Emerging Next Generation Solar Cells: Route to High Efficiency and Low Cost

International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development, Volume 1(4), ISSN: 2456-6470
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IJTSRD | May-Jun 2017
Available Online @www.ijtsrd.com
Emerging Next Generation Solar Cells: Route to
High Efficiency and Low Cost
M. S. Sadek*
Dept. of Electrical and Electronic Engineering,
Southeast University,
Dhaka, Bangladesh
M.A. Zaman
Dept. of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Prime
University
Dhaka, Bangladesh
M. J. Rashid
University of Dhaka,
Dhaka, Bangladesh
Z. H. Mahmood
University of Dhaka,
Dhaka, Bangladesh
Abstract
Generation of clean energy is one of the main
challenges of the 21st century. Solar energy is the
most abundantly available renewable energy source
which would be supplying more than 50% of the
global electricity demand in 2100.Solar cells are used
to convert light energy into electrical energy directly
with an appeal that it does not generate any harmful
bi-products, like greenhouse gasses. The
manufacturing of solar cells is actually based on the
types of semiconducting or non-semiconducting
materials used and commercial maturity. From the
very beginning of the terrestrial use of Solar Cells,
efficiency and costs are the main focusing areas of
research. The definition of so-called emerging
technologies sometimes described as including any
technology capable of overcoming the Shockley–
Queisser limit of power conversion efficiency (33.7
percent) for a single junction device. In this paper,
few promising materials for solar cells are discussed
including their structural morphology, electrical and
optical properties. The excellent state of the art
technology, advantages and potential research issues
yet to be explored are also pointed out.
Keywords -Solar Cells, Thin film, Silicon, Organic,
Perovskite, DSSC, CZTS, Efficiency, Costs.
I. INTRODUCTION
Based on different technologies and materials, the
solar cells can be grouped into three different
generations. First generation or c-Si solar cells are
most dominant photovoltaic (PV) technology even
today for their good performance and better stability;
typically demonstrate efficiency about 22%. [1]
However, rigidity, complex manufacturing processes
and high costs still remains as bottle neck. The second
generation or thin film solar cells demonstrate typical
efficiency in 10-15%.[3]Although the efficiency is

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less than the c-Si solar cells, the comparative low cost
makes it an attractive alternative.
The third generation solar cells employ the most
advanced techniques which is basically thin film
based too, but the varieties of materials used to
manufacture such cells introduces a new era of cell
design. These cells are made of semiconducting p-n
junctions ("first generation") and thin film cells
("second generation"). Common third-generation
system techniques include multi-layer ("tandem")
cells made of amorphous silicon or III-V compounds
like gallium arsenide, frequency up down conversion,
Intermediate band, hot-carrier effects and other
multiple-carrier ejection techniques.[1-4]
In the most advanced PV technology, a wide range of
materials, ranging from semiconducting, non-
semiconducting, different polymers and even organic
are incorporated which actually broadens the choice
of materials to manufacture solar cell devices. Not
only materials aspect, but also the uses of cutting edge
technologies like tandem design of cells, Intermediate
band concept, Hot carrier cell, Hybridization of both
inorganic and organic materials shows a lots of
promises in designing such cells.Some examples of
such cell design include - Perovskite solar cell,
Copper Zinc Tin Sulfide solar cell (CZTS), and
derivate CZTSe and CZTSSe. Dye-Sensitized Solar
Cell(DSSC), also known as "Grätzel cell"
Fig.1.Graph of efficiency vs. cost for generations of
solar cells. [M. A. Green, "Third Generation
Photovoltaics", Springer Verlag, 2003]
II. Perovskite Solar Cell
A perovskite solar cell is a type of solar cell which
includes a perovskite structured compound, most
commonly a hybrid organic-inorganic lead or tin
halide-based material, as the light-harvesting active
layer. [5]
Fig. 2. Trends in maximum conversion efficiency for
solar cells at the research stage
Source: Created based on the NREL homepage
http://www.nrel.gov/ncpv/images/efficiency_chart.jpg

