This document describes different types of descriptive epidemiological study designs including ecological, case reports/series, and cross-sectional studies. It explains that descriptive studies generate hypotheses about associations but do not establish causation. A cross-sectional study example looks at trachoma prevalence between groups with poor and good hygiene. The prevalence of trachoma is higher among those with poor hygiene (13.8%) compared to good hygiene (3.3%), with a prevalence ratio of 4.2, suggesting trachoma may be associated with poor hygiene.
Epidemiology is defined as the study of health and disease in populations. It examines the patterns and causes of disease distribution. Key terms include epidemic, which is a disease rate above normal; endemic, a usual disease rate; and pandemic, a global epidemic. Epidemiology is used to study disease history, assess community health needs, estimate individual disease risk, identify disease causes, and guide prevention efforts. Prevention includes primary prevention to stop disease onset, secondary prevention to halt early disease progression, and tertiary prevention to reduce disability from established disease.
This document outlines different types of epidemiological study designs including observational studies like descriptive studies, analytical studies, ecological studies, cross-sectional studies and case-control studies. It also discusses experimental study designs like randomized controlled trials, field trials and community trials. Key features and steps are provided for case-control studies and cohort studies. Sources of bias and errors in epidemiological studies are also summarized.
A cohort study involves observing a group of individuals over time to examine exposure-outcome relationships. Key characteristics include prospectively following exposed and unexposed groups to compare disease outcomes. Major biases include loss to follow up and misclassification of exposure status. Cohort studies are well-suited for rare exposures and allow examination of multiple outcomes, but require large sample sizes and are time-consuming.
This document discusses cohort studies. A cohort study compares outcomes between groups that differ in their exposure to a risk factor. It involves selecting groups of individuals, measuring their exposure to a risk factor, observing them for a defined outcome, and analyzing any association. The key elements are defining the study question, selecting and measuring exposure in study populations, following up to ascertain outcomes, and analyzing results like incidence rates and relative risks. Cohort studies provide strong evidence but require large sample sizes and long follow-up periods.
Descriptive epidemiological studies are used to:
1. Document the distribution and determinants of health-related events in populations without attempting to infer causality.
2. Describe patterns of disease by person, place, and time to identify potential risk factors and generate hypotheses.
3. Provide baseline data on diseases, health conditions, and their risk factors that can be used to plan interventions and evaluate control programs.
This document provides an overview of epidemiology. It begins by defining epidemiology as the study of disease frequency, distribution, and determinants in human populations in order to promote health and prevent disease.
It then discusses key components of epidemiology, including population focus, frequency/occurrence of diseases, application to health promotion and disease prevention, health-related conditions beyond just diseases, and distribution by person, place and time. It also covers determinants or factors influencing disease occurrence.
Finally, it outlines several uses or purposes of epidemiology, such as making a community diagnosis, monitoring health over time, disease surveillance, outbreak investigation, and planning effective health services.
Here are the key points to compare the different research methods:
Cross-sectional study:
- Advantages: Quick, easy, low cost, can study multiple factors at once
- Disadvantages: Cannot determine temporal sequence, prone to biases
- Requirements: Representative sample, standardized data collection
Case-control study:
- Advantages: Efficient to study rare diseases, can study multiple exposures
- Disadvantages: Prone to selection and recall biases, uncertain temporal sequence
- Requirements: Clear case definition, appropriate controls matched to cases
Cohort study:
- Advantages: Directly measures risk, establishes temporal sequence
- Disadvantages: Expensive, long follow up needed
The document discusses randomized controlled trials (RCTs), which are considered the gold standard for evaluating causal relationships. It describes key aspects of RCTs such as randomization methods, blinding, allocation concealment, study populations, interventions, follow-up, and outcome assessment. RCTs follow a strict protocol and involve randomly allocating participants into study and control groups to receive different interventions/exposures. The results are then compared to determine the effectiveness of the new treatment or exposure being tested.
Epidemiology is defined as the study of health and disease in populations. It examines the patterns and causes of disease distribution. Key terms include epidemic, which is a disease rate above normal; endemic, a usual disease rate; and pandemic, a global epidemic. Epidemiology is used to study disease history, assess community health needs, estimate individual disease risk, identify disease causes, and guide prevention efforts. Prevention includes primary prevention to stop disease onset, secondary prevention to halt early disease progression, and tertiary prevention to reduce disability from established disease.
This document outlines different types of epidemiological study designs including observational studies like descriptive studies, analytical studies, ecological studies, cross-sectional studies and case-control studies. It also discusses experimental study designs like randomized controlled trials, field trials and community trials. Key features and steps are provided for case-control studies and cohort studies. Sources of bias and errors in epidemiological studies are also summarized.
A cohort study involves observing a group of individuals over time to examine exposure-outcome relationships. Key characteristics include prospectively following exposed and unexposed groups to compare disease outcomes. Major biases include loss to follow up and misclassification of exposure status. Cohort studies are well-suited for rare exposures and allow examination of multiple outcomes, but require large sample sizes and are time-consuming.
This document discusses cohort studies. A cohort study compares outcomes between groups that differ in their exposure to a risk factor. It involves selecting groups of individuals, measuring their exposure to a risk factor, observing them for a defined outcome, and analyzing any association. The key elements are defining the study question, selecting and measuring exposure in study populations, following up to ascertain outcomes, and analyzing results like incidence rates and relative risks. Cohort studies provide strong evidence but require large sample sizes and long follow-up periods.
Descriptive epidemiological studies are used to:
1. Document the distribution and determinants of health-related events in populations without attempting to infer causality.
2. Describe patterns of disease by person, place, and time to identify potential risk factors and generate hypotheses.
3. Provide baseline data on diseases, health conditions, and their risk factors that can be used to plan interventions and evaluate control programs.
