Rayleigh's method- Theory and Examples
Buckingham Pi Theorem- Theory and Examples
Model and Similitude
Forces on Fluid
Dimensionless Numbers
Model laws
Distorted models
This document discusses fluid kinematics, which is the branch of fluid mechanics that deals with the geometry and motion of fluids without considering forces. It defines key concepts like acceleration fields, Lagrangian and Eulerian methods of describing motion, types of flow such as laminar vs turbulent and steady vs unsteady, streamlines vs pathlines vs streaklines, circulation and vorticity, and analytical tools like the stream function and velocity potential function. Flow nets are introduced as a way to graphically study two-dimensional irrotational flows using a grid of intersecting streamlines and equipotential lines.
- Open channel flow occurs in natural settings like rivers and streams as well as human-made channels. It is characterized by a free surface boundary.
- Flow can be uniform, gradually varied, or rapidly varied depending on changes in depth and velocity over distance. Uniform flow maintains constant depth and velocity.
- Important parameters include the Froude number, specific energy, and wave speed. Hydraulic jumps and critical flow occur when the Froude number is 1.
- Flow is controlled using underflow gates, overflow gates, and weirs. Measurement relies on critical flow assumptions at weirs.
This document provides an overview of fluid kinematics, which is the study of fluid motion without considering forces. It discusses key concepts like streamlines, pathlines, and streaklines. It describes Lagrangian and Eulerian methods for describing fluid motion. It also covers various types of fluid flow such as steady/unsteady, laminar/turbulent, compressible/incompressible, and one/two/three-dimensional flow. Important topics like continuity equation, velocity, acceleration, and stream/velocity potential functions are also summarized. The document is intended to outline the syllabus and learning objectives for a course unit on fluid kinematics.
This document summarizes different types of fluid flow, including:
- Steady and unsteady flow
- Laminar and turbulent flow
- Compressible and incompressible flow
- One, two, and three dimensional flows
It defines each type of flow and provides examples to explain the differences between steady and unsteady flow, laminar and turbulent flow, and compressible and incompressible flow.
This document provides an introduction and overview of a fluid mechanics course taught by Dr. Mohsin Siddique. It outlines the course details including goals, topics, textbook, and assessment methods. The course aims to provide an understanding of fluid statics and dynamics concepts. Key topics covered include fluid properties, fluid statics, fluid flow measurements, dimensional analysis, and fluid flow in pipes and open channels. Students will be evaluated through assignments, quizzes, a midterm exam, and a final exam. The course intends to develop skills relevant to various engineering fields involving fluid mechanics.
Fluid MechanicsLosses in pipes dynamics of viscous flowsMohsin Siddique
This document discusses fluid flow in pipes. It defines the Reynolds number and explains laminar and turbulent flow regimes. It also covers the Darcy-Weisbach equation for calculating head losses due to pipe friction. The friction factor is determined using Moody diagrams based on Reynolds number and relative pipe roughness. Examples are provided to calculate friction factor, head loss, and flow rate for different pipe flow conditions.
Topics:
1. Introduction to Fluid Dynamics
2. Surface and Body Forces
3. Equations of Motion
- Reynold’s Equation
- Navier-Stokes Equation
- Euler’s Equation
- Bernoulli’s Equation
- Bernoulli’s Equation for Real Fluid
4. Applications of Bernoulli’s Equation
5. The Momentum Equation
6. Application of Momentum Equations
- Force exerted by flowing fluid on pipe bend
- Force exerted by the nozzle on the water
7. Measurement of Flow Rate
a). Venturimeter
b). Orifice Meter
c). Pitot Tube
8. Measurement of Flow Rate in Open Channels
a) Notches
b) Weirs
This document discusses fluid kinematics, which is the branch of fluid mechanics that deals with the geometry and motion of fluids without considering forces. It defines key concepts like acceleration fields, Lagrangian and Eulerian methods of describing motion, types of flow such as laminar vs turbulent and steady vs unsteady, streamlines vs pathlines vs streaklines, circulation and vorticity, and analytical tools like the stream function and velocity potential function. Flow nets are introduced as a way to graphically study two-dimensional irrotational flows using a grid of intersecting streamlines and equipotential lines.
- Open channel flow occurs in natural settings like rivers and streams as well as human-made channels. It is characterized by a free surface boundary.
- Flow can be uniform, gradually varied, or rapidly varied depending on changes in depth and velocity over distance. Uniform flow maintains constant depth and velocity.
- Important parameters include the Froude number, specific energy, and wave speed. Hydraulic jumps and critical flow occur when the Froude number is 1.
- Flow is controlled using underflow gates, overflow gates, and weirs. Measurement relies on critical flow assumptions at weirs.
This document provides an overview of fluid kinematics, which is the study of fluid motion without considering forces. It discusses key concepts like streamlines, pathlines, and streaklines. It describes Lagrangian and Eulerian methods for describing fluid motion. It also covers various types of fluid flow such as steady/unsteady, laminar/turbulent, compressible/incompressible, and one/two/three-dimensional flow. Important topics like continuity equation, velocity, acceleration, and stream/velocity potential functions are also summarized. The document is intended to outline the syllabus and learning objectives for a course unit on fluid kinematics.
This document summarizes different types of fluid flow, including:
- Steady and unsteady flow
- Laminar and turbulent flow
- Compressible and incompressible flow
- One, two, and three dimensional flows
It defines each type of flow and provides examples to explain the differences between steady and unsteady flow, laminar and turbulent flow, and compressible and incompressible flow.
This document provides an introduction and overview of a fluid mechanics course taught by Dr. Mohsin Siddique. It outlines the course details including goals, topics, textbook, and assessment methods. The course aims to provide an understanding of fluid statics and dynamics concepts. Key topics covered include fluid properties, fluid statics, fluid flow measurements, dimensional analysis, and fluid flow in pipes and open channels. Students will be evaluated through assignments, quizzes, a midterm exam, and a final exam. The course intends to develop skills relevant to various engineering fields involving fluid mechanics.
Fluid MechanicsLosses in pipes dynamics of viscous flowsMohsin Siddique
This document discusses fluid flow in pipes. It defines the Reynolds number and explains laminar and turbulent flow regimes. It also covers the Darcy-Weisbach equation for calculating head losses due to pipe friction. The friction factor is determined using Moody diagrams based on Reynolds number and relative pipe roughness. Examples are provided to calculate friction factor, head loss, and flow rate for different pipe flow conditions.
Topics:
1. Introduction to Fluid Dynamics
2. Surface and Body Forces
3. Equations of Motion
- Reynold’s Equation
- Navier-Stokes Equation
- Euler’s Equation
- Bernoulli’s Equation
- Bernoulli’s Equation for Real Fluid
4. Applications of Bernoulli’s Equation
5. The Momentum Equation
6. Application of Momentum Equations
- Force exerted by flowing fluid on pipe bend
- Force exerted by the nozzle on the water
7. Measurement of Flow Rate
a). Venturimeter
b). Orifice Meter
c). Pitot Tube
8. Measurement of Flow Rate in Open Channels
a) Notches
b) Weirs
This document discusses key concepts in fluid dynamics, including:
(i) Fluid kinematics describes fluid motion without forces/energies, examining geometry of motion through concepts like streamlines and pathlines.
(ii) Fluids can flow steadily or unsteadily, uniformly or non-uniformly, laminarly or turbulently depending on properties of the flow and fluid.
(iii) The continuity equation states that mass flow rate remains constant for an incompressible, steady flow through a control volume according to the principle of conservation of mass.