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The efficiency has significantly rises from 3/8% in
2009[6] to 21.0% in 2015[7] by using methyl-
ammonium lead halides (CH3NH3PbX3) materials as
absorber layer which are cheap and simple to
manufacture. With the potential of achieving even
higher efficiencies and the very low production costs,
perovskite solar cells have become commercially
attractive, with start-up companies already promising
modules on the market by 2017. [8, 9]
Traditional silicon cells require expensive, multistep
processes, conducted at high temperatures (>1000 °C)
in a high vacuum in special clean room facilities. [10]
Meanwhile the organic-inorganic perovskite material
can be manufactured with simpler wet chemistry
techniques in a traditional lab environment.
A. Perovskite Solar Cell Materials, Structure and
operating principles
The most commonly studied perovskite absorber is
methylammonium lead trihalide (CH3NH3PbX3,
where X is a halogen atom such as iodine, bromine or
chlorine), with an optical bandgap between 1.5 eV
and 2.3 eV depending on halide content. So by
introducing bandgap tailoring, the optical properties
of this material can be optimized.
Incoming radiation from the sun is absorbed by the
Halide perovskite which is integrated with
mesoporous TiO2 thin film. Electrons generated due
to light absorption gets excited and move to the
conduction band of perovskite and then jumps to the
conduction band of TiO2 and collected at the
electrode. These missing electrons are replenished by
a HTM (Hole Transport Material) mechanism.
Fig.
3.Perovskite Solar Cell structure and basic working
procedure
There are some very prominent features which makes
perovskite solar cell as one of the best emerging PV
technologies, which includes-
 Simple manufacturing process (as compared to the
dominant Si based PV technology). [11]
 Bandgap modification by changing the Halide
components as well as their proportion. [12]
 Perovskite materials have very low recombination
rate. So display a long diffusion length for both
holes and electrons of over one micron [13, 14].
The long diffusion length means that these
materials can function effectively in thin-film
architecture, and that charges can be transported in
the perovskite itself over long distances.
 It has recently been reported that charges in the

International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development, Volume 1(
perovskite material are predominantly present as
free electrons and holes, rather than as bound
excitons, since the exciton binding energy is low
enough to enable charge separation at room
temperature.[15]
Although perovskite Solar Cells exhibiting higher
conversion efficiency with relatively low costs, but
there are some areas which need to bemastered
The prime challenges for perovskite solar cells are
inclusion of lead which is detrimental to the device
performance and the aspect of short-term and long
term stability. The water-solubility of the organic
constituent of the absorber material makes
highly prone to rapid degradation in moist
environments. [16] However, no long term studies
and comprehensive encapsulation techniques have yet
been demonstrated for perovskite solar cells.
Beside moisture instability, it has some other
constructional issues need to be addressed.
includes -
 Protective Glass - transparent but not flexible, so
it can’t be applicable to BIPV type applications.
 ITO/FTO electrode - In and Sn are deficient
materials. In is basically used for display
and F is harmful for environment and human
health.
 TiO2 layers – Acts as electron transporter but,
International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development, Volume 1(4), ISSN:
www.ijtsrd.com
perovskite material are predominantly present as
free electrons and holes, rather than as bound
e the exciton binding energy is low
enough to enable charge separation at room
Although perovskite Solar Cells exhibiting higher
conversion efficiency with relatively low costs, but
there are some areas which need to bemastered -
me challenges for perovskite solar cells are
inclusion of lead which is detrimental to the device
term and long-
solubility of the organic
makes devices
highly prone to rapid degradation in moist
, no long term studies
and comprehensive encapsulation techniques have yet
been demonstrated for perovskite solar cells.
Beside moisture instability, it has some other
ional issues need to be addressed. This
transparent but not flexible, so
it can’t be applicable to BIPV type applications.
and Sn are deficient
sically used for display purpose
environment and human
Acts as electron transporter but,
may exist better electrons transporter materials.
 Holes transporter (HTM): I
ambient atmosphere
B. Perovskite-Si Tandem Cell D
Perovskite cells showing record efficiency beyond
20%, not only efficient but also have a high and
tunable bandgap, cheap fabricating techniques makes
it suitable for application in tandem devices.
Fig.4. Perovskite-Si tandem structure and spectral
response
As this silicon cell efficiency record is already very
close to the practical efficiency limit of this type of
solar cells, perovskite/silicon tandem cells with their
potential for ultra-high efficiencies at affordable costs
represent the most straight forward way to decrease
the overall cost of photovoltaic systems and
consequently also to reduce the price of electricity for
end-users.
), ISSN: 2456-6470
144
ectrons transporter materials.
ransporter (HTM): It is not stable in
Si Tandem Cell Design
Perovskite cells showing record efficiency beyond
20%, not only efficient but also have a high and
tunable bandgap, cheap fabricating techniques makes
it suitable for application in tandem devices.
Si tandem structure and spectral
As this silicon cell efficiency record is already very
close to the practical efficiency limit of this type of
solar cells, perovskite/silicon tandem cells with their
high efficiencies at affordable costs
raight forward way to decrease
the overall cost of photovoltaic systems and
consequently also to reduce the price of electricity for

