
62.Write the general procedure of dynamic programming.
The development of dynamic programming algorithm can be broken into a
sequence of 4 steps.
1. Characterize the structure of an optimal solution.
2. Recursively define the value of the optimal solution.
3. Compute the value of an optimal solution in the bottom-up fashion.
4. Construct an optimal solution from the computed information.
63.Define principle of optimality.
It states that an optimal sequence of decisions has the property that whenever
the initial stage or decisions must constitute an optimal sequence with regard to
stage resulting from the first decision.
64.Give an example of dynamic programming and explain.
An example of dynamic programming is knapsack problem. The solution to the
knapsack problem can be viewed as a result of sequence of decisions. We have
to decide the value of xi for 1<i<n. First we make a decision on x1 and then on x2
and so on. An optimal sequence of decisions maximizes the object function pixi.
65.Write about optimal merge pattern problem.
Two files x1 and x2 containing m & n records could be merged together to obtain
one merged file. When more than 2 files are to be merged together. The merge
can be
accomplished by repeatedly merging the files in pairs. An optimal merge pattern
tells which pair of files should be merged at each step. An optimal sequence is a
least cost sequence.
66.Explain any one method of finding the shortest path.
9. 9
One way of finding a shortest path from vertex i to j in a directed graph G is to
decide which vertex should be the second, which is the third, which is the fourth,
and so on, until vertex j is reached. An optimal sequence of decisions is one that
results in a path of least length.
67.Define 0/1 knapsack problem.
The solution to the knapsack problem can be viewed as a result of sequence of
decisions. We have to decide the value of xi. xi is restricted to have the value 0 or
1 and by using the function knap(l, j, y) we can represent the problem as
maximum pi xi subject to wi xi < y where l - iteration, j - number of objects, y –
capacity.
68.What is the formula to calculate optimal solution in 0/1 knapsack
problem?
The formula to calculate optimal solution is
g0(m)=max{g1, g1(m-w1)+p1}.
69.Write about traveling salesperson problem.
Let g = (V, E) be a directed. The tour of G is a directed simple cycle that includes
every vertex in V. The cost of a tour is the sum of the cost of the edges on the
tour. The traveling salesperson problem to find a tour of minimum cost.
70.Write some applications of traveling salesperson problem.
_ Routing a postal van to pick up mail from boxes located at n different sites.
_ Using a robot arm to tighten the nuts on some piece of machinery on an
assembly line.
_ Production environment in which several commodities are manufactured on
the same set of machines.
71.Give the time complexity and space complexity of traveling salesperson
problem.
_ Time complexity is O (n2 2n).
_ Space complexity is O (n 2n).
80. What are the requirements that are needed for performing
Backtracking?
To solve any problem using backtracking, it requires that all the solutions
satisfy a complex set of constraints. They are:
i. Explicit constraints.
ii. Implicit constraints.
81.Define explicit constraint.
They are rules that restrict each xi to take on values only from a give set.
They depend on the particular instance I of the problem being solved. All tuples
that
satisfy the explicit constraints define a possible solution space.
10. 10
82. Define implicit constraint.
They are rules that determine which of the tuples in the solution space of I
satisfy the criteria function. It describes the way in which the xi must relate to
each
other.
83.Define state space tree.
The tree organization of the solution space is referred to as state space
tree.
84.Define state space of the problem.
All the paths from the root of the organization tree to all the nodes is
called as state space of the problem
85.Define answer states.
Answer states are those solution states s for which the path from the root
to s defines a tuple that is a member of the set of solutions of the problem.
86.What are static trees?
The tree organizations that are independent of the problem instance being
solved are called as static tree.
87.What are dynamic trees?
The tree organizations those are independent of the problem instance
being solved are called as static tree.
88.Define a live node.
A node which has been generated and all of whose children have not yet
been generated is called as a live node.
89. Define a E – node.
E – node (or) node being expanded. Any live node whose children are
currently being generated is called as a E – node.