This document provides an overview of epidemiology. It begins by defining epidemiology as the study of disease frequency, distribution, and determinants in human populations in order to promote health and prevent disease.
It then discusses key components of epidemiology, including population focus, frequency/occurrence of diseases, application to health promotion and disease prevention, health-related conditions beyond just diseases, and distribution by person, place and time. It also covers determinants or factors influencing disease occurrence.
Finally, it outlines several uses or purposes of epidemiology, such as making a community diagnosis, monitoring health over time, disease surveillance, outbreak investigation, and planning effective health services.
Here are the key points to compare the different research methods:
Cross-sectional study:
- Advantages: Quick, easy, low cost, can study multiple factors at once
- Disadvantages: Cannot determine temporal sequence, prone to biases
- Requirements: Representative sample, standardized data collection
Case-control study:
- Advantages: Efficient to study rare diseases, can study multiple exposures
- Disadvantages: Prone to selection and recall biases, uncertain temporal sequence
- Requirements: Clear case definition, appropriate controls matched to cases
Cohort study:
- Advantages: Directly measures risk, establishes temporal sequence
- Disadvantages: Expensive, long follow up needed
The document discusses randomized controlled trials (RCTs), which are considered the gold standard for evaluating causal relationships. It describes key aspects of RCTs such as randomization methods, blinding, allocation concealment, study populations, interventions, follow-up, and outcome assessment. RCTs follow a strict protocol and involve randomly allocating participants into study and control groups to receive different interventions/exposures. The results are then compared to determine the effectiveness of the new treatment or exposure being tested.
This document provides an overview of case control studies in epidemiology. It defines a case control study as a retrospective study that compares cases (people with a disease or condition) to controls (people without the disease or condition) to determine risk factors for the disease. The key steps outlined are: selection of cases and controls from the same study base; matching cases and controls on important characteristics; measuring exposure to suspected risk factors in the same way for both groups; and analyzing the data to compare exposure rates between cases and controls and estimate disease risk associated with exposure. Advantages are that case control studies are efficient for rare diseases, but limitations include potential for selection and recall bias.
This document provides an overview of cross-sectional studies, including what they are, their uses, methodology, advantages, and disadvantages. A cross-sectional study involves observing a population at a single point in time to determine prevalence of disease. It is a quick and inexpensive way to describe characteristics of a population and identify associations between variables. However, it cannot determine causation due to its observational nature.
A principal aim of epidemiology is to assess the cause of disease. However, since most epidemiological studies are by nature observational rather than experimental, a number of possible explanations for an observed association need to be considered before we can infer a cause-effect relationship exists.
1) Field trials evaluate prevention strategies by testing interventions on healthy individuals at risk of disease. They aim to determine if an agent or procedure reduces disease risk.
2) Field trials are generally conducted in real-world settings rather than clinical settings and can involve individuals, groups, or entire communities.
3) Random allocation of participants to intervention and control groups is important to reduce bias and ensure groups are comparable outside of the intervention being tested.
This module has prepared for the postgraduate medical students in any specialty. Last 10 questions are MCQ which is very important for FCPS part 1 (all subjects)
The document discusses approaches for studying disease etiology, including observational studies like ecological, cohort, and case-control studies as well as randomized trials. It also examines how evidence for a causal relationship between a factor and disease has been established through a sequence of studies, from initial clinical observations to randomized trials. Key figures in establishing causal relationships for various diseases are also mentioned, such as Alton Ochsner's work linking smoking to lung cancer and Barry Marshall and J. Robin Warren's discovery of H. pylori's role in peptic ulcers. Guidelines for determining causation, such as those from the Surgeon General and Bradford Hill, are also reviewed.
The document outlines the basic steps for investigating disease outbreaks. It discusses establishing a team with roles like epidemiologist, microbiologist, and environmental health specialists. The steps of an outbreak investigation include preparing, confirming the outbreak, verifying diagnoses, establishing case definitions, finding cases, descriptive epidemiology, developing and evaluating hypotheses, implementing control measures, and communicating findings. Key factors in investigating outbreaks are determining exposure time, disease onset, and incubation period. Effective communication between team members is also emphasized.
The STUDY of the DISTRIBUTION and DETERMINANTS of HEALTH-RELATED STATES in specified POPULATIONS, and the application of this study to CONTROL of health problems."
This document discusses causation in epidemiology. It defines causation as an event, condition, or characteristic that plays an important role in producing a disease. A cause can be sufficient, meaning it inevitably produces the disease, or necessary, meaning the disease cannot develop without it. Most diseases have multiple contributing factors rather than a single cause. Guidelines for determining a causal relationship include considering the temporal relationship between cause and effect, consistency of association, strength of association, and whether removing the potential cause reduces disease risk. Correctly establishing causation is important for disease prevention and control.
Case control studies compare exposures in individuals with a disease (cases) to individuals without the disease (controls) to identify potential risk factors for the disease. The study involves selecting cases and controls, ascertaining their exposure status, analyzing differences in exposure rates using odds ratios, and interpreting results to determine if an exposure is associated with the disease. Key limitations are that it cannot estimate incidence rates or time relationships between exposure and disease.
Epidemiology is the study and analysis of the patterns, causes, and effects of health, disease & production conditions in defined populations, in terms of space and temporality.
The document defines key epidemiological measures used to describe disease occurrence and impact, including prevalence, incidence, rates, and ratios. It provides examples of how to calculate and interpret these measures. The document concludes that prevalence describes the current disease burden, while incidence provides information on the risk of developing disease over time and is thus better suited for etiological studies.