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III. CZTS (Copper Zinc Tin Sulfide) Solar Cell:
Copper-zinc-tin-sulfur CZTS-based technology uses
materials that avoid heavy metals, earth abundant and
also at a lower cost. The constituents of this
semiconductor material copper(Cu), zinc(Zn), tin(Sn)
and sulfur(S), have the advantages of being both
abundant in the earth's crust and non-toxic.
Fig. 5. Normalized abundances of some common PV
absorber materials
Fig. 6.Cost Vs Availability curve of the most used
solar cell manufacturing materials along with CZTS.
CZTS also has near ideal properties for solar photo
voltaics, as it is a very strong absorber and has a band
gap of around 1.4eV. IBM has an active research
department in this area and recently announced a
CZTS based solar cell that had a conversion
efficiency of 11.1% and could potentially be printed.
[17] This efficiency is lower than the equivalent
laboratory records of 19.6% for CIGS and 17.3% for
CdTe, however CZTS is at a much earlier stage of
development. [18]
Some key factors make the IBM solar cells become a
viable alternative to existing "thin film" solar cells.
These includes –
Firstly – It uses rather earth abundant, Nontoxic
elements as the constituents. It is well known that in
case of CdTe based cell, Tellurium are extremely rare,
and Cd is toxic. And in case of CIGS, Indium and
Gallium are rare and most widely used in displays.
Secondly- An inexpensive ink-based manufacturing
process. According to a study done by IBM, thin film
solar cells will likely be limited to producing about
0.3 terawatts, but the new cells from IBM could
produce an order of magnitude more power. [19]
CZTS has numerous advantages that could lead to its
massive use as an abundant, non-toxic, low cost
absorber for thin film photovoltaic solar cells –
 it is a compound whose intrinsic point defects lead
to p-type semiconductor behavior. Although such
intrinsic point defects levels lead to low charge
separation, which can be overcome by thanks to
the type-II band alignment of the CZTS/CdS

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interface. Incorporation of CdS buffer layer
provide excellent band offset and also improves
the efficiency a bit. [20]
 it has a direct bandgap and an absorption
coefficient >104
cm-1
, which is suitable for thin
film photovoltaic applications [21–23]
 Band gap ofthe CZTS thin film can modified from
0.94 eV to 1.6 eV by changing the zinc and tin
composition and replacing the selenium (Se) by
sulfur (S). CZTS belongs to the Kesterites
structure and composed of Cu2ZnSnS4 (CZTS),
Cu2ZnSnSe4 (CZTSe) and CZTSSe are the
competitors to the CIGS and CdTe based thin film
solar cells.This tenability is of particular interest
for the manufacturing of absorbers with a band
gap between 1.1 and 1.5 eV, which allow
theoretical efficiencies higher than 30% [24]
 It includes Zn and Sn which are respectively
produced in quantity 20 000 and 500 times bigger
than In which is one of the constituents materials
of CIGS and moreover Indium is used for display
devices. [25]
 As CZTS solar cells uses the same structural
morphology as CIGS, so the knowledge gathered
on back contact, buffer layers and window layer
by CIGS scientists can therefore be used and
adapted for CZTS solar cells.
A. Potential research issues for CZTS Solar Cells
There are still numerous hurdles that must be
overcome before a truly competitive kesterite
technology can be validated: [26]
 Necessary to reach 15% efficiency, on par with
CdTe and CIGS technologies.
 Difficulty in growth of pure kesterite phase
without secondary phases and stannite structure,
which are particularly hard to be detected.
 Optimization of interfaces which is found to be
important factor limiting device performance. As
stated CdS interface with CZTS absorber layer
shows excellent band offset, but the incorporation
of Cd is not welcome everywhere. Because Cd is
one of the six toxic material which hinders both
environmental and human health acceptance.
There are some other potential interfacial
materials like ZnS, In2Sn3, ZnSe, ZnxCd1-xS etc.,
which have their own merits and demerits and
performance of the cell largely depends on this.
 The long term stability under heat, light, moisture
should be confirmed and compared with its sister
competitors like CdTe and CIGS.
 A truly low-cost and high throughput approach
needs to be established, without sacrificing on
performance, in order to meet a < $1Wp price
target.
 Overall, the proper fabrication process of CZTS,
composition of different elements, Grain
boundary, surface quality controlling is yet to be
explored.

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IV. Dye Sensitized Solar Cell
Dye Sensitized Solar Cells (DSSCs) are placed in the
category of third generation photovoltaics (PV) where
new trends in the photovoltaic technology are applied.
Among the different possibilities of 3rd
generation
solar cells DSSC have the most promising prospect
due to some attractive features, such as, simpler
conventional roll-printing manufacturing techniques,
semi-flexible and semi-transparent structure, which
offers some versatile applicable areas to glass-based
systems, especially in Building Integrated PV(BIPV),
and most importantly, the materials used are low-cost.
The overall efficiency of ~12% (for laboratory small
size) placed DSSCs as potential inexpensive
alternatives to solid state devices. [27]
It is based on a semiconductor formed between a
photo-sensitized anode and an electrolyte, a photo
electro chemical system. A modern DSSC is
composed of a porous layer of titanium dioxide nano
particles, covered with a molecular dye that absorbs
sunlight. The titanium dioxide which acts like an
anode is immersed under an electrolyte solution,
above which is a platinum-based catalyst which acts
like a cathode.
Fig.7.DSSC sample structures and working
mechanisms
Sunlight passes through the transparent electrode into
the dye layer where it can excite electrons that then
flow into the titanium dioxide. The electrons flow
toward the transparent electrode where they are
collected for powering a load. After flowing through
the external circuit, they are re-introduced into the cell
on a metal electrode on the back, flowing into the
electrolyte. The electrolyte then transports the
electrons back to the dye molecules.
There are lots of potential advantages of DSSC, which
are -
 DSSCs are attractive as a replacement for existing
technologies in "low density" applications like
rooftop solar collectors, where the mechanical
robustness and light weight of the glass-less
collector is a major advantage.
 In quantum efficiency terms, DSSCs are
extremely efficient. Due to their "depth" in the

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nanostructure there is a very high chance that a
photon will be absorbed, and the dyes are very
effective at converting them to electrons. The
quantum efficiency of traditional designs varies,
depending on their thickness, but are about the
same as the DSSC.
 Differential kinetics of electron transfer from the
Dye to TiO2 provides an extra advantage in case
of DSSC. The rate of electron generation from the
Dye is very fast and the recombination of the
generated electron back to dye is rather very slow
process. So as a consequence of this, DSSCs work
even in low-light conditions. DSSCs are therefore
able to work under cloudy skies and non-direct
sunlight, whereas traditional designs would suffer
a "cutout" at some lower limit of illumination,
when charge carrier mobility is low and
recombination becomes a major issue. The cutoff
is so low they are even being proposed for indoor
use, collecting energy for small devices from the
lights in the house. [28]
 Temperature hardness is a very remarkable
advantage of the DSSC, which means its
performance is remarkably insensitive to
temperature change. Thus, raising the temperature
from 20 to 60 ºC has no effect on the power
conversion efficiency. Stability studies have
shown the DSSC sustain temperatures of 85 ºC
without loss of performance.
 A practical advantage, one DSSCs share with
most thin-film technologies, is that the cell's
mechanical robustness indirectly leads to higher
efficiencies in higher temperatures. DSSCs are
normally built with only a thin layer of conductive
plastic on the front layer, allowing them to radiate
away heat much easier, and therefore operate at
lower internal temperatures.
Although the DSSC exhibits lots of promises, but
there are still some drawbacks of such cells which
requires more to explore –
 The major research issue of DSSC design is the
use of the liquid electrolyte. This liquid has
temperature stability problems. At low
temperatures the electrolyte can freeze, ending
power production and potentially leading to
physical damage. Higher temperatures cause the
liquid to expand, making sealing the panels a
serious problem.
 In practice it has proven difficult to eliminate a
number of expensive materials, notably platinum
and ruthenium, and the liquid electrolyte presents
a serious challenge to making a cell suitable for
use in all weather.
 The dye molecules are quite small (nanometer
sized), so in order to capture a reasonable amount
of the incoming light the layer of dye molecules
needs to be made fairly thick, much thicker than
the molecules themselves.

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 The instability of the dye solar cell was identified
as a main challenge. Its efficiency however,
improved during the course of the time by
optimizing the porosity, but the instability
remained a problem. [29]
 A third major drawback is that the electrolyte
solution contains volatile organic compounds (or
VOC's), solvents which must be carefully sealed
as they are hazardous to human health and the
environment. This, along with the fact that the
solvents permeate plastics, has precluded large-
scale outdoor application and integration into
flexible structure. [30]
 Replacing the liquid electrolyte with a solid has
been a major ongoing field of research. Recent
experiments using solidified melted salts have
shown some promise, but currently suffer from
higher degradation during continued operation,
and are not flexible. [31]
 Most of the small losses that do exist in DSSC's
are due to conduction losses in the TiO2 and the
clear electrode, or optical losses in the front
electrode.
 For the future improvement of the conversion
efficiency, understanding and control of interfacial
effects are essential, as such type of cells have
high contact area of the junction.
 It is important to determine the nature of the
exposed surface planes of the oxide and the mode
of interaction with the dye. [32]
 At this stage the confirmed efficiency obtained
with the black dye is 10.4%.[33]
Further development will concentrate on the
enhancement of the photo response in the near IR
region. The goal is to obtain a DYSC having optical
features similar to GaAs. A nearly vertical rise of the
photocurrent close to the 920 nm absorption threshold
would increase the short circuit photocurrent from
currently 20.5 to about 28 mA/cm2. With the Voc and
FF values would raise the overall efficiency to 14.2%.
[34]
V. Conclusion
A solar cell can be termed as “promising” if the cell
can be manufactured by using the cheapest as well as
most abundant materials without sacrificing energy-
production efficiency. All the solar cell design
discussed here have the same goal. Perovskite cells
have received tremendous attention in the public, as
their research efficiencies recently soared above 20%.
They also offer a wide spectrum of low-cost
applications. [35-37] Concerns with the price and
availability of indium in CIGS and tellurium in CdTe,
as well as toxicity of cadmium have been a large
motivator to search for alternative thin film solar cell
materials, CZTS as it is composed of earth abundant
and non-toxic elements, it can outperform CIGS or
CdTe based thin film cells. CZTS have increased

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efficiency to 12.0% in laboratory cells, but more work
is needed for their commercialization. [38] Though
the DSSC shows a lots of attractive features, it has
proven difficult to eliminate a number of expensive
materials, notably platinum and ruthenium, and the
liquid electrolyte presents a serious challenge to
making a cell suitable for use in all weather. Although
its conversion efficiency is less than the best thin-film
cells, in theory its price/performance ratio should be
good enough to allow them to compete with fossil
fuel electrical generation by achieving grid parity.
[39]
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