90.Define a dead node.
Dead node is defined as a generated node, which is to be expanded further/
all of whose children have been generated.
91.,What are the factors that influence the efficiency of the backtracking
algorithm?
The efficiency of the backtracking algorithm depends on the following
four factors. They are:
i. The time needed to generate the next xk
ii. The number of xk satisfying the explicit constraints.
iii. The time for the bounding functions Bk
11. 11
iv. -The number of xk satisfying the Bk.
92.Define Branch-and-Bound method.
The term Branch-and-Bound refers to all the state space methods in which
all children of the E-node are generated before any other live node can become
the Enode.
93.What are the searching techniques that are commonly used in Branch-
and-
Bound method.
The searching techniques that are commonly used in Branch-and-Bound
method are:
i. FIFO
ii. LIFO
iii. LC
iv. Heuristic search
94.State 8 – Queens problem.
The problem is to place eight queens on a 8 x 8 chessboard so that no two
queen “attack” that is, so that no two of them are on the same row, column or on
the diagonal.
95.State Sum of Subsets problem.
Given n distinct positive numbers usually called as weights , the problem
calls for finding all the combinations of these numbers whose sums are m.
96. State m – colorability decision problem.
Let G be a graph and m be a given positive integer. We want to discover
whether the nodes of G can be colored in such a way that no two adjacent nodes
have the same color yet only m colors are used.
97.Define chromatic number of the graph.
The m – colorability optimization problem asks for the smallest integer m
for which the graph G can be colored. This integer is referred to as the chromatic
number of the graph.
98. Define a planar graph.
A graph is said to be planar iff it can be drawn in such a way that no two
edges cross each other.
99. What are NP- hard and Np-complete problems?
The problems whose solutions have computing times are bounded by
polynomials of small degree.
100. What is a decision problem?
Any problem for which the answer is either zero or one is called decision
problem.
12. 12
101. What is maxclique problem?
A maxclique problem is the optimization problrm that has to determine the size
of a largest clique in Grapg G where clique is the maximal subgraph of a graph.
102. what is approximate solution?
A feasible solution with value close to the value of an optimal solution is called
approximate solution.
ALL THE BEST !!!
1. Explain algorithm specification?
1. pseudo code conventions
1. Comments begin with //.
2. Blocks are indicated and matching braces {}
3. An identifier begins with a letter.
13. 13
4. Assignment
5. Two Boolean values
6. Multidimensional arrays
7. Looping
8. Conditional statement
9. Input and Output.
10. Algorithm.
2. Recursive algorithm
An algorithm is said to be recursive if the same algorithm is invoked in the body.
An algorithm that calls itself is Direct recursive. Algorithm A is said to be indeed
recursive if it calls another algorithm, which in turn calls A.
2. Explain all asymptotic notations?
Big Oh:-
The function f(n) = O(g(n)) iff there exist positive constants C and no such
that f(n)C * g(n) for all n, n n0.
Omega:-
The function f(n) =(g(n)) iff there exist positive
constant C and no such that f(n) C * g(n) for all n, n n0.
Theta:-
The function f(n) =(g(n)) iff there exist positive constant C1, C2, and no
such that C1 g(n)f(n) C2 g(n) for all n, n n0.
Little Oh:-
The function f(n) = 0(g(n))
iff
Lim f(n) = 0
n - g(n)
Little omega:-
The function f(n) = (g(n))
iff
Lim g(n) = 0
n - f(n)
3. Explain Performance analysis?
1. Space Complexity:-
The space complexity of an algorithm is the amount of memory it needs to run to
completion.
algorithm using iterative function to fine sum of n numbers
Algorithm sum(a,n)
{
S : = 0.0
For i=1 to n do
S : - S + a[i];
Return S;
}
algorithm using Recursive function to fine sum of n numbers
Algorithm Rsum (a,n)
{
14. 14
If(n_ 0) then
Return 0.0;
Else
Return Rsum(a, n- 1) + a(n);
}
2. Time Complexity:-
The time complexity of an algorithm is the amount of computer time it
needs to run to completion.
3. Asymptotic Notation:-
4. Performance measurement:-
5. Practical Complexities:-
4. Explain binary search method?
If ‘q’ is always chosen such that ‘aq’ is the middle element(that is, q=[(n+1)/2),
then the resulting search algorithm is known as binary search.
In conclusion we are now able completely describe the computing time of
binary search by giving formulas that describe the best, average and worst
cases.
Algorithm binsearch(a,n,x)
{
low:=1;
high:=n;
while(low<high) do
{
mid:=(low+high)/2;
if(x<a[mid]) then
high:= mid-1;
else if(x>a[mid]) then
low:= mid+1;
else
return mid;
}
return 0;
}
Successful searches
(1) (logn) (Logn)
best average worst
unsuccessful searches
(logn)
best, average, worst
5. Explain Quick sort?
In quick sort the division into sub arrays is made so that the sorted
subarrays do not need to be merged later.
Algorithm partition(a,m,p)
{
v:=a[m];
I:=m;
15. 15
J:=p;
Repeat
{
repeat
I:=I+1;
Until(a[I]>=v);
Repeat
J:=j-1;
Until(a[j]<=v);
If (I<j) then interchange(a,I,j);
{until(I>=j);
a[m]:=a[j];
a[j]:=v;
return j;
}
Algorithm interchange(a,I,j)
{
p:=a[I];
a[I]:=a[j];
a[j]:=p;
}
Algorithm quicksort(p,q)
{
if(p<q) then
{
j:=partition(a,p,q+1);
quicksort(p,j-1);
quicksort(j+1,q);
}
}
In analyzing quick sort we can only make the number of element comparisons
c(n). It is easy to see that the frequency count of other operations is of the same
order as
c(n).
6. Write the algorithm for finding the maximum and minimum and explain
it?
The problem is to find the maximum and minimum items in a set of n elements.
Though this problem may look so simple as to be converted it allows us to
demonstrate divide and conquer in simple setting.
Iterative algorithm
Algorithm straightmaxmin(a,n,max,min)
{
max:=min:=a[1];
for I:= 2 to n do
{
if(a[I]>max) then max:=a[I];
16. 16
if(a[I]<min) then min := a[I];
}
}
Recursive algorithm
Algorithm maxmin(I,j,max,min)
{
if(I==j) then max:=min:=a[I];
else if (I=j-1) then
{
if(a[I]<a[j]) then
{
max:=a[j];
min:=a[I];
}
else
{
max:=a[I];
min:=a[j];
}
}
else
{
mid:=(I+j)/2;
maxmin(I,mid,max,min);
maxmin(mid+1,j,max1,min1);
if ( max< max1) then max:= max1;
if(min > min1) then min:= min1;
}
}
7. Explain the concept of mergesort?
In merge sort the elements are to sorted in non decreasing order. Given a
sequence of n elements that is a[1],a[2]….a[n] the general idea is to magine
them
split into 2 sets a[1],a[2],…..a[n/2] and a[n/2]+1,……,a[n]. each set is
individually sorted and the resulting sorted sequence are merge to produce a
single sorted sequence of n elements. The time complexity is O(n log n) for worst
case.
Insertion sort works exceedingly fast on arrays of less than 16 elements,
though for large n its computing time is O(n2).
The time complexity and space complexity of traveling salesperson problem is
_ Time complexity is O (n2 2n).
_ Space complexity is O (n 2n).