This document provides an overview of fluid kinematics. It defines fluid kinematics as the study of fluid motion without considering pressure forces. It describes Lagrangian and Eulerian methods for analyzing fluid flow, and defines different types of flows including steady/unsteady, uniform/non-uniform, laminar/turbulent, compressible/incompressible, rotational/irrotational, and one-dimensional/two-dimensional/three-dimensional flows. It also discusses flow visualization techniques like streamlines, pathlines, and streaklines.
The document discusses dimensional analysis, similitude, and model analysis. It provides background on how dimensional analysis and model testing are used to study fluid mechanics problems. Dimensional analysis uses the dimensions of physical quantities to determine which parameters influence a phenomenon. Model testing in a laboratory allows measurements to be applied to larger scale systems using similitude. Buckingham's π-theorem is introduced as a way to non-dimensionalize variables when there are more variables than fundamental dimensions. Rayleigh's and Buckingham's methods are demonstrated on an example of determining the resisting force on an aircraft.
This document provides an overview of boundary layer concepts and laminar and turbulent pipe flow. It defines boundary layer thickness, displacement thickness, and momentum thickness. It describes how boundary layers develop on surfaces and transition from laminar to turbulent. It also discusses Reynolds number effects, momentum integral estimates for flat plates, and examples calculating boundary layer thickness in air and water flow. Finally, it introduces concepts of laminar and turbulent pipe flow.
1) Compressible flow is when the density of a fluid changes during flow, such as gases. Incompressible flow assumes constant density, such as liquids.
2) Examples of compressible flow include gases through nozzles, compressors, high-speed projectiles and planes, and water hammer.
3) Bernoulli's equation relates pressure, temperature, and specific volume and only applies to steady, incompressible flow without friction losses along a single streamline.
1) The document discusses fluid kinematics, which deals with the motion of fluids without considering the forces that create motion. It covers topics like velocity fields, acceleration fields, control volumes, and flow visualization techniques.
2) There are two main descriptions of fluid motion - Lagrangian, which follows individual particles, and Eulerian, which observes the flow at fixed points in space. Most practical analysis uses the Eulerian description.
3) The Reynolds Transport Theorem allows equations written for a fluid system to be applied to a fixed control volume, which is useful for analyzing forces on objects in a flow. It relates the time rate of change of an extensive property within the control volume to surface fluxes and the property accumulation.
Properties of Fluids, Fluid Static, Buoyancy and Dimensional AnalysisSatish Taji
The presentation includes a brief view of the basic properties of a fluid, fluid statics, Pascal's law, hydrostatic law, fluid classification, pressure measurement devices (manometers and mechanical gauges), hydrostatic forces on different surfaces, buoyancy and metacentric height, and dimensional analysis.
Unit 6 discusses losses in pipes, including major and minor losses. Major losses are due to friction and calculated using Darcy-Weisbach or Chezy's formulas. Minor losses are due to changes in pipe direction, size, or obstructions and are also calculated using specific formulas. The document also discusses equivalent pipes, pipes in series, pipes in parallel, and two and three reservoir pipe flow analysis problems. Head losses are calculated using friction and minor loss formulas, and continuity and energy equations are used to analyze pipe flows.
This document discusses open channel flow and its various types. It defines open channel flow as flow with a free surface driven by gravity. It describes four main types of open channel flows:
1. Steady and unsteady flow
2. Uniform and non-uniform flow
3. Laminar and turbulent flow
4. Sub-critical, critical, and super-critical flow
It also discusses discharge equations for open channels including Chezy's formula, Manning's formula, and Bazin's formula. Finally, it covers specific energy, critical depth, and the hydraulic jump in open channel flow.
Head losses
Major Losses
Minor Losses
Definition • Dimensional Analysis • Types • Darcy Weisbech Equation • Major Losses • Minor Losses • Causes Head Losses
3. • Head loss is loss of energy per unit weight. • Head = Energy of Fluid / Weight • Head losses can be – Kinetic Head – Potential Head – Pressure Head 6/10/2015 4Danial Gondal Head Loss
4. • Kinetic Head – K.H. = kinetic energy / Weight = v² /2g • Potential Head – P.H = Potential Energy / Weight = mgz /mg = z • Pressure Head – P.H = P/ ρ g 6/10/2015 5
5. • (P/ ρ g) + (v² /2g ) + (z) = constant • (FL-2F-1L3LT-2L-1T2) + (L2T-2L1T2)+(L) = constant • (L) + (L) + (L) = constant • As L represent height so it is dimensionally L. 6/10/2015 6 Dimensional Analysis
6. • However the equation (P/ ρ g) + (v² /2g ) + (z) = constant Is valid for Bernoulli's Inviscid flow case. As we are studying viscous flow so (P1/ ρ g) + (v1² /2g ) + (z1) = EGL1(Energy Grade Line At point 1) (P2/ ρ g) + (v2² /2g ) + (z2) = EGL2(Energy Grade Line At point 2) 6/10/2015 7 Head Loss
7. • For Inviscid Flow EGL1 - EGL2= 0 • For Viscous Flow EGL1 - EGL2= Hf 6/10/2015 8 Head Loss
8. MAJOR LOSSES IN PIPES
9. •Friction loss is the loss of energy or “head” that occurs in pipe flow due to viscous effects generated by the surface of the pipe. • Friction Loss is considered as a "major loss" •In mechanical systems such as internal combustion engines, it refers to the power lost overcoming the friction between two moving surfaces. •This energy drop is dependent on the wall shear stress (τ) between the fluid and pipe surface. 6/10/2015 10 Friction Loss
10. •The shear stress of a flow is also dependent on whether the flow is turbulent or laminar. •For turbulent flow, the pressure drop is dependent on the roughness of the surface. •In laminar flow, the roughness effects of the wall are negligible because, in turbulent flow, a thin viscous layer is formed near the pipe surface that causes a loss in energy, while in laminar flow, this viscous layer is non-existent. 6/10/2015 11 Friction Loss
11. Frictional head losses are losses due to shear stress on the pipe walls. The general equation for head loss due to friction is the Darcy-Weisbach equation, which is where f = Darcy-Weisbach friction factor, L = length of pipe, D = pipe diameter, and V = cross sectional average flow velocity.
This document defines and compares three types of boundary layer thickness:
1. Boundary layer thickness is the distance from the surface where the flow velocity is 99% of the free-stream velocity.
2. Displacement thickness is a theoretical thickness where displacing the surface would result in equal flow rates across sections inside and outside the boundary layer.
3. Momentum thickness is a measure of boundary layer thickness defined as the distance the surface would need to be displaced to compensate for the reduction in momentum due to the boundary layer. It is often used to determine drag on an object.
This document discusses dimensional analysis and its applications. It begins with an introduction to dimensions, units, fundamental and derived dimensions. It then discusses dimensional homogeneity, methods of dimensional analysis including Rayleigh's method and Buckingham's π-theorem. The document also covers model analysis, similitude, model laws, model and prototype relations. It provides examples of applying Rayleigh's method and Buckingham's π-theorem to define relationships between variables. Finally, it discusses different types of forces acting on fluids and dimensionless numbers, and provides model laws for Reynolds, Froude, Euler and Weber numbers.
This document discusses key concepts in fluid kinematics and dynamics. It defines streamlines, pathlines, and streaklines as field lines that describe the motion of fluid particles. Streamlines show instantaneous velocity, pathlines show trajectories over time, and streaklines show where particles have passed. The document also classifies fluid flows as steady or unsteady, uniform or non-uniform, laminar or turbulent, rotational or irrotational, and one, two, or three-dimensional. Finally, it discusses momentum equations and their application to forces on pipe bends, as well as Bernoulli's theorem.