This document provides an introduction to epidemiological studies. It defines epidemiology as the study of disease distributions in populations and factors that influence distribution. It describes the hierarchy of evidence in epidemiology, including descriptive and analytical studies. Descriptive studies like case reports and prevalence surveys describe disease patterns, while analytical studies test hypotheses. The main analytical study designs are cross-sectional studies, case-control studies, and prospective cohort studies. Each design differs in sampling, time orientation, and ability to infer causality. Cross-sectional studies measure prevalence, case-control studies infer causality retrospectively, and prospective cohort studies follow exposed groups over time to measure incidence.
This document defines health, public health, and primary health care. It states that health involves complete physical, mental and social well-being, not just absence of disease. Public health aims to protect and improve community health through health promotion, disease prevention, and control of infectious diseases. Primary health care integrates factors like essential drugs, immunization, maternal and child health, family planning, and control of communicable diseases at the community level.
6..Study designs in descritive epidemiology DR.SOMANATH.pptDentalYoutube
This document provides an overview of various epidemiological study designs used in public health research. It begins with descriptive studies, which observe disease distribution by time, place and person without attempting to draw conclusions about causes. It then covers analytical studies, including ecological, cross-sectional, case-control and cohort studies. Ecological studies examine population-level associations, while cross-sectional studies measure prevalence. Case-control studies test hypotheses by comparing exposures in cases vs controls, and cohort studies prospectively follow groups to measure disease incidence and relative risks. The document discusses key aspects of study design, biases, strengths and limitations for each type.
The document discusses key concepts in establishing causation in epidemiology, including the difference between association and causation. It explains that causation requires determining if a factor A truly causes outcome B rather than being a spurious relationship. Several of Hill's criteria for establishing a causal relationship are described, such as strength of association, consistency of findings, specificity of the relationship, and examining alternative explanations through study design and accounting for potential confounding factors. The document emphasizes that multiple factors often interact to cause outcomes, and that proving causation involves considering the strength and consistency of evidence rather than any single study.
Screening tests aim to identify unrecognized disease in apparently healthy individuals. They differ from diagnostic tests in that they are applied to groups rather than individuals, use a single criterion, and are less accurate. Validity refers to a test's accuracy while reliability is its precision on repeat tests. Sensitivity measures a test's ability to identify true positives, and specificity measures its ability to identify true negatives. Screening programs must consider factors like disease burden, test characteristics, and whether early detection improves outcomes.
This document discusses and compares case-control and cohort studies in epidemiology. It defines epidemiology as the study of health-related states in populations and applying this to control health problems. Analytical epidemiology focuses on testing hypotheses about individuals within populations. Both case-control and cohort studies are described as types of analytical epidemiology. Case-control studies are retrospective while cohort studies are prospective. The key differences and advantages/disadvantages of each study type are outlined.
This document summarizes a presentation on case-control studies. It defines epidemiology and different types of studies. It then discusses the key aspects of case-control studies including:
- They proceed backwards from the effect (disease) to the potential cause (exposure).
- Cases and controls are selected and their exposure status is determined. Exposure rates, relative risk, and odds ratios can then be estimated.
- Important steps include properly defining cases and controls, selecting controls, matching, measuring exposure, and analyzing for bias. Case-control studies are useful for investigating rare diseases and establishing causal relationships.
Malimu investigation of an outbreak of communicable diseases pnco-2Miharbi Ignasm
This document outlines the steps for investigating communicable disease outbreaks. It begins with an introduction that defines communicable diseases and provides examples. There are then 12 steps described for investigating an outbreak, including verifying diagnoses, establishing the existence of an epidemic, identifying and counting cases, analyzing data, formulating hypotheses, assessing local response capacity, setting control measures, addressing resource gaps, reporting, disseminating findings, and intensifying surveillance. The roles of the Ministry of Health, District Health Team, and health units in outbreak investigations and control are also outlined.
Health Promotion and Disease Prevention under the Aquino Health Agenda by Use...HealthJustice Philippines
The document discusses the Philippine health situation and efforts to promote health and prevent diseases under the Aquino Health Agenda. It outlines the current burden of non-communicable diseases in the Philippines, which are among the top causes of mortality. It also discusses the implementation of universal health care in the country to improve health outcomes through expanding access to essential health services. A key part of this is addressing non-communicable diseases by implementing strategies around prevention and control of risk factors like tobacco use, unhealthy diets, and physical inactivity.
This document provides an overview of case control studies in epidemiology. It defines a case control study as a retrospective study that compares cases (people with a disease or condition) to controls (people without the disease or condition) to determine risk factors for the disease. The key steps outlined are: selection of cases and controls from the same study base; matching cases and controls on important characteristics; measuring exposure to suspected risk factors in the same way for both groups; and analyzing the data to compare exposure rates between cases and controls and estimate disease risk associated with exposure. Advantages are that case control studies are efficient for rare diseases, but limitations include potential for selection and recall bias.
This document provides an overview of cross-sectional studies, including what they are, their uses, methodology, advantages, and disadvantages. A cross-sectional study involves observing a population at a single point in time to determine prevalence of disease. It is a quick and inexpensive way to describe characteristics of a population and identify associations between variables. However, it cannot determine causation due to its observational nature.
A principal aim of epidemiology is to assess the cause of disease. However, since most epidemiological studies are by nature observational rather than experimental, a number of possible explanations for an observed association need to be considered before we can infer a cause-effect relationship exists.
1) Field trials evaluate prevention strategies by testing interventions on healthy individuals at risk of disease. They aim to determine if an agent or procedure reduces disease risk.
2) Field trials are generally conducted in real-world settings rather than clinical settings and can involve individuals, groups, or entire communities.
3) Random allocation of participants to intervention and control groups is important to reduce bias and ensure groups are comparable outside of the intervention being tested.
This module has prepared for the postgraduate medical students in any specialty. Last 10 questions are MCQ which is very important for FCPS part 1 (all subjects)
The document discusses approaches for studying disease etiology, including observational studies like ecological, cohort, and case-control studies as well as randomized trials. It also examines how evidence for a causal relationship between a factor and disease has been established through a sequence of studies, from initial clinical observations to randomized trials. Key figures in establishing causal relationships for various diseases are also mentioned, such as Alton Ochsner's work linking smoking to lung cancer and Barry Marshall and J. Robin Warren's discovery of H. pylori's role in peptic ulcers. Guidelines for determining causation, such as those from the Surgeon General and Bradford Hill, are also reviewed.
The document outlines the basic steps for investigating disease outbreaks. It discusses establishing a team with roles like epidemiologist, microbiologist, and environmental health specialists. The steps of an outbreak investigation include preparing, confirming the outbreak, verifying diagnoses, establishing case definitions, finding cases, descriptive epidemiology, developing and evaluating hypotheses, implementing control measures, and communicating findings. Key factors in investigating outbreaks are determining exposure time, disease onset, and incubation period. Effective communication between team members is also emphasized.
The STUDY of the DISTRIBUTION and DETERMINANTS of HEALTH-RELATED STATES in specified POPULATIONS, and the application of this study to CONTROL of health problems."
This document discusses causation in epidemiology. It defines causation as an event, condition, or characteristic that plays an important role in producing a disease. A cause can be sufficient, meaning it inevitably produces the disease, or necessary, meaning the disease cannot develop without it. Most diseases have multiple contributing factors rather than a single cause. Guidelines for determining a causal relationship include considering the temporal relationship between cause and effect, consistency of association, strength of association, and whether removing the potential cause reduces disease risk. Correctly establishing causation is important for disease prevention and control.
Case control studies compare exposures in individuals with a disease (cases) to individuals without the disease (controls) to identify potential risk factors for the disease. The study involves selecting cases and controls, ascertaining their exposure status, analyzing differences in exposure rates using odds ratios, and interpreting results to determine if an exposure is associated with the disease. Key limitations are that it cannot estimate incidence rates or time relationships between exposure and disease.
Epidemiology is the study and analysis of the patterns, causes, and effects of health, disease & production conditions in defined populations, in terms of space and temporality.
The document defines key epidemiological measures used to describe disease occurrence and impact, including prevalence, incidence, rates, and ratios. It provides examples of how to calculate and interpret these measures. The document concludes that prevalence describes the current disease burden, while incidence provides information on the risk of developing disease over time and is thus better suited for etiological studies.
This document provides an introduction to epidemiological studies. It defines epidemiology as the study of disease distributions in populations and factors that influence distribution. It describes the hierarchy of evidence in epidemiology, including descriptive and analytical studies. Descriptive studies like case reports and prevalence surveys describe disease patterns, while analytical studies test hypotheses. The main analytical study designs are cross-sectional studies, case-control studies, and prospective cohort studies. Each design differs in sampling, time orientation, and ability to infer causality. Cross-sectional studies measure prevalence, case-control studies infer causality retrospectively, and prospective cohort studies follow exposed groups over time to measure incidence.
This document defines health, public health, and primary health care. It states that health involves complete physical, mental and social well-being, not just absence of disease. Public health aims to protect and improve community health through health promotion, disease prevention, and control of infectious diseases. Primary health care integrates factors like essential drugs, immunization, maternal and child health, family planning, and control of communicable diseases at the community level.
6..Study designs in descritive epidemiology DR.SOMANATH.pptDentalYoutube
This document provides an overview of various epidemiological study designs used in public health research. It begins with descriptive studies, which observe disease distribution by time, place and person without attempting to draw conclusions about causes. It then covers analytical studies, including ecological, cross-sectional, case-control and cohort studies. Ecological studies examine population-level associations, while cross-sectional studies measure prevalence. Case-control studies test hypotheses by comparing exposures in cases vs controls, and cohort studies prospectively follow groups to measure disease incidence and relative risks. The document discusses key aspects of study design, biases, strengths and limitations for each type.
The document discusses key concepts in establishing causation in epidemiology, including the difference between association and causation. It explains that causation requires determining if a factor A truly causes outcome B rather than being a spurious relationship. Several of Hill's criteria for establishing a causal relationship are described, such as strength of association, consistency of findings, specificity of the relationship, and examining alternative explanations through study design and accounting for potential confounding factors. The document emphasizes that multiple factors often interact to cause outcomes, and that proving causation involves considering the strength and consistency of evidence rather than any single study.
Screening tests aim to identify unrecognized disease in apparently healthy individuals. They differ from diagnostic tests in that they are applied to groups rather than individuals, use a single criterion, and are less accurate. Validity refers to a test's accuracy while reliability is its precision on repeat tests. Sensitivity measures a test's ability to identify true positives, and specificity measures its ability to identify true negatives. Screening programs must consider factors like disease burden, test characteristics, and whether early detection improves outcomes.
This document discusses and compares case-control and cohort studies in epidemiology. It defines epidemiology as the study of health-related states in populations and applying this to control health problems. Analytical epidemiology focuses on testing hypotheses about individuals within populations. Both case-control and cohort studies are described as types of analytical epidemiology. Case-control studies are retrospective while cohort studies are prospective. The key differences and advantages/disadvantages of each study type are outlined.
This document summarizes a presentation on case-control studies. It defines epidemiology and different types of studies. It then discusses the key aspects of case-control studies including:
- They proceed backwards from the effect (disease) to the potential cause (exposure).
- Cases and controls are selected and their exposure status is determined. Exposure rates, relative risk, and odds ratios can then be estimated.
- Important steps include properly defining cases and controls, selecting controls, matching, measuring exposure, and analyzing for bias. Case-control studies are useful for investigating rare diseases and establishing causal relationships.
Malimu investigation of an outbreak of communicable diseases pnco-2Miharbi Ignasm
This document outlines the steps for investigating communicable disease outbreaks. It begins with an introduction that defines communicable diseases and provides examples. There are then 12 steps described for investigating an outbreak, including verifying diagnoses, establishing the existence of an epidemic, identifying and counting cases, analyzing data, formulating hypotheses, assessing local response capacity, setting control measures, addressing resource gaps, reporting, disseminating findings, and intensifying surveillance. The roles of the Ministry of Health, District Health Team, and health units in outbreak investigations and control are also outlined.
Health Promotion and Disease Prevention under the Aquino Health Agenda by Use...HealthJustice Philippines
The document discusses the Philippine health situation and efforts to promote health and prevent diseases under the Aquino Health Agenda. It outlines the current burden of non-communicable diseases in the Philippines, which are among the top causes of mortality. It also discusses the implementation of universal health care in the country to improve health outcomes through expanding access to essential health services. A key part of this is addressing non-communicable diseases by implementing strategies around prevention and control of risk factors like tobacco use, unhealthy diets, and physical inactivity.
Communicable diseases are caused by pathogens passed between humans through various means of transmission. The common cold is the most common communicable disease, caused by one of over 200 viruses transmitted through direct contact or contaminated surfaces. Symptoms include congestion, cough, headache, and fatigue. While no cure exists, rest, hydration, and nutrition can help the body fight the virus. Influenza is also highly contagious and spreads similarly, requiring medical consultation if symptoms are severe. Pneumonia is a serious lung infection that may develop from untreated colds or influenza.
The document discusses diseases, their causes and types. It defines disease as an abnormal condition that impairs the body's normal functioning and can cause discomfort, dysfunction, distress and death. It categorizes diseases as communicable/contagious which can pass from person to person, and non-communicable which result from genetics or lifestyle. It also discusses the chain of infection and lists common communicable diseases like cold, influenza, pneumonia, chickenpox and measles.
this presentation takes you through the concept of association observed between variables in a study and how could it become a causative association in step-wise manner.Exemplify using Bradford hill criteria. slides after references are extra slides not covered in the presentation.
Principles of Analytical Design - Visually Meetup - Sept. 2011philogb
This document outlines six fundamental principles of analytical design according to Edward Tufte:
1) Show comparisons and contrasts
2) Show causality, mechanism, and explanation
3) Show multivariate data using more than one or two variables
4) Completely integrate words, numbers, images, and diagrams
5) Thoroughly describe the evidence, data sources, and measurement scales
6) Content is most important in analytical presentations
It provides examples to illustrate each principle from various sources.
This document discusses various epidemiologic study designs including descriptive and analytic designs. Descriptive designs like case studies, cross-sectional studies, and ecological studies focus on assessing samples without making causal inferences, while analytic designs like cohort studies, case-control studies, and experimental studies utilize comparisons to evaluate relationships between exposures and outcomes. Meta-analysis involves statistically combining results from multiple separate but related studies to obtain an overall effect or relationship.
NSM-NCD2013 Symposium 1 - NCD Risk Factors - A social determinant and ecologi...appfromlab
This document discusses analyzing non-communicable disease (NCD) risk factors using social determinants and ecological approaches in low and middle income countries. It covers an overview of social determinants, advantages and disadvantages of the approach, and expanding the analysis to include ecological factors. The utility of such analyses is that they address NCD risk factors through multi-dimensional, multi-sectoral lenses rather than individualistic approaches. This allows for more comprehensive policy solutions that consider diverse political and economic interests.
Common measures of association in medical research (UPDATED) 2013Pat Barlow
This is an updated version of my Common Measures of Association presentation. I've updated it to include (1) more detail on rates, risks, and proportions, (2) Absolute Risk Reduction (ARR), Attributable Risk (AR), Number Needed to Treat (NNT) and Number Needed to Harm (NNH). Feel free to email me for a full version of the slideshow.
Non-communicable diseases (NCDs) are a misnomer as some are caused by infectious agents, some may be cured, and some are not chronic. NCDs have shifted from being problems of wealthy nations to a global pandemic. They currently cause 36 million premature deaths annually and that number is projected to rise to 55 million by 2030. The main causes of mortality worldwide are cardiovascular diseases and cancers. NCDs present a growing public health challenge due to increased life expectancy, environmental risks, economic issues like poverty and food insecurity, rapid technology development, antibiotic resistance, and competition for global resources. A multi-level public health approach is needed involving prevention, surveillance, and treatment of NCDs.
Non-communicable diseases (NCDs) are non-infectious medical conditions that are chronic and last for long periods of time, such as heart disease, cancer, diabetes and Alzheimer's. While some NCDs progress slowly, others can result in rapid death like autoimmune diseases and stroke. Risk factors for NCDs include behaviors and environments that increase the chances of developing these chronic conditions.
Analytical case-control studies compare exposures in groups with and without a disease. Cases are selected who have the disease, and controls without the disease are matched on characteristics like age and sex. Investigators measure past exposures and compare frequencies between cases and controls. The odds ratio association measure compares the odds of exposure in cases versus controls. Selection bias can occur if cases or controls are not representative, and recall bias can occur if cases remember past exposures differently than controls.
This document defines communicable diseases and provides information on common viral and bacterial infections in children. It discusses how communicable diseases are transmitted and symptoms, diagnosis, and management of specific diseases like varicella, measles, pertussis, tuberculosis, hepatitis A and B, meningitis, and HIV/AIDS. Prevention strategies like immunizations, hand washing, and protective equipment are also outlined.
Non-Communicable Disease and Its Economic Burdenyellow sunfire
Non-communicable diseases (NCDs) are long-lasting conditions like heart disease, cancer, diabetes and chronic lung disease. NCDs cause 63% of deaths worldwide with annual deaths projected to rise to 52 million by 2030. NCDs place a large economic burden on individuals and societies through medical costs, lost productivity and income. At a country level, NCDs reduce life expectancy, deplete the labor force and lower GDP and GNI growth. References are made to WHO publications and reports from the World Economic Forum and Harvard School of Public Health on estimating the economic impact of NCDs.
The document discusses different study designs used in research including observational studies like cross-sectional studies, case-control studies, and cohort studies as well as experimental studies like clinical trials. It provides details on key aspects of each design such as whether they involve an intervention, the temporal sequence of exposure and outcome measurement, and sampling approaches. Examples are given of when each particular design would be most appropriate based on factors like disease prevalence and the aim of investigating risk factors, outcomes, or the effect of an intervention over time.
The document discusses several national health programs in India related to non-communicable diseases. It provides an overview of the National Mental Health Programme, including its aims to integrate mental health services into primary care. It describes the National Programme for Control of Blindness, including its goal to reduce blindness prevalence. It also summarizes the National Programme for Cancer Control and National Diabetes Control Programme, outlining their objectives to manage these diseases.
Communicable diseases such as encephalitis, meningitis, tetanus, rabies, poliomyelitis, dengue, malaria, leptospirosis, diphtheria, pertussis and measles are discussed. For each disease, the causative agent, modes of transmission, incubation period, signs and symptoms, diagnostic tests, medical treatment, nursing management and prevention are summarized. The document provides an overview of major communicable diseases affecting different body systems and chains of infection.
This document describes a cross-sectional study and its methodology. A cross-sectional study involves collecting data on exposure and outcome variables from a population at a single point in time. The document discusses the differences between descriptive and analytical cross-sectional studies. Descriptive studies measure prevalence, while analytical studies test associations between exposures and outcomes. The document provides examples of cross-sectional study design, biases, advantages, and guidelines for evaluating validity.
This document provides an overview of descriptive epidemiological study designs including ecological, case reports/series, cross-sectional studies. It defines key terms like prevalence, analyzes examples, and discusses the strengths and limitations of each design. Specifically, it examines a cross-sectional study example looking at the prevalence of trachoma associated with poor hygiene. The prevalence of trachoma in the population of 1900 is found to be 796/1900 = 41.8% while the prevalence ratio of trachoma among those with poor hygiene (54/391 = 13.8%) versus good hygiene (50/1509 = 3.3%) is 4.2, indicating trachoma is associated with poor hygiene.
This document discusses different types of epidemiological studies, including observational studies and experimental studies. Observational studies observe exposures and outcomes as they occur in nature, while experimental studies test the effect of an intervention. Within observational studies, descriptive studies simply describe phenomena while analytical studies look at determinants of disease and have a comparison group. Specific types of observational studies discussed include case reports/series, cross-sectional studies, ecological studies, and case-control studies. Cohort studies are also discussed as a type of analytical observational study that follows groups over time to study disease outcomes.
This document discusses various study designs used in epidemiology, including measures of disease occurrence such as prevalence and incidence. It defines prevalence as the total number of cases of a disease at a specified time, while incidence refers to the number of new cases that occur over a period of time. Cohort studies are described as following groups over time to compare rates of an outcome between those exposed and unexposed to a factor. Case-control studies select groups based on having or not having an outcome and look back to compare exposures. Biases such as selection, information and confounding are also outlined.
1. Different study designs are used for different research purposes, with randomized controlled trials being strongest for evaluating new therapies but also most difficult to conduct.
2. Observational studies like cohort and case-control studies can be used when randomization is not possible or ethical, and allow studying rare diseases or past exposures, but are more prone to biases.
3. Qualitative research uses methods like interviews and observations to understand complex social phenomena and issues that are difficult to study quantitatively. The appropriate study design depends on the research question and objectives.
This document provides an overview of analytical epidemiology studies, specifically case-control studies and cohort studies. It defines the key aspects of each study type, including:
- Case-control studies are retrospective and compare exposures in cases (people with the disease/outcome) to controls (people without the disease). Basic steps include selection of cases and controls, measuring exposure, and analysis to determine odds ratios. Sources of bias include selection, information, and confounding biases.
- Cohort studies are prospective and follow groups over time to determine disease incidence. Groups are identified based on exposure status. Basic steps involve selection of study subjects, obtaining exposure data, follow-up, and analysis of relative risks. Sources of bias include
Cross-sectional studies examine the relationship between a disease and exposure in a population at a single point in time. They provide a snapshot of disease prevalence and exposure prevalence simultaneously. While they can describe disease burden and identify potential risk factors, the temporal relationship between exposure and disease is unclear since they involve simultaneous rather than longitudinal measurement.
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This document provides an overview of key epidemiological concepts and study designs. It defines epidemiology and discusses why epidemiological data is collected through monitoring and surveillance and to identify relationships between exposures and disease. The main observational study designs covered are ecological, cross-sectional, case-control, cohort studies as well as randomized controlled trials. For each study design, the document outlines their structure, advantages and limitations.
Epidemiology and biostatistics are important tools in gynaeco-oncology for defining cancer occurrence and survival rates, identifying risk factors, designing clinical trials, and implementing prevention and treatment strategies. There are two main types of epidemiological studies - observational studies like case-control and cohort studies which observe associations, and experimental studies like randomized controlled trials which test interventions. Case-control studies compare exposures in individuals with and without the disease to identify potential risk factors, while cohort studies follow groups over time to assess disease outcomes between exposed and unexposed groups. Together, these study designs allow hypotheses about disease causes to be tested and provide evidence to guide public health efforts.
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Epidemiology is defined as the study of the distribution and determinants of health-related states or events in populations, and the application of this study to control health problems. The aims of epidemiology include describing disease occurrence, assessing disease importance, explaining disease etiology, predicting disease, evaluating prevention and control, and controlling disease distribution. Common epidemiological study designs include cohort studies, case-control studies, cross-sectional studies, and occupational studies. Key epidemiological concepts include incidence, prevalence, sensitivity, specificity, and confounding factors.
This document describes and compares different descriptive epidemiological study designs. It defines descriptive studies as those that describe the frequency or characteristics of events without confirming causes or determinants. The key study designs discussed are ecological, case report/series, and cross-sectional studies. Ecological studies examine disease frequencies between population groups but cannot link exposures to individuals. Case reports provide details on single patients while case series describe characteristics of patients with similar diagnoses. Cross-sectional studies survey exposures and diseases at a single time point to measure prevalence.
This document discusses various epidemiologic study designs including descriptive and analytic designs. Descriptive designs focus on assessing samples without causal inferences, and include case studies, cross-sectional studies, and ecological studies. Analytic designs utilize comparison groups and include experimental, cohort, and case-control studies. The strengths and weaknesses of each design are described.
This document discusses various epidemiologic study designs including descriptive and analytic designs. Descriptive designs like case studies, cross-sectional studies, and ecological studies focus on assessing samples without making causal inferences, while analytic designs like cohort studies, case-control studies, and experimental studies utilize comparisons to evaluate relationships between exposures and outcomes. Meta-analysis involves statistically combining results from multiple separate but related studies to obtain an overall conclusion.
A cohort study examines the incidence of a disease in two groups over time - an exposed group and an unexposed group. It begins by identifying the exposure status (exposed vs unexposed) and then follows the groups to determine the development of disease. The key strength is the ability to establish temporal relationships between exposure and disease by observing incidence rates before the outcome occurs. Some limitations include losses during follow up, the need for large sample sizes, and long study durations.
Periodontal disease is a widely prevalent disease worldwide which often gets unnoticed or it often ignored due to its slowly progressive nature. It is of concern since it can cause irrepairable damage to tooth supporting structures if not early diagnosed or treated.
This document provides information on epidemiological study designs, including analytical studies, case-control studies, and cohort studies. It defines epidemiology as the study of health-related states in populations. Case-control studies look backward from the outcome to exposures, comparing cases to controls. Cohort studies follow groups over time to examine exposure-outcome relationships. The key difference is that cohort studies measure incidence while case-control studies measure odds ratios. Selection of appropriate study populations and controls is important to minimize biases.
This document discusses different types of study designs used in epidemiology. It begins by defining epidemiology and then outlines the objectives of the presentation which are to understand study design concepts, appropriately apply designs to research, and learn about advantages and disadvantages. Descriptive and analytical studies are introduced. Descriptive studies describe disease frequency and distribution without hypotheses, while analytical studies compare at least two groups to test hypotheses. Case-control and cohort studies are presented as common analytical designs. Case-control studies compare exposed vs unexposed groups among cases and controls to calculate odds ratios. Potential biases are discussed.
This document provides an introduction to case control studies. It describes the key characteristics of case control studies, including that they are retrospective and compare exposures in cases (individuals with the disease/condition of interest) to controls (individuals without the disease). The major steps in a case control study are defined as selecting cases and controls, ascertaining exposures, comparing exposures between cases and controls, and testing for statistical significance. Types of bias that can affect case control studies are also discussed.
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(𝐓𝐋𝐄 𝟏𝟎𝟎) (𝐋𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐨𝐧 2)-𝐏𝐫𝐞𝐥𝐢𝐦𝐬
𝐄𝐱𝐩𝐥𝐚𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐈𝐂𝐓 𝐢𝐧 𝐞𝐝𝐮𝐜𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧:
Students will be able to explain the role and impact of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in education. They will understand how ICT tools, such as computers, the internet, and educational software, enhance learning and teaching processes. By exploring various ICT applications, students will recognize how these technologies facilitate access to information, improve communication, support collaboration, and enable personalized learning experiences.
𝐃𝐢𝐬𝐜𝐮𝐬𝐬 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐫𝐞𝐥𝐢𝐚𝐛𝐥𝐞 𝐬𝐨𝐮𝐫𝐜𝐞𝐬 𝐨𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐧𝐞𝐭:
-Students will be able to discuss what constitutes reliable sources on the internet. They will learn to identify key characteristics of trustworthy information, such as credibility, accuracy, and authority. By examining different types of online sources, students will develop skills to evaluate the reliability of websites and content, ensuring they can distinguish between reputable information and misinformation.
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(𝐓𝐋𝐄 𝟏𝟎𝟎) (𝐋𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐨𝐧 3)-𝐏𝐫𝐞𝐥𝐢𝐦𝐬
Lesson Outcomes:
- students will be able to identify and name various types of ornamental plants commonly used in landscaping and decoration, classifying them based on their characteristics such as foliage, flowering, and growth habits. They will understand the ecological, aesthetic, and economic benefits of ornamental plants, including their roles in improving air quality, providing habitats for wildlife, and enhancing the visual appeal of environments. Additionally, students will demonstrate knowledge of the basic requirements for growing ornamental plants, ensuring they can effectively cultivate and maintain these plants in various settings.
6. Learning Objectives
When you have completed this session you will be
able to:
Describe the differences between and descriptive
and analytic studies
Describe the differences between a case report and
a case series
Describe the characteristics of an ecological study
Describe a cross sectional study and explain its
advantages and disadvantages
Explain the uses of the descriptive study types
7. Descriptive versus Analytical
epidemiology
Descriptive epidemiology:
• generates idea(s) or hypothesis for
associations between risk factor and
illness
Analytical epidemiology:
• uses a comparison group to
establish an association between risk
factors and illness in the two groups
8. Descriptive Studies
The most frequent design strategy found in
the epidemiologic literature
Used to describe the distribution of disease
by time, place, person and assoc. factors
Describing these factors does not link them
However we can identify unusual distributions
or correlations
Useful for Hypothesis generation and health
planning
9. Using Descriptive Studies for
Hypothesis Formulation
Person – “Who is getting the disease?”