13. Define Algorithm and specify its four areas of study.
An Algorithm is a finite set of instructions tht if followed accopolishes a
particular task. It must have the criterias like”
1. Input, 2. Output, 3. Definiteness, 4. Finiteness, 5. Effectiveness
17. 17
The Four areas of study are:-
1. How to devise algorithm:
Creating an algorithm is an art which may never be fully automated. Various
design
techniques yielded good algorithms. Like Divide and conquer, Dynamic
programming, Back tracking etc.,
2. How to validate algorithm:
Once an algorithm is decised it is necessary to show that it computes the
correct answer for all possible legal inputs. We refer to this process as
a;gorithm validation. Second phase is program verification. Solution can be
solved using assertions and then second is using predicate calculus.
3. How to analyze algorithm:
Analysis of alogorithm refers to the task of determining h9ow much
computing time and storage an algorithm requires. This sometimes needs
mathematical skill.
4. How to test a program.
Testing contains two phases. Debugging is find the faulty results occur and if
so correct them. Profiling or performance measurement is the process o9f
executing the correct program on data sets and measuring the time and space
it takes to compute results.
14. What is knapsack problem? Expalin in deatail with alg.
Given n objects and a knwpsack or bag. Object I has a weight wi and the
knapsack has
the capacity m. If a fraction xi 0<xi<1 of object i is placed in to knapsack then a
profit of
pixi earned. The objective is to obtain a filling of the knapsack that maximizes the
total
profit earned. Since the knapsack capacity is m, we rewuire the total weight of all
chosdn
objects to be atmost m. Formally the problem can be stated as
Maximize _pixi
1<i<n
subject to _ wixi <= m
1<i<n
and 0<xi<1, 1<i<n.
The profits and weights are positive numbers.
Algorithm Greedyknapsack(m,n) Needs the objects are considered in order of the
ratio
pi/wi.
Disregarding the time to initially sort the objects each of the three strategy
outlined above
requires O(n) times.
Example: The problem n=3, m= 20 (p1,p2,p3) = (25,24,15) and (w1, w2,w3) =
(18,
15,10) . Out of the feasible solutions the optimal solution is (0, 1, ½ ) which gives
the
18. 18
value 31.5.
15. Explain Jobsequencing with deadlines problem with example.
We are given a set of n jobs. Associated with job I is an integer deadline di and
profit pi
> 0. For any job i the profit pi is earned iff the job is completed by its deadline. To
complete a job one has to process the job on a machine one unit of time. Only
one
machine is available for the processing jobs. A fesible solution for this problem is
subsets
J of jobs such that each job in this subset can be completed by its deadline. The
value of
the feasible solution J is the sum of the profits of the jobs in J. An optimal solution
is a
feasible solution with maximum value.
Example : Let n=4, (p1,p2,p3,p4) = (100, 10,15,27) and (d1,d2,d3,d4) = (2,1,2,1).
Out of
The feasible solution and its val ues the optimal one is (1,4) with value 127.
Algorithm JS(d,j,n)
Algorithm Requires us to consider the job in nondecreasing order of pi’s.
Computing time of this algorithm takes O(n2) time.
16. Define Multistage Graphs with forward approach.
A Multistage graph G= (V,E) is a directed graph in which the vertices are
partitioned
into k>=2 disjoint sets Vi, 1<i<k. In addition if <u,v> is an edge in E then u
belongs to
Vi and V belongs to Vi+1 for some I, 1<i<K. The srts V1 and Vk are such that
|v1|=|vk| =1. The vertex s is the source and t the sink. Let c(I,j) be the cost of
edge <I,j>.
the cost of the path from s to t is the sum of the costs of the edges in the path.
The
Multistage graph problem is the minimum cost path from s to t. Each set Vi
defines a
stage in the graph. Because of the constraints on E every path from s to t starts
in stage 1
goes o stage 2 then to stage 3 then to stage 4 and so on and eventually
terminates in stage
K. In the forward approach we obtain
cost(i,j) = min{c(j,l)+cost(i+1,l)}
l €vi+1
<j,l>€ E
Algorithm Fgraph(G,k,n,p)
Time taken is O(|V| + |E|) where V is set of vertices and E is set of edges.
17. Give the Bellman ford algorithm for Single source shortest path.
TO find the single source shortest oath we use Dynamic programming strategy. It
must
be cyclefree shortest path to obtain an algorithm to determine a shortest path
from a
19. 19
source vertex to all remaining vertices in the graph.
When negative edge lengths are permitted we require thet the graph have no
cycles of negative length.
Let dist[u] be the length of a shortest path from the source vertex v to vertex u
under the constraint that the shortest path contains at most L edges.
We make three observations and from it we bring the following
Distk[u] = min {distk-1 [u], min {distk-1 [i] + cost [i,u]}}.
Time taken is O(n3).
18. Define Biconnected components and DFS.
A Graph G is biconnected if and only if it contains no articulatin point. A vertex V
ina graph is said to be an articulation point if and only if the deletion of vertex v
together
with all its edges incident to v disconnects the graph into to two or more non-
empty
components.. A maximal biconeected component is biconnected graph.
The graph G can be transformed into a biconnected graph by using the adge
addition
scheme.
For each articulation point a do
{
let B1, B2,.. BK be the biconnected components containing vertex a.
le vi, vi != a be the vertec in I
Add to G the edges (vi, vi+1 )
}
Doing DFS gives DFN numbers to the nodes. From it the L value is found.
Calculations
and methods are devised to find the articulation point and then the edge
connection is
made to make it biconnected.
The time taken for TVS is O(n)time.
19. Explain branch and bound?
The term Branch-and-Bound refers to all the state space methods in which
all children of the E-node are generated before any other live node can become
the Enode.
the searching techniques that are commonly used in Branch-and-Bound
method.
The searching techniques that are commonly used in Branch-and-Bound
method are:
v. LC search
vi. 15 – puzzle problem
vii. LC control abstraction
viii. Bounding
ix. FIFO branch and bound
x. LC branch and bound
20. Short note on flow shop scheduling?
The processing of jobs requires the performance of several distinct job. In flow
20. 20
shop we have n jobs each requiring n tasks i.e. T1i, T2i,…...Tmi, 1<i<n.
The conditions of flow shop scheduling are
_ Let Tji denote jth task of the ith job. Task Tij is to be performed on Pj
number of processors where 1<j<m i.e. number of processors will be equal
to number of task
_ Any task Tji must be assigned to the processor Pj.
_ No processor can have more than one task assigned to it at any time. For any
job I processing the task for j>1 cannot be started until T(j-i),i has been
completed.
A nonpreemptive schedule is a schedule in which the processing of a task on any
processor is not terminated until the task is complete.
A preemptive schedule is a schedule in which the processing of a task on any
processor can be terminated before the task is completed.
The finish time fi (S) of job i is the time at which all tasks of job i have been
completed in schedule S.The finish time F(S) of schedule S is given by
F(S)=max{ fi (S)} 1<i<n
The mean flow time MFT (S) is defined to be]
MFT (S) = 1 fi(S)
n 1<i<n
Optimal finish time scheduling for a given set of tasks is a nonpreemptive
schedule S for which F (S) is minimum over all nonpreemptive schedules S.
Preemptive optimal finish time scheduling for a given set of tasks is a preemptive
schedule S for which F (S) is minimum over all preemptive schedules S.
21. Explain backtracking with example?
To solve any problem using backtracking, it requires that all the solutions
satisfy a complex set of constraints. They are:
iii. Explicit constraints.
iv. Implicit constraints.
They are rules that restrict each xi to take on values only from a give set.
They depend on the particular instance I of the problem being solved. All tuples
that
satisfy the explicit constraints define a possible solution space.
They are rules that determine which of the tuples in the solution space of I
satisfy the criteria function. It describes the way in which the xi must relate to
each
other.
The tree organization of the solution space is referred to as state space tree.
Example:-
The problem is to place eight queens on a 8 x 8 chessboard so that no two
queen “attack” that is, so that no two of them are on the same row, column or on
the
diagonal.