This document discusses laminar and turbulent fluid flow in pipes. It defines the Reynolds number and explains that laminar flow occurs at Re < 2000, transitional flow from 2000 to 4000, and turbulent flow over 4000. The entrance length for developing pipe flow profiles is discussed. Fully developed laminar and turbulent pipe flows are compared. Equations are provided for average velocity, shear stress at the wall, and pressure drop based on conservation of momentum and energy analyses. The Darcy friction factor is defined, and methods for calculating it for laminar and turbulent flows are explained, including the Moody chart. Types of pipe flow problems and accounting for minor losses and pipe networks are also summarized.
This document provides an overview of fluid mechanics concepts related to flow through pipes. It discusses different types of head losses that can occur through pipes including major losses due to friction and minor losses due to fittings. It also covers topics such as hydraulic grade line, pipes in series and parallel, syphons, power transmission through pipes, flow through nozzles, and water hammer effects in pipes.
1. The chapter discusses momentum and forces in fluid flow, including the development of the momentum principle using Newton's second law and the impulse-momentum principle.
2. The momentum equation is developed for two-dimensional and three-dimensional flow through a control volume, accounting for forces, velocities, flow rates, and momentum correction factors.
3. Examples of applying the momentum equation are presented, including forces on bends, nozzles, jets, and vanes.
Flow Through Orifices, Orifice, Types of Orifice according to Shape Size Edge Discharge, Jet, Venacontracta, Hydraulic Coefficients, Coefficient of Contraction,Coefficient of Velocity, Coefficient of Discharge, Coefficient of Resistance, Hydraulic Coefficients by Experimental Method, Discharge Through a Small rectangular orifice, Discharge Through a Large rectangular orifice, Discharge Through a Fully Drowned orifice, Discharge Through Partially Drowned orifice, Mouthpiece and its types. By Engr. M. Jalal Sarwar
This document provides an overview of turbulent fluid flow, including:
1) Turbulent flow occurs when the Reynolds number is greater than 2000 and involves irregular, random movement of fluid particles in all directions.
2) The magnitude and intensity of turbulence can be calculated based on the root mean square of turbulent fluctuations and the average flow velocity.
3) The Moody diagram relates the friction factor to the Reynolds number and relative roughness of a pipe to characterize head losses in turbulent pipe flow.
Fluid mechanics is the study of fluids and forces on them. The history dates back to Ancient Greeks like Archimedes who developed the law of buoyancy. Islamic physicists in the 11th century were the first to apply experimental methods to fluid statics. In the 17th century, Blaise Pascal and Isaac Newton made important contributions and established hydrostatics as a science. Leonhard Euler applied calculus to fluid motion equations. In the 19th century, Hermann von Helmholtz established laws of vortex motion. Real-life applications include Bernoulli's principle in aerodynamics and hydraulics.
- Dimensional analysis is a technique used to determine the relationship between variables in a physical phenomenon based on their dimensions and units.
- It allows reducing the number of variables needed to describe a phenomenon through the use of dimensionless parameters known as π terms.
- Lord Rayleigh and Buckingham developed systematic methods for dimensional analysis. Buckingham's π-method involves identifying all variables, their dimensions, and grouping them into as many dimensionless π terms as needed to describe the phenomenon.
The document discusses physical hydraulic model testing of structures. It provides an outline for a one-day training on the topic. The training will cover:
- What hydraulic structures are and why physical testing is conducted
- The hydraulic design procedure and testing options
- Conducting a SWOT analysis of physical model testing
It will also cover the theoretical background of physical modeling, including similitude laws and dimensionless numbers. A practical exercise on computing model dimensions is included. The training will conclude with a case study of physical model testing conducted for the Diamer Basha Dam project in Pakistan.
This document discusses key concepts in fluid dynamics, including:
(i) Fluid kinematics describes fluid motion without forces/energies, examining geometry of motion through concepts like streamlines and pathlines.
(ii) Fluids can flow steadily or unsteadily, uniformly or non-uniformly, laminarly or turbulently depending on properties of the flow and fluid.
(iii) The continuity equation states that mass flow rate remains constant for an incompressible, steady flow through a control volume according to the principle of conservation of mass.
This document provides an overview of fluid kinematics. It defines fluid kinematics as the study of fluid motion without considering pressure forces. It describes Lagrangian and Eulerian methods for analyzing fluid flow, and defines different types of flows including steady/unsteady, uniform/non-uniform, laminar/turbulent, compressible/incompressible, rotational/irrotational, and one-dimensional/two-dimensional/three-dimensional flows. It also discusses flow visualization techniques like streamlines, pathlines, and streaklines.
The document discusses dimensional analysis, similitude, and model analysis. It provides background on how dimensional analysis and model testing are used to study fluid mechanics problems. Dimensional analysis uses the dimensions of physical quantities to determine which parameters influence a phenomenon. Model testing in a laboratory allows measurements to be applied to larger scale systems using similitude. Buckingham's π-theorem is introduced as a way to non-dimensionalize variables when there are more variables than fundamental dimensions. Rayleigh's and Buckingham's methods are demonstrated on an example of determining the resisting force on an aircraft.
This document provides an overview of boundary layer concepts and laminar and turbulent pipe flow. It defines boundary layer thickness, displacement thickness, and momentum thickness. It describes how boundary layers develop on surfaces and transition from laminar to turbulent. It also discusses Reynolds number effects, momentum integral estimates for flat plates, and examples calculating boundary layer thickness in air and water flow. Finally, it introduces concepts of laminar and turbulent pipe flow.
1) Compressible flow is when the density of a fluid changes during flow, such as gases. Incompressible flow assumes constant density, such as liquids.
2) Examples of compressible flow include gases through nozzles, compressors, high-speed projectiles and planes, and water hammer.
3) Bernoulli's equation relates pressure, temperature, and specific volume and only applies to steady, incompressible flow without friction losses along a single streamline.
1) The document discusses fluid kinematics, which deals with the motion of fluids without considering the forces that create motion. It covers topics like velocity fields, acceleration fields, control volumes, and flow visualization techniques.
2) There are two main descriptions of fluid motion - Lagrangian, which follows individual particles, and Eulerian, which observes the flow at fixed points in space. Most practical analysis uses the Eulerian description.
3) The Reynolds Transport Theorem allows equations written for a fluid system to be applied to a fixed control volume, which is useful for analyzing forces on objects in a flow. It relates the time rate of change of an extensive property within the control volume to surface fluxes and the property accumulation.
Properties of Fluids, Fluid Static, Buoyancy and Dimensional AnalysisSatish Taji
The presentation includes a brief view of the basic properties of a fluid, fluid statics, Pascal's law, hydrostatic law, fluid classification, pressure measurement devices (manometers and mechanical gauges), hydrostatic forces on different surfaces, buoyancy and metacentric height, and dimensional analysis.
Unit 6 discusses losses in pipes, including major and minor losses. Major losses are due to friction and calculated using Darcy-Weisbach or Chezy's formulas. Minor losses are due to changes in pipe direction, size, or obstructions and are also calculated using specific formulas. The document also discusses equivalent pipes, pipes in series, pipes in parallel, and two and three reservoir pipe flow analysis problems. Head losses are calculated using friction and minor loss formulas, and continuity and energy equations are used to analyze pipe flows.
This document discusses open channel flow and its various types. It defines open channel flow as flow with a free surface driven by gravity. It describes four main types of open channel flows:
1. Steady and unsteady flow
2. Uniform and non-uniform flow
3. Laminar and turbulent flow
4. Sub-critical, critical, and super-critical flow
It also discusses discharge equations for open channels including Chezy's formula, Manning's formula, and Bazin's formula. Finally, it covers specific energy, critical depth, and the hydraulic jump in open channel flow.
Head losses
Major Losses
Minor Losses
Definition • Dimensional Analysis • Types • Darcy Weisbech Equation • Major Losses • Minor Losses • Causes Head Losses
3. • Head loss is loss of energy per unit weight. • Head = Energy of Fluid / Weight • Head losses can be – Kinetic Head – Potential Head – Pressure Head 6/10/2015 4Danial Gondal Head Loss
4. • Kinetic Head – K.H. = kinetic energy / Weight = v² /2g • Potential Head – P.H = Potential Energy / Weight = mgz /mg = z • Pressure Head – P.H = P/ ρ g 6/10/2015 5
5. • (P/ ρ g) + (v² /2g ) + (z) = constant • (FL-2F-1L3LT-2L-1T2) + (L2T-2L1T2)+(L) = constant • (L) + (L) + (L) = constant • As L represent height so it is dimensionally L. 6/10/2015 6 Dimensional Analysis
6. • However the equation (P/ ρ g) + (v² /2g ) + (z) = constant Is valid for Bernoulli's Inviscid flow case. As we are studying viscous flow so (P1/ ρ g) + (v1² /2g ) + (z1) = EGL1(Energy Grade Line At point 1) (P2/ ρ g) + (v2² /2g ) + (z2) = EGL2(Energy Grade Line At point 2) 6/10/2015 7 Head Loss
7. • For Inviscid Flow EGL1 - EGL2= 0 • For Viscous Flow EGL1 - EGL2= Hf 6/10/2015 8 Head Loss
8. MAJOR LOSSES IN PIPES
9. •Friction loss is the loss of energy or “head” that occurs in pipe flow due to viscous effects generated by the surface of the pipe. • Friction Loss is considered as a "major loss" •In mechanical systems such as internal combustion engines, it refers to the power lost overcoming the friction between two moving surfaces. •This energy drop is dependent on the wall shear stress (τ) between the fluid and pipe surface. 6/10/2015 10 Friction Loss
10. •The shear stress of a flow is also dependent on whether the flow is turbulent or laminar. •For turbulent flow, the pressure drop is dependent on the roughness of the surface. •In laminar flow, the roughness effects of the wall are negligible because, in turbulent flow, a thin viscous layer is formed near the pipe surface that causes a loss in energy, while in laminar flow, this viscous layer is non-existent. 6/10/2015 11 Friction Loss
11. Frictional head losses are losses due to shear stress on the pipe walls. The general equation for head loss due to friction is the Darcy-Weisbach equation, which is where f = Darcy-Weisbach friction factor, L = length of pipe, D = pipe diameter, and V = cross sectional average flow velocity.
This document defines and compares three types of boundary layer thickness:
1. Boundary layer thickness is the distance from the surface where the flow velocity is 99% of the free-stream velocity.
2. Displacement thickness is a theoretical thickness where displacing the surface would result in equal flow rates across sections inside and outside the boundary layer.
3. Momentum thickness is a measure of boundary layer thickness defined as the distance the surface would need to be displaced to compensate for the reduction in momentum due to the boundary layer. It is often used to determine drag on an object.
This document discusses dimensional analysis and its applications. It begins with an introduction to dimensions, units, fundamental and derived dimensions. It then discusses dimensional homogeneity, methods of dimensional analysis including Rayleigh's method and Buckingham's π-theorem. The document also covers model analysis, similitude, model laws, model and prototype relations. It provides examples of applying Rayleigh's method and Buckingham's π-theorem to define relationships between variables. Finally, it discusses different types of forces acting on fluids and dimensionless numbers, and provides model laws for Reynolds, Froude, Euler and Weber numbers.
This document discusses key concepts in fluid kinematics and dynamics. It defines streamlines, pathlines, and streaklines as field lines that describe the motion of fluid particles. Streamlines show instantaneous velocity, pathlines show trajectories over time, and streaklines show where particles have passed. The document also classifies fluid flows as steady or unsteady, uniform or non-uniform, laminar or turbulent, rotational or irrotational, and one, two, or three-dimensional. Finally, it discusses momentum equations and their application to forces on pipe bends, as well as Bernoulli's theorem.
This document discusses laminar and turbulent fluid flow in pipes. It defines the Reynolds number and explains that laminar flow occurs at Re < 2000, transitional flow from 2000 to 4000, and turbulent flow over 4000. The entrance length for developing pipe flow profiles is discussed. Fully developed laminar and turbulent pipe flows are compared. Equations are provided for average velocity, shear stress at the wall, and pressure drop based on conservation of momentum and energy analyses. The Darcy friction factor is defined, and methods for calculating it for laminar and turbulent flows are explained, including the Moody chart. Types of pipe flow problems and accounting for minor losses and pipe networks are also summarized.
This document provides an overview of fluid mechanics concepts related to flow through pipes. It discusses different types of head losses that can occur through pipes including major losses due to friction and minor losses due to fittings. It also covers topics such as hydraulic grade line, pipes in series and parallel, syphons, power transmission through pipes, flow through nozzles, and water hammer effects in pipes.
1. The chapter discusses momentum and forces in fluid flow, including the development of the momentum principle using Newton's second law and the impulse-momentum principle.
2. The momentum equation is developed for two-dimensional and three-dimensional flow through a control volume, accounting for forces, velocities, flow rates, and momentum correction factors.
3. Examples of applying the momentum equation are presented, including forces on bends, nozzles, jets, and vanes.
Flow Through Orifices, Orifice, Types of Orifice according to Shape Size Edge Discharge, Jet, Venacontracta, Hydraulic Coefficients, Coefficient of Contraction,Coefficient of Velocity, Coefficient of Discharge, Coefficient of Resistance, Hydraulic Coefficients by Experimental Method, Discharge Through a Small rectangular orifice, Discharge Through a Large rectangular orifice, Discharge Through a Fully Drowned orifice, Discharge Through Partially Drowned orifice, Mouthpiece and its types. By Engr. M. Jalal Sarwar
This document provides an overview of turbulent fluid flow, including:
1) Turbulent flow occurs when the Reynolds number is greater than 2000 and involves irregular, random movement of fluid particles in all directions.
2) The magnitude and intensity of turbulence can be calculated based on the root mean square of turbulent fluctuations and the average flow velocity.
3) The Moody diagram relates the friction factor to the Reynolds number and relative roughness of a pipe to characterize head losses in turbulent pipe flow.
Fluid mechanics is the study of fluids and forces on them. The history dates back to Ancient Greeks like Archimedes who developed the law of buoyancy. Islamic physicists in the 11th century were the first to apply experimental methods to fluid statics. In the 17th century, Blaise Pascal and Isaac Newton made important contributions and established hydrostatics as a science. Leonhard Euler applied calculus to fluid motion equations. In the 19th century, Hermann von Helmholtz established laws of vortex motion. Real-life applications include Bernoulli's principle in aerodynamics and hydraulics.
- Dimensional analysis is a technique used to determine the relationship between variables in a physical phenomenon based on their dimensions and units.