Age, race, sex
Place – “Where are the rates of disease
highest and lowest?”
Time – “ When does the disease occur
commonly or rarely?” and “ Is the frequency
of the disease now different from the
corresponding frequency in the past?”
11. Categories of Descriptive Studies
Populations (correlational or ecological studies)
Individuals
Case reports
Case series
Cross-sectional surveys
12. Correlational or Ecological Studies
Based on aggregate measures of exposure and
outcome from several populations.
The population is the unit of observation available
for study.
Exposures:
- What percent of a population smokes?
- What percent of 1-year old children are
vaccinated against measles?
- What percent of a population has piped water?
13. Correlational or Ecological Studies
Outcomes:
- What percentage of a population died from MI?
- What percentage of children had measles last
year?
- What percentage of population had episodes of
diarrhea?
14. Correlational or Ecological Studies
Advantages
-Easy to do
-Use available data (“administrative” or other
aggregate data)
-Can be done in population with widely differing
characteistics
-Generate hypotheses for additional study
15. Correlational or Ecological Studies
Disadvantages
-Unable to examine data for individuals; data on
exposure and data on outcome are collected
independently
-No assurance that persons with exposure (risk
factor) of interest are the same ones with the
outcome (disease) of interest
-Association at the aggregate level may not reflect
association at the individual level - the ecologic
fallacy
-Unable to adjust for potential confounding factors.
-Poor correlation doesn’t mean no association
16. Descriptive Studies
Populations (correlational or ecological studies)
Individuals
Case reports
Case series
Cross-sectional surveys
17. Case reports
The individual is the unit of observation
available for study.
Clinical case with “unusual” clinical picture
May suggest an etiological association
18. Case series
First case report may stimulate compilation
of additional case reports….a case series
(e.g. occurrence of Pneumocystis carinii
among a group of young, homosexual men
with no history of immune deficiency)
19. Case reports or Case series
Advantages:
Use available clinical data
Detailed individual data
Suggest need for investigation (hypothesis
generation)
Disadvantages:
May reflect experience of one person or one
clinician
No explicit comparison group
20. Descriptive Studies
Populations (correlational or ecological studies)
Individuals
Case reports
Case series
Cross-sectional surveys
21. Design of cross-sectional study
Defined population
Exposed: Have
disease
Exposed; Do
not have
disease
Not exposed;
Have disease
Not exposed:
Do not have
disease
Gather data on exposure and disease
23. Cross-sectional study
Also known as “prevalence” study
Design
Identify research question
Specify target and accessible population
Sample the population
Measure variables of interest (usually a survey)
Thus: participants classified by exposure and disease status
at the same time. This allows identification of prevalent
cases, calculation of prevalence rates.
24. Cross-sectional surveys
Measure variable(s) at a single time:
prevalence studies (“snapshot”)
useful for events/diseases when
chronic
common
non-fatal
temporal relationship cannot be established unless
exposure permanent
If exposure unalterable, cross-sectional survey ≈
analytical study
25. Cross-sectional study
Strengths/Advantages
Can study entire populations or a representative
sample
Provide estimates of prevalence of all factors
measured
Standardized data collection tool.
May be quick and inexpensive
Valuable in assessing health status and health
care needs of a population
Can be repeated to get trend data
Help in hypothesis generation
26. Cross-sectional study
Weaknesses/disadvantages
Information on disease and exposure collected
simultaneously, therefore difficulty establishing
that cause antedated effect.
Use of prevalent cases means data reflects
determinants of survival as well as etiology
Cases may be misclassified due to changes in
exposure or poor memory of earlier exposures
Not good for rare diseases or exposures
Cannot measure risk
Cant study temporal relationship
27. Data analysis and interpretation of
descriptive studies
Cross-sectional studies and surveys are
measuring prevalence
Well-suited for describing variables and their
distributions – Eg. Kenya Demographic and
Health Survey
28. Design of a cross-sectional study
Disease No Disease
Job A
Job B
a b
c d
Prevalence of disease in exposed (Job A) = a/a+b
Prevalence of disease in unexposed (Job B) = c/c+d
29. Presentation of Cross Sectional Data
2x2 table
Exposed
Not exposed
ill not ill
a
c
b
d
Prevalence in exposed (Pe+) = a/
(a+b)
Prevalence in non-exposed (Pe-) = c/
(c+d)
Prevalence ratio = a/(a+b) / c/(c+d)
31. Association Measures in Cross
Sectional Studies
Example: Corporal hygiene and trachoma
Poor Hygiene Trachoma Healthy Total
Yes 54 337 391
No 50 1 459 1 509
Total 104 1 796 1 900
Prevalence ratio = 13.8 / 3.3 = 4.2
Prevalence
13.8 %
3.3 %
% exp 51.9% 18.8%
32. Recap
Now that you have completed this session you will be
able to:
Describe the differences between and descriptive
and analytic studies
Describe the differences between a case report and
a case series
Describe the characteristics of an ecological study
Describe a cross sectional study and explain its
advantages and disadvantages
Explain the uses of the descriptive study types
33. What is the prevalence of trachoma, and is it
associated with poor hygiene?
Population of 1900
Poor hygiene Trachoma
Yes No
Yes 54 337
No 50 1459
34. Exercise
Calculate Prevalence of Chlamydia in this
population of STI patients.
Calculate prevalence ratio for Chlamydia
among OCP users vs. non-users.
Editor's Notes
Please do not change the learning objectives without notifying the team.
Move any learning objectives that you don’t expect to cover in class to the “What’s next” slide at the end of the presentation.
Optional slide-delete if irrelevant to your topic
Optional slide-delete if irrelevant to your topic
Optional slide-delete if irrelevant to your topic
Please do not change the learning objectives without notifying the team.
Move any learning objectives that you don’t expect to cover in class to the “What’s next” slide at the end of the presentation.
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