Quality of water :
It includes all the physical, chemical and biological parameters along with test to be used for defining water quality and water schemes for city
This document discusses the quality of water from surface and underground sources. It provides details on various physical, chemical and biological parameters used to analyze water quality. These include turbidity, pH, hardness, dissolved solids, chlorides, nitrogen, phosphorus and the presence of metals, bacteria or algae. The purpose of water analysis and treatment is described as ensuring water safety and removing impurities for drinking. Common treatment methods and components of water treatment plants are also mentioned.
This document discusses the physical and chemical tests used to analyze drinking water quality. It begins by explaining the types of impurities found in natural water sources and the importance of representative water sampling. It then describes several physical tests to examine water color, taste & odor, temperature, and turbidity. Several chemical tests are also outlined, including those for chlorides, dissolved gases, hardness, pH, alkalinity, nitrogen compounds, and total solids. Finally, it discusses two common bacteriological tests - total count and B-coli tests - to detect bacteria levels.
This presentation describes, how the water can be analyzed using the basic parameters like DO, COD, BOD, Alkalinity and so on. The physical, chemical, and biological parameters were discussed here.
The document provides an overview of the Environmental Engineering-II course. It discusses various topics that will be covered including water treatment, waste water treatment, and solid waste management. The goal is for students to understand concepts of preserving water quality and the latest treatment technologies. Specific areas covered in more depth include:
- Beneficial uses of water and quality requirements, dividing parameters into physical, chemical, and biological.
- Common physical parameters like turbidity, temperature, and their measurement. Chemical characteristics like pH, hardness, chlorides.
- Waste water characteristics and its physical, chemical properties. Pathogens in water and methods to control diseases.
This document provides an introduction to water treatment. It discusses the water cycle and distribution of water on Earth. Only 1% of water is usable, with surface water often contaminated and groundwater usually suitable for direct use if not contaminated. Water treatment methods aim to remove impurities and are classified as physical, chemical, or biological. Common treatment includes coagulation, sedimentation, filtration, and disinfection. Standards for drinking water quality are also presented.
This document discusses various parameters for water quality analysis including physical, chemical and biological parameters. It provides methods for analyzing parameters like turbidity, pH, BOD, COD and various metals. It also lists maximum allowable limits of substances in drinking water according to different standards. Microbiological parameters and their standards according to WHO and EU are also listed.
Total solids in water include total suspended solids, total dissolved solids, and volatile suspended solids. Dissolved solids consist of particles like calcium and chloride that pass through a small pore filter, while suspended solids include particles like silt, clay, and organic debris. Sources of solids in water include sewage, industrial discharge, road runoff, and soil erosion. Measuring total solids is important for controlling wastewater treatment and assessing regulatory compliance. The concentration of total solids is calculated by weighing solids in a water sample before and after drying.
Quality of water :
It includes all the physical, chemical and biological parameters along with test to be used for defining water quality and water schemes for city
This document discusses the quality of water from surface and underground sources. It provides details on various physical, chemical and biological parameters used to analyze water quality. These include turbidity, pH, hardness, dissolved solids, chlorides, nitrogen, phosphorus and the presence of metals, bacteria or algae. The purpose of water analysis and treatment is described as ensuring water safety and removing impurities for drinking. Common treatment methods and components of water treatment plants are also mentioned.
This document discusses the physical and chemical tests used to analyze drinking water quality. It begins by explaining the types of impurities found in natural water sources and the importance of representative water sampling. It then describes several physical tests to examine water color, taste & odor, temperature, and turbidity. Several chemical tests are also outlined, including those for chlorides, dissolved gases, hardness, pH, alkalinity, nitrogen compounds, and total solids. Finally, it discusses two common bacteriological tests - total count and B-coli tests - to detect bacteria levels.
This presentation describes, how the water can be analyzed using the basic parameters like DO, COD, BOD, Alkalinity and so on. The physical, chemical, and biological parameters were discussed here.
The document provides an overview of the Environmental Engineering-II course. It discusses various topics that will be covered including water treatment, waste water treatment, and solid waste management. The goal is for students to understand concepts of preserving water quality and the latest treatment technologies. Specific areas covered in more depth include:
- Beneficial uses of water and quality requirements, dividing parameters into physical, chemical, and biological.
- Common physical parameters like turbidity, temperature, and their measurement. Chemical characteristics like pH, hardness, chlorides.
- Waste water characteristics and its physical, chemical properties. Pathogens in water and methods to control diseases.