- It allows reducing the number of variables needed to describe a phenomenon through the use of dimensionless parameters known as π terms.
- Lord Rayleigh and Buckingham developed systematic methods for dimensional analysis. Buckingham's π-method involves identifying all variables, their dimensions, and grouping them into as many dimensionless π terms as needed to describe the phenomenon.
The document discusses physical hydraulic model testing of structures. It provides an outline for a one-day training on the topic. The training will cover:
- What hydraulic structures are and why physical testing is conducted
- The hydraulic design procedure and testing options
- Conducting a SWOT analysis of physical model testing
It will also cover the theoretical background of physical modeling, including similitude laws and dimensionless numbers. A practical exercise on computing model dimensions is included. The training will conclude with a case study of physical model testing conducted for the Diamer Basha Dam project in Pakistan.
Similitude and Dimensional Analysis -Hydraulics engineering Civil Zone
This document discusses similitude and dimensional analysis for model testing in hydraulic engineering. It introduces key concepts like similitude, prototype, model, geometric similarity, kinematic similarity, dynamic similarity, dimensionless numbers, and model laws. Reynolds model law is described in detail, which states that the Reynolds number must be equal between the model and prototype for problems dominated by viscous forces, such as pipe flow. An example problem demonstrates how to calculate the velocity and flow rate in a hydraulic model based on given prototype parameters and Reynolds model law.
Dimensional analysis is a mathematical technique used to solve engineering problems by studying dimensions. It relies on the principle that dimensionally homogeneous equations will have identical powers of fundamental dimensions (mass, length, time, etc.) on both sides. There are two main methods: Rayleigh's method determines relationships between variables based on dimensional homogeneity. Buckingham's π-theorem determines the minimum number of dimensionless groups needed to describe a phenomenon with multiple variables. Model analysis uses scaled models and dimensional analysis to predict the performance of full-scale structures before being built. Complete similitude between a model and prototype, including geometric, kinematic, and dynamic similarity, allows test results from the model to accurately represent the prototype.
The document provides an overview of dimensional analysis and its applications in fluid mechanics. Dimensional analysis is a tool used to correlate analytical and experimental results and predict prototype behavior from model measurements. It involves identifying the fundamental dimensions of variables (e.g. mass, length, time) and establishing dimensionless relationships between variables using methods like Rayleigh's or Buckingham's π-theorem. Dimensional analysis is important for model analysis where dynamic similarity between a model and prototype must be achieved. The document discusses different model laws used to design models for similarity based on dominant forces like viscosity, gravity, etc. It also provides scale ratios required for geometric, kinematic and dynamic similarity.
008a (PPT) Dim Analysis & Similitude.pdfhappycocoman
This document discusses dimensional analysis and similitude. It defines dimensional analysis as the study of relations between physical quantities based on their units and dimensions. Dimensional analysis involves identifying the base quantities like length, mass, time that physical quantities are measured in. Dimensional analysis is useful for checking equations for dimensional homogeneity and developing scaling laws. The document discusses Rayleigh's and Buckingham π theorem methods of dimensional analysis. It also discusses the three types of similitude required for model analysis: geometric, kinematic and dynamic similitude. Finally, it defines several common dimensionless numbers like Reynolds number, Froude number, Euler number, Weber number and Mach number in terms of dominant forces.
The document discusses dimensional analysis and modeling. It covers:
1) The seven primary dimensions used in physics - mass, length, time, temperature, current, amount of light, and amount of matter. All other dimensions can be formed from combinations of these.
2) Dimensional homogeneity, which requires that every term in an equation must have the same dimensions.
3) Nondimensionalization, which involves dividing terms by variables and constants to render the equation dimensionless. This produces dimensionless parameters like the Reynolds and Froude numbers.
4) Similarity between models and prototypes in experiments, which requires geometric, kinematic, and dynamic similarity achieved by matching dimensionless groups.
This document provides information about dimensional analysis and model studies in fluid mechanics. It defines dimensional analysis as a technique that uses the study of dimensions to help solve engineering problems. Buckingham π theorem is discussed, which states that physical phenomena with n variables can be expressed in terms of n-m dimensionless terms, where m is the number of fundamental dimensions. Several model laws are defined, including Reynolds, Froude, Euler, and Weber laws. Hydraulic models are classified as undistorted or distorted, and scale effects are discussed.
The document discusses properties of fluids and dimensional analysis. It covers 10 key properties of fluids including mass density, specific weight, specific volume, viscosity, and surface tension. It provides definitions, formulas, values and units for each property. It also discusses how properties vary with temperature and pressure. Dimensional analysis techniques like Rayleigh's method and Buckingham π-theorem are explained along with their applications. Model analysis and different types of similarities (geometric, kinematic, dynamic) are defined. Finally, the document discusses fluid statics topics like pressure measurement devices, hydrostatic forces, and buoyancy.
The document discusses dimensional analysis and Buckingham Pi theorem. It begins by defining dimensions, units, and fundamental vs. derived dimensions. It then discusses dimensional homogeneity and uses examples to show how dimensional analysis can be used to identify non-dimensional parameters and reduce the number of variables in equations. The Buckingham Pi theorem is introduced as a method to systematically create dimensionless pi terms from physical variables. Steps of the theorem and examples applying it are provided. Overall, the document provides an overview of dimensional analysis and Buckingham Pi theorem as tools for understanding relationships between physical quantities and reducing complexity in experimental modeling.
This document discusses dimensional analysis and its applications in fluid mechanics. Dimensional analysis uses dimensions and units to develop dimensionless parameters called Pi terms that relate variables in a system. The Buckingham Pi theorem states that any equation with k variables can be written in terms of k-r independent Pi terms, where r is the minimum number of fundamental dimensions needed to describe the variables. Examples show how to identify the relevant Pi terms for problems and how these terms allow experimental data with different scales to be correlated through a single relationship. Dimensional analysis and similitude are useful for modeling prototypes from scaled down models when the key dimensionless groups match between the two.
This document describes a numerical study of flow and energy dissipation in stepped spillways using the FLUENT software. Two stepped spillway models with 5 and 10 steps were analyzed for different flow rates. The k-ε turbulence model and volume of fluid method were used to model turbulence and free surface flow. Numerical results for flow patterns, velocities, and energy dissipation were compared to experimental data from other studies, showing good agreement with errors less than 2%. The results indicate that increasing the flow rate or number of steps reduces energy dissipation, while decreasing step height or length also reduces dissipation.
This document discusses dimensional analysis and model analysis. It begins by introducing dimensional analysis as a technique that uses the dimensions of physical quantities to understand phenomena. It then describes the two types of dimensions: fundamental dimensions like length, time, and mass, and secondary dimensions that are combinations of fundamental ones, like velocity.
It presents the methodology of dimensional analysis, which requires equations to be dimensionally homogeneous. Two common methods are described: Rayleigh's method and Buckingham's pi-theorem. Rayleigh's method can be used for up to 4 variables while Buckingham's pi-theorem groups variables into dimensionless pi-terms. Model analysis is introduced as an experimental method using scale models, and the importance of similitude or
This document discusses dimensional analysis and dimensionless numbers that are important in fluid mechanics. It defines Reynolds number, Froude number, Euler number, Weber number, and Mach number. It explains how dimensional analysis can help reduce the number of variables in experimental investigations. It also discusses similitude and the different types of model testing including undistorted and distorted models. The key uses and advantages of model testing are outlined.
lab 4 requermenrt.pdf
MECH202 – Fluid Mechanics – 2015 Lab 4
Fluid Friction Loss
Introduction
In this experiment you will investigate the relationship between head loss due to fluid friction and
velocity for flow of water through both smooth and rough pipes. To do this you will:
1) Express the mathematical relationship between head loss and flow velocity
2) Compare measured and calculated head losses
3) Estimate unknown pipe roughness
Background
When a fluid is flowing through a pipe, it experiences some resistance due to shear stresses, which
converts some of its energy into unwanted heat. Energy loss through friction is referred to as “head
loss due to friction” and is a function of the; pipe length, pipe diameter, mean flow velocity,
properties of the fluid and roughness of the pipe (the later only being a factor for turbulent flows),
but is independent of pressure under with which the water flows. Mathematically, for a turbulent
flow, this can be expressed as:
hL=f
L
D
V
2
2 g
(Eq.1)
where
hL = Head loss due to friction (m)
f = Friction factor
L = Length of pipe (m)
V = Average flow velocity (m/s)
g = Gravitational acceleration (m/s^2)
Friction head losses in straight pipes of different sizes can be investigated over a wide range of
Reynolds' numbers to cover the laminar, transitional, and turbulent flow regimes in smooth pipes. A
further test pipe is artificially roughened and, at the higher Reynolds' numbers, shows a clear
departure from typical smooth bore pipe characteristics.
Experiment 4: Fluid Friction Loss
The head loss and flow velocity can also be expressed as:
1) hL∝V −whe n flow islaminar
2) hL∝V
n
−whe n flow isturbulent
where hL is the head loss due to friction and V is the fluid velocity. These two types of flow are
seperated by a trasition phase where no definite relationship between hL and V exist. Graphs
of hL −V and log (hL) − log (V ) are shown in Figure 1,
Figure 1. Relationship between hL ( expressed by h) and V ( expressed by u ) ;
as well as log (hL) and log ( V )
Experiment 4: Fluid Friction Loss
Experimental Apparatus
In Figure 2, the fluid friction apparatus is shown on the right while the Hydraulic bench that
supplies the water to the fluid friction apparatus is shown on the left. The flow rate that the
hydraulic bench provides can be measured by measuring the time required to collect a known
volume.
Figure 2. Experimental Apparatus
Experimental Procedure
1) Prime the pipe network with water by running the system until no air appears to be discharging
from the fluid friction apparatus.
2) Open and close the appropriate valves to obtain water flow through the required test pipe, the four
lowest pipes of the fluid friction apparatus will be used for this experiment. From the bottom to the
top, these are; the rough pipe with large diameter and then smooth pipes with three successively
smaller diameters.
3) Measure head loss ...
This document summarizes a numerical study on free-surface flow conducted using a computational fluid dynamics (CFD) solver. The study examines the wave profile generated by a submerged hydrofoil through several test cases varying parameters like the turbulence model, grid resolution, and hydrofoil depth. The document provides background on the governing equations solved by the CFD solver and the interface capturing technique used to model the free surface. Five test cases are described that investigate grid convergence, the impact of laminar vs turbulent models, the relationship between hydrofoil depth and wave height, and the effect of discretization schemes.
Unit 5 Open Channel flowUnit 5 Open Channel flowUnit 5 Open Channel flowUnit 5 Open Channel flowUnit 5 Open Channel flowUnit 5 Open Channel flowUnit 5 Open Channel flowUnit 5 Open Channel flow
Buoyancy and flotation _ forces on immersed bodyR A Shah
Buoyancy
Buoyancy and Hydro static Forces on immersed bodies
Stability of Floating and Submerged Bodies
Meta-centre
Meta-centric height
Forces on Areas –Horizontal, Inclined and Vertical,
Centre of Pressure, Forces on Curved Surfaces,
Examples
Plain scale and Diagonal Scale Engineering GraphicsR A Shah
This document discusses different types of scales used in engineering graphics for reducing or enlarging dimensions of objects to draw them accurately on a drawing sheet. It describes plain scales which use a line divided into equal units to measure two dimensions, such as meters and decimeters. It provides examples of how to construct plain scales with given reduction factors (R.F.) and measure distances on them. Diagonal scales are also introduced which allow measuring three dimensions on a single scale. Several problems are presented on constructing plain and diagonal scales meeting given criteria and measuring specific distances on them.
Terms Used in Governors
Height of a governor, Equilibrium speed, Sleeve lift
Performance of Governors
Sensitiveness , Stability, Hunting, Isochronism, Governor Effort, Power
Types, Application, Function
With sketch explain construction working of
1.watt Governor
2.Porter governor
3.Proell Governor
4.Harnell Governor
Numerical Problems
Comparison of Flywheel and Governor
MCQs
The document describes constructing a diagonal scale with a representative fraction (RF) of 1/500 to measure distances in meters and decimeters up to a maximum of 80 meters. It provides instructions to make a scale 16 cm long based on the given RF and maximum measurement. An example is then given to measure a distance of 47.8 meters using the new scale.
Synthesis of Mechanism
Theory of Machine
Introduction of synthesis
Types of synthesis
Synthesis of a four bar chain
Freudenstein’s equation for four bar mechanism
Precision point for function generator
(Chebychev spacing method)
Bloch method
Transportation Method
Initial Basic Feasible Solution-IBFS
North West Corner Method--NWCM ,
Least Cost Method--LCM and
Vogel’s Approximation Method--VAM
Optimality Test using Modified Distribution Method-MODI method.
Variation in transportation
Unbalance Supply and Demand
Degeneracy and its resolution
Maximization Problem
GAME THEORY
Terminology
Example : Game with Saddle point
Dominance Rules: (Theory-Example)
Arithmetic method – Example
Algebraic method - Example
Matrix method - Example
Graphical method - Example
This document discusses plain scales used in engineering graphics. Plain scales allow measurement of distances and consist of a line divided into equal units. There are two types of plain scales - those that reduce dimensions for smaller drawings and those that enlarge dimensions for drawings of tiny objects. Formulas are provided to calculate the scale ratio and length of a plain scale based on the maximum distance to be measured. Several example problems are included showing how to construct plain scales to specified scale ratios and measurement needs.
The document discusses replacement theory in operations research. It describes individual and group replacement policies. For individual replacement, it provides an example of determining when to replace a machine based on comparing average total costs between years. For group replacement, it gives an example of determining the optimal time interval to replace all light bulbs based on failure rates and comparing total replacement costs. The optimal time was found to be every 3 weeks for the light bulbs.
The document discusses inventory control and economic order quantity. It begins by introducing inventory control concepts like holding costs and inventory decisions. It then derives the equation for economic order quantity (EOQ), which is the order size that minimizes total annual inventory costs. EOQ balances ordering costs, which increase with more frequent smaller orders, and holding costs, which increase with larger less frequent orders. The document provides examples of how to calculate EOQ given annual demand and ordering and holding costs. It concludes by mentioning ABC analysis, which classifies inventory items into A, B and C categories based on their value and turnover to prioritize inventory management efforts.
This document discusses solving assignment problems using the Hungarian method. It provides an 8-step process for solving both balanced and unbalanced assignment problems to minimize or maximize the objective. For balanced problems, the steps include reducing the matrix, finding possible assignments based on zeros, and covering and updating the matrix if no optimal solution is found. For unbalanced problems, dummy rows or columns are added to create a balanced matrix before applying the same steps. Examples demonstrate solving both minimization and maximization problems.
This document discusses cams and followers. It begins by defining a cam as a mechanical device that transmits motion to a follower by direct contact. Cams are commonly used in automobile engines to open and close valves. The document then covers terminology used in cams such as base circle, trace point, and pitch curve. It classifies followers based on shape (knife edge, roller, flat faced) and motion (reciprocating, oscillating). Different types of follower motion such as simple harmonic and constant velocity are also described. Several problems are presented involving constructing cam profiles for given follower specifications and motions.
Data Communication and Computer Networks Management System Project Report.pdfKamal Acharya
Networking is a telecommunications network that allows computers to exchange data. In
computer networks, networked computing devices pass data to each other along data
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established using either cable media or wireless media.
Covid Management System Project Report.pdfKamal Acharya
CoVID-19 sprang up in Wuhan China in November 2019 and was declared a pandemic by the in January 2020 World Health Organization (WHO). Like the Spanish flu of 1918 that claimed millions of lives, the COVID-19 has caused the demise of thousands with China, Italy, Spain, USA and India having the highest statistics on infection and mortality rates. Regardless of existing sophisticated technologies and medical science, the spread has continued to surge high. With this COVID-19 Management System, organizations can respond virtually to the COVID-19 pandemic and protect, educate and care for citizens in the community in a quick and effective manner. This comprehensive solution not only helps in containing the virus but also proactively empowers both citizens and care providers to minimize the spread of the virus through targeted strategies and education.
Cricket management system ptoject report.pdfKamal Acharya
The aim of this project is to provide the complete information of the National and
International statistics. The information is available country wise and player wise. By
entering the data of eachmatch, we can get all type of reports instantly, which will be
useful to call back history of each player. Also the team performance in each match can
be obtained. We can get a report on number of matches, wins and lost.
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My Airframe Metallic Design Capability Studies..pdf
Dimensional analysis Similarity laws Model laws
1. MAIN TOPICS
Rayleigh's method- Theory and Examples
Buckingham Pi Theorem- Theory and Examples
Model and Similitude
Forces on Fluid
Dimensionless Numbers
Model laws
Distorted models
Chapter :
Dimensional Analysis, Similitude, and Model laws
Fluid Mechanics
2. Mass, Length ,Time are
fundamental Quantities.
Derived quantities
possess more than one
fundamental dimensions
3. Rayleigh's method of dimensional analysis is a conceptual tool used in an
engineering. This form of dimensional analysis expresses a functional
relationship of some variables in the form of an exponential equation.
Question : RAYLEIGH’S METHOD Steps
Step 1:
Establish relationship between dependent and independent variable.
Step2:
Setup an equation between dependent and independent variable. The
dependent variable is expressed as a product of all the independent variables
raised to unknown integer exponents. (a,b,c,d….. are unknown integer
exponents)
4. Step 3:
Form a tabular column representing the variables in the equation, their units
and dimensions.
Step 4:
Use the dimension in step 3 to obtain the unknown value a,b,c,d,…. in step 2
by using the principles of dimensional homogeneity of the variables.
Step 5:
Substitute the unknown values of a,b,c,d… in the equation which was formed
in step 2.
5. Example.1:
Find the expression for the drag force on smooth sphere of
diameter D, moving with a uniform velocity V in a fluid of density
ρ and dynamic viscosity µ. Apply RAYLEIGH’S METHOD
Solution:
so we have a smooth sphere of diameter D and this sphere is
thrown into a fluid with a velocity V. The fluid has a density ρ and
viscosity μ. as the sphere moves through the fluid there will be a
generation of drag force F “force which is against the motion of
the sphere”. so we understand that the drag force F depends on
D,V,ρ and μ.
11. Example.2 : Find the expression for time period of a simple pendulum. Time
period T depends on length of pendulum L and g. Apply RAYLEIGH’S METHOD
The time period of a simple pendulum:
It is defined as the time taken by the pendulum to finish one full oscillation and
is denoted by “T”
12. Example. 3 : Find the expression for power P developed by pump which
depends on Head H, Discharge Q and specific weight ω of fluid.
Apply RAYLEIGH’S METHOD
13.
14. Question : Buckingham’s Pi Theorem
The dimensions in the previous examples are analyzed using Rayleigh's
Method.
Alternatively, the relationship between the variables can be obtained
through a method called Buckingham's π theorem.
Buckingham ' s Pi theorem states that: If there are n variables in a problem
and these variables contain m primary dimensions (for example M, L, T) the
equation relating all the variables will have (n-m) dimensionless groups.
Buckingham referred to these groups as π groups.
The final equation obtained is in the form of : π1 = f(π2, π3 ,….. πn-m )
15. Steps of Buckingham’s Pi Theorem
Step 1: List all the variables that are involved in the problem.
Step 2: Express each of the variables in terms of basic dimensions.
Step 3: Determine the required number of pi terms.
Step 4: Select a number of repeating variables, where the number required is
equal to the number of reference dimensions.
Step 5: Form a pi term by multiplying one of the non repeating variables by
the product of the repeating variables, each raised to an exponent that will
make the combination dimensionless.
Step 6: Repeat Step 5 for each of the remaining non repeating variables.
Step 7: Check all the resulting pi terms to make sure they are dimensionless.
Step 8: Express the final form as a relationship among the pi terms, and think
about what it means.
16. METHODS OF SELECTING REPEATING VARIABLES
The number of repeating variables are equal to number of fundamental dimensions
of the problem. The choice of repeating variables is governed by following
considerations;
1. • As far as possible, dependent variable should not be selected as repeating
variable
2. • The repeating variables should be chosen in such a way that one variable
contains geometric property, other contains flow property and third contains fluid
property
3. • The repeating variables selected should form a dimensionless group
4. • The repeating variables together must contain all three fundamental dimension
i.e., MLT
5. • No two repeating variables should have the same dimensions.
Note: In most of fluid mechanics problems, the choice of repeating variables may be
(i) d, v, , (ii) l, v, or (iii) d, v, μ.
24. Example 5:
A thin rectangular plate having a width w and a height h is located so that it
is normal to a moving stream of fluid.
Assume that the drag, D, that the fluid exerts on the plate is a function of w
and h, the fluid viscosity, μ ,and ρ, respectively, and the velocity, V, of the
fluid approaching the plate. Determine a suitable set of pi terms to study
this problem experimentally.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30. The resisting force R of a supersonic plane during flight can be considered as
dependent upon the length of the aircraft l, velocity V, air viscosity μ, air
density , and bulk modulus of air k. Express the functional relationship
between the variables and the resisting force.
Example 6:
31.
32.
33.
34. Question : SIMILITUDE AND MODEL ANALYSIS
Similitude is a concept used in testing of Engineering Models.
Usually, it is impossible to obtain a pure theoretical solution of hydraulic
phenomenon.
Therefore, experimental investigations are often performed on small scale
models, called model analysis.
A few examples, where models may be used are ships in towing basins, air
planes in wind tunnel, hydraulic turbines, centrifugal pumps, spillways of
dams, river channels etc and to study such phenomenon as the action of
waves and tides on beaches, soil erosion, and transportation of sediment
etc.
36. Model Analysis is actually an experimental method of finding solutions
of complex flow problems
The followings are the advantages of the model analysis
• Using dimensional analysis, a relationship between the variables influencing a
flow problem is obtained which help in conducting tests
• The performance of the hydraulic structure can be predicted in advance from its
model
• The merits of alternative design can be predicted with the help of model
analysis to adopt most economical, and safe design
Note: Test performed on models can be utilized for obtaining, in advance, useful
information about the performance of the prototype only if a complete similarity
exits between the model and the prototype
37. SIMILITUDE-TYPE OF SIMILARITIES
Similitude is defined as similarity between the model and prototype in
every respect, which mean model and prototype have similar properties or
model and prototype are completely similar.
Three types of similarities must exist between model and prototype.
• Geometric Similarity
• Kinematic Similarity
• Dynamic Similarity
38. Geometric Similarity:
is the similarity of shape. It is said to exist between model and prototype if
ratio of all the corresponding linear dimensions in the model and prototype
are equal. e.g.
Note: Models are generally prepared with same scale ratios in every
direction. Such models are called true models. However, sometimes it is not
possible to do so and different convenient scales are used in different
directions. Thus, such models are called distorted model
39. Kinematic Similarity: is the similarity of motion. It is said to exist between
model and prototype if ratio of velocities and acceleration at the
corresponding points in the model and prototype are equal.
40. Dynamic Similarity: is the similarity of forces. It is said to exist between model
and prototype if ratio of forces at the corresponding points in the model and
prototype are equal.
41. For the fluid flow problems, the forces acting on the fluid
mass may be any one, or a combination of the several of
the following forces:
Inertia force,
Viscous force,
Gravity force,
Pressure force,
Surface tension force,
Elastic force,
Question : Forces acting on the fluid
42. Inertia Force (Fi): Fi=ma
It is equal to the product of mass and acceleration of the flowing fluid and
acts in the direction opposite to the direction of acceleration.
It always exists in the fluid flow problems.
Viscous Force (Fv): Fv = τ A = (μ · ∂u/∂y)A
It is equal to the product of shear stress due to viscosity and surface area
of the flow.
It is present in fluid flow problems where viscosity is having an important
role to play.
Gravity Force (Fg): Fg = mg
It is equal to the product of mass and acceleration due to gravity of the
flowing fluid.
It is present in case of open surface flow.
43. Pressure Force (Fp): Fp = pA
It is equal to the product of pressure intensity and cross sectional area of
the flowing fluid.
It is present in case of pipe flow.
Surface Tension Force (Fs): Fs = σL
It is equal to the product of surface tension and length of surface or
flowing fluid.
Elastic Force (Fe): Fe = KL2
It is equal to the product of elastic stress and area of the flowing fluid.
- For a flowing fluid, all the above forces may not always be present. And
also the forces, which are present in a fluid flow problem, are not of equal
magnitude. There are always one or two forces, which dominate the other
forces. These dominating forces govern the flow of fluid.
44. Question : DIMENSIONLESS NUMBERS
Dimensionless numbers are the numbers which are obtained by dividing the
inertia force by viscous force or gravity force or pressure force or surface
tension force or elastic force.
As this is ratio of once force to other, it will be a dimensionless number.
These are also called non-dimensional parameters.
The following are most important dimensionless numbers.
• Reynold’s Number
• Froude’s Number
• Euler’s Number
• Weber’s Number
• Mach Number
45. μ = Dynamic Viscosity
ν = Kinematic Viscosity
Reynold’s Number, Re:
It is the ratio of inertia force to the viscous force of flowing fluid.
46. Froude’s Number, Fe:
It is the ratio of inertia force to the gravity force of flowing fluid.
47. Eulers’s Number, Eu:
It is the ratio of inertia force to the pressure force of flowing fluid.
48. Weber’s Number, We:
It is the ratio of inertia force to the surface tension force of flowing fluid.
49. Mach’s Number, M:
It is the ratio of inertia force to the elastic force of flowing fluid.
50. Question : MODEL LAWS OR SIMILARITY LAWS
We have already learned that for dynamic similarity, ratio of corresponding
forces acting on prototype and model should be equal i.e.
51. However, for practical problems it is seen that one force is most significant
compared to others and is called predominant force or most significant
force.
Thus, for practical problem only the most significant force is considered for
dynamic similarity. Hence, models are designed on the basis of ratio of
force, which is dominating in the phenomenon.
Finally, the laws on which models are designed for dynamic similarity are
called models laws or laws of similarity.
The followings are these laws
I. • Reynold’s Model Law
II. • Froude’s Model Law
III. • Euler’s Model Law
IV. • Weber’s Model Law
V. • Mach Model Law
52. REYNOLD’S MODEL LAW
It is based on Reynold’s number which states that Reynold’s number for
model must be equal to the Reynolds number for prototype.
Reynolds Model Law is used in problems where viscous forces are dominant.
These problems include:
• Pipe Flow
• Resistance experienced by submarines, airplanes, fully immersed bodies
etc
61. FROUDE’S MODEL LAW
It is based on Froude’s number and states that Froude’s number for
model must be equal to the Froude’s number for prototype.
Froude’s Model Law is used in problems where gravity forces is only
dominant to control flow in addition to inertia force. These problems
include:
• Free surface flows such as flow over spillways, weirs, sluices, channels
etc.
• Flow of jet from orifice or nozzle
• Waves on surface of fluid
• Motion of fluids with different viscosities over one another
70. Euler's Model Law: states that Euler's number for model must be equal
to the Euler's number for prototype.
When pressure forces alone are predominant, a model may be taken to be
dynamically similar to the prototype when the ratio of the inertia to the
pressure forces is the same in the model and the prototype.
[Eu]p = [Eu]m
71.
72. Weber’s Model Law : states that Weber's number for model
must be equal to the Weber's number for prototype.
[We]p = [We]m
73.
74. Mach Model Law : states that Mach number for model must be
equal to the Mach number for prototype.
[M]p = [M]m
75. Question : Types of Models
The hydraulic models basically two types as,
1. Undistorted models
2. Distorted models
1.Undistorted model:
This model is geometrical similar to its prototype.
The scale ratio for corresponding linear dimension of the model and its
prototype are same.
The behavior of the prototype can be easily predicted from the result of
these type of model.
76. Advantages of undistorted model
1. The basic condition of perfect geometrical similarity is satisfied.
2. Predication of model is relatively easy.
3. Results obtained from the model tests can be transferred to directly to
the prototype.
Limitations of undistorted models
1. The small vertical dimension of model can not measured accurately.
2. The cost of model may increases due to long horizontal dimension to
obtain geometric similarity.
77. 2.Distorted Models:
This model is not geometrical similar to its prototype the different scale
ratio for linear dimension are adopted.
Distorted models may have following distortions:
Different hydraulic quantities such as velocity, discharge etc
Different materials for the model and prototype.
The main reason for adopting distorted models
To maintain turbulent flow
To minimize cost of models
78. Advantages of distorted models
• Accurate and precise measurement are made possible due to increase
vertical dimension of models.
• Model size can be reduced so its operation is simplified and hence the
cost of model is reduced
Disadvantage of distorted Models
• Depth or height distortion changes wave patterns.
• Slopes, bands and cuts may not properly reproduced in model.
80. Example 1.
The discharge through a weir is 1.5 m3/s. Find the discharge through the
model of weir if the horizontal dimensions of the model=1/50 the horizontal
dimension of prototype and vertical dimension of model =1/10 the vertical
dimension of prototype.
81.
82. A river model is to be constructed to a vertical scale of 1:50 and a horizontal
of 1:200. At the design flood discharge of 450m3/s, the average width and
depth of flow are 60m and 4.2m respectively. Determine the corresponding
discharge in model.
Example 2.
83.
84. Summery of Chapter
Rayleigh's method- Theory and Examples
Buckingham Pi Theorem- Theory and Examples
Model and Similitude
Forces on Fluid
Dimensionless Numbers
Model laws
Distorted models