This document provides an introduction to water treatment. It discusses the water cycle and distribution of water on Earth. Only 1% of water is usable, with surface water often contaminated and groundwater usually suitable for direct use if not contaminated. Water treatment methods aim to remove impurities and are classified as physical, chemical, or biological. Common treatment includes coagulation, sedimentation, filtration, and disinfection. Standards for drinking water quality are also presented.
This document discusses various parameters for water quality analysis including physical, chemical and biological parameters. It provides methods for analyzing parameters like turbidity, pH, BOD, COD and various metals. It also lists maximum allowable limits of substances in drinking water according to different standards. Microbiological parameters and their standards according to WHO and EU are also listed.
Total solids in water include total suspended solids, total dissolved solids, and volatile suspended solids. Dissolved solids consist of particles like calcium and chloride that pass through a small pore filter, while suspended solids include particles like silt, clay, and organic debris. Sources of solids in water include sewage, industrial discharge, road runoff, and soil erosion. Measuring total solids is important for controlling wastewater treatment and assessing regulatory compliance. The concentration of total solids is calculated by weighing solids in a water sample before and after drying.
WATER ANALYSIS /Water quality testing p.k.kPUSHPA KHOLA
This document discusses water quality testing parameters and methods. It notes that water contains contaminants and periodic testing is needed to ensure safety. Key physical, chemical, and biological characteristics are examined, including odor, temperature, pH, total solids, dissolved solids, suspended solids, alkalinity, hardness, calcium, chloride, fluoride, phosphate, sulfate, nitrate, oil and grease, and dissolved oxygen. Methods like titration, spectrophotometry, and incubation are described. Indian drinking water standards provide guidelines for parameters like TDS, pH, and hardness. Equipment used in analysis includes spectrophotometers, pH/TDS meters, COD digesters, and TSS filter assemblies. Regular water testing
The water samples from different areas of Bashundhara Residential Area in Dhaka were analyzed. The tap water samples showed electrical conductivity ranging from 214-727 μS/cm, total dissolved solids from 107-361 ppm, pH ranging from 6.5-6.9, and turbidity up to 3.06 NTU in one sample. The filtered water samples had better quality overall with lower EC, TDS, and NaCl levels compared to tap water. While most parameters met drinking water standards, some tap water samples exceeded limits for certain measurements.
The document discusses the analysis of surface water quality in Tripura, India. 23 surface water samples were collected from various locations and analyzed for parameters like pH, turbidity, conductivity, calcium, magnesium, iron and more. The water quality index was determined using the concept of information entropy to check if the water was suitable for drinking. The principles, methods, equipment and procedures for determining various physico-chemical parameters of the water samples are also outlined.
There are three classes of bottled water defined by European regulations: natural mineral water, spring water, and other waters. The regulations lay out requirements for marketing, definitions, treatment, microbiological and chemical standards, and packaging. Natural mineral water is groundwater from an underground source that emerges from a spring, and can only have carbon dioxide added or removed. Periodic water analysis is needed to test for pollutants, dissolved minerals, and microbes that may affect human health. Water quality tests cover chemical, microbiological, and physical parameters like turbidity, pH, hardness, and more.
This presentation discusses water chemistry and drinking water quality in India. It provides background on water sources in rural India and key water quality issues. These issues include overextraction of groundwater leading to shortages, and contamination putting millions of people at health risks. The presentation then examines the critical water quality parameters to test like alkalinity, hardness, arsenic, chloride, coliform, pH, fluoride, iron and turbidity. It describes the testing methods and instruments used and health impacts of parameter levels outside acceptable limits. The goal is to assess water quality and safety for drinking.
Nutrient loads and heavy metals assessment along sosiani river, kenya.Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a study that analyzed nutrient loads and heavy metal levels along the Sosiani River in Kenya. Water, soil, and sediment samples were collected from 5 sites along the river and analyzed for nitrates, phosphates, and heavy metals. Nitrate and phosphate levels were found to be below recommended limits. However, concentrations of heavy metals like iron, lead, cadmium, zinc, and copper exceeded Kenyan standards, with zinc levels above WHO standards for drinking water. The study concluded that the river water is not safe for domestic use due to heavy metal contamination.
Routine analysis of wastewaters quality parametersArvind Kumar
This document discusses parameters for analyzing waste water quality. It describes the objectives of waste water analysis which include monitoring treatment plant efficiency. Physical analyses examine characteristics like color and odor, while chemical analyses determine substance amounts. Key parameters discussed include biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), dissolved oxygen, pH, nitrogen, and solids. BOD testing measures oxygen consumed by bacteria breaking down organic matter over time. COD testing uses chemical oxidization to similarly assess ability to consume oxygen. Their ratio provides information on a waste water's biodegradability.
1. Disinfection is the destruction of pathogenic microorganisms. Common disinfection methods include chemical disinfection using chlorine or ozone, and non-chemical methods like heat or UV radiation.
2. Chlorine is the most widely used disinfectant. It reacts with water to form hypochlorous acid and hydrochloric acid. Hypochlorous acid then dissociates to form hypochlorite ion, both of which are effective disinfectants.
3. The CT concept is used to determine chlorination efficiency, where C is the chlorine concentration and T is the contact time. Higher CT values are needed to achieve greater levels of pathogen inactivation.
Chemical oxygen demand (COD) is a measure of the oxygen-consuming capacity of inorganic and organic matter in water. COD determines the amount of oxygen required to oxidize organic compounds and inorganic matter in water. There are two main methods to measure COD - the open reflux method and closed reflux method. The open reflux method involves refluxing the sample and dichromate solution for 2 hours, then titrating the remaining dichromate with ferrous ammonium sulfate to determine COD concentration in mg/L. A high COD means more oxidizable organic material is present in water, which can reduce dissolved oxygen and harm aquatic life. COD is useful for assessing waste strength and effects on receiving environments
This document provides an introduction to physical-chemical water treatment. It discusses the instructor, Hans van Leeuwen, and his background and research interests in wastewater treatment and bioengineering. It then covers various topics related to water treatment including ozone applications, exotic species in ports, human technological development, pollution, waterborne diseases, dissolved oxygen, biochemical oxygen demand, oxygen depletion in streams, and uses the Streeter-Phelps model to analyze an example of oxygen sag in a river.
The document discusses various types of drinking water and their characteristics, as well as WHO and Pakistan water quality standards. It provides details on parameters for bottled water quality limits and methods for water quality analysis. Several studies on water sources and quality in Gilgit-Baltistan are summarized. Spring water is described as naturally filtered and free from contamination, while bottled water may be affected by plastic toxicity, UV radiation during processing, and chemicals added through reverse osmosis.
This Presentation Clarifying about potable Water analysis and their methods which i gave training on operation and maintenance team for Oman Al Ghubrah Independence Water Project (SWRO Desalination 42 MIGD)
This document describes a test to determine the total dissolved solids (TDS) in a water sample. The student measured an electrical conductivity of 440 μS/cm and calculated a TDS level of 264 mg/L. This result is within the WHO excellent range of less than 300 mg/L for drinking water. High TDS can cause water to taste bitter or salty and can harm aquatic animals. Reverse osmosis can be used to remove dissolved solids from water with elevated TDS levels.
The document discusses water quality assessment and surveillance. It outlines various physical, chemical and biological parameters used to evaluate drinking water quality according to WHO guidelines. These include turbidity, total dissolved solids, colour, odor, taste, temperature, pH and presence of inorganic constituents like chloride, calcium, magnesium, iron and sodium. Methods for testing parameters like turbidity, chloride, hardness, iron and fluoride are described. The document also covers bacteriological indicators of water quality including coliforms, E. coli and presence of pathogens. It provides methods for testing coliform bacteria using membrane filtration and multiple tube techniques.
This document summarizes key parameters for characterizing wastewater: pH, total suspended solids (TSS), total dissolved solids (TDS), dissolved oxygen (DO), chemical oxygen demand (COD), and biological oxygen demand (BOD). It provides the typical ranges for these parameters in wastewater and describes the methods for measuring each one, such as using electrodes to measure pH, filtering samples to determine TSS, and titration methods for COD and BOD. Maintaining these parameters within the given ranges is important for ensuring good water quality.
This presentation discusses the drinking water quality parameters, drinking water quality standards, water quality index and classification of water bodies and standards
Enhancing the adsorption of disinfection by products onto activated carbon us...Ahmed Hasham
The removal of contaminants from consumable waters by the traditional water treatment techniques is highly difficult. Disinfection of water alludes to the inactivation or pulverization of unsafe living pathogenic beings, which living in the water. Occurrence of disinfection by products (DBPs) during disinfection normally demonstrates lethal impacts on human health. Granular activated carbon (GAC) has the oldest history of decreasing of organic matters, but its role is reducing by time. TiO2 is used to accelerate the removal of the DBPs. TiO2 nanoparticles have good adsorption phenomena on the removal of those organic compounds at various pHs and temperatures and give good results. This study proved that TiO2 nanoparticles enhanced the efficiency of GAC to remove DBPs from water. While the elimination of trihalomethanes (THMs), dichloroacetic acid (DCAA) and trichloroacetic acid (TCAA) using 0.5 g of GAC was determined as 61.7, 69.8 and 83.2% respectively, the elimination of them by 0.1 g of TiO2 nanoparticles :GAC (1:1) was estimated as 100, 96 and 100%, respectively.
Lecture notes of Environmental Engineering-II as per Solapur university syllabus of TE CIVIL.
Prepared by
Prof S S Jahagirdar,
Associate Professor,
N K Orchid college of Engg and Technology,
Solapur
This document investigates the potential use of spent coffee grounds as a biosorbent for removing heavy metals from wastewater. It first outlines the problem of heavy metal pollution and the need for a low-cost removal method. The objective is to determine if spent coffee grounds can effectively remove heavy metals like lead, copper, and chromium. Experiments test the effects of pH, contact time, adsorbent dose, and initial metal concentration on removal efficiency. Results show that spent coffee grounds can remove over 97% of lead, 94% of copper, and 84% of chromium from solutions. This demonstrates that spent coffee grounds are a promising biosorbent that could provide an inexpensive way to treat wastewater while reusing coffee waste
The document discusses biodiversity, defining it as the variability among living organisms, including diversity within and between species and of ecosystems. It notes that biodiversity is key to human livelihoods and development as it provides ecosystem services and resources that support life. The document then summarizes the Convention on Biological Diversity, which aims to conserve biodiversity and promote its sustainable use and equitable benefit-sharing. Finally, it discusses the importance of biodiversity for achieving poverty reduction, sustainable development, and the UN's Millennium Development Goals.
The document discusses hazardous waste management. It defines hazardous waste and provides examples of sources of hazardous waste such as hospitals, timber treatment, and vehicle servicing. The waste management hierarchy is described which aims to first eliminate hazardous waste production, then reduce, reuse, and recycle waste before disposal. Methods of managing hazardous waste are outlined including waste minimization techniques, chemical, physical, biological, and thermal treatment methods like incineration. The goal of treatment is to reduce the hazard and mobility of wastes to safely dispose of residues.
WATER ANALYSIS /Water quality testing p.k.kPUSHPA KHOLA
This document discusses water quality testing parameters and methods. It notes that water contains contaminants and periodic testing is needed to ensure safety. Key physical, chemical, and biological characteristics are examined, including odor, temperature, pH, total solids, dissolved solids, suspended solids, alkalinity, hardness, calcium, chloride, fluoride, phosphate, sulfate, nitrate, oil and grease, and dissolved oxygen. Methods like titration, spectrophotometry, and incubation are described. Indian drinking water standards provide guidelines for parameters like TDS, pH, and hardness. Equipment used in analysis includes spectrophotometers, pH/TDS meters, COD digesters, and TSS filter assemblies. Regular water testing
The water samples from different areas of Bashundhara Residential Area in Dhaka were analyzed. The tap water samples showed electrical conductivity ranging from 214-727 μS/cm, total dissolved solids from 107-361 ppm, pH ranging from 6.5-6.9, and turbidity up to 3.06 NTU in one sample. The filtered water samples had better quality overall with lower EC, TDS, and NaCl levels compared to tap water. While most parameters met drinking water standards, some tap water samples exceeded limits for certain measurements.
The document discusses the analysis of surface water quality in Tripura, India. 23 surface water samples were collected from various locations and analyzed for parameters like pH, turbidity, conductivity, calcium, magnesium, iron and more. The water quality index was determined using the concept of information entropy to check if the water was suitable for drinking. The principles, methods, equipment and procedures for determining various physico-chemical parameters of the water samples are also outlined.
There are three classes of bottled water defined by European regulations: natural mineral water, spring water, and other waters. The regulations lay out requirements for marketing, definitions, treatment, microbiological and chemical standards, and packaging. Natural mineral water is groundwater from an underground source that emerges from a spring, and can only have carbon dioxide added or removed. Periodic water analysis is needed to test for pollutants, dissolved minerals, and microbes that may affect human health. Water quality tests cover chemical, microbiological, and physical parameters like turbidity, pH, hardness, and more.
This presentation discusses water chemistry and drinking water quality in India. It provides background on water sources in rural India and key water quality issues. These issues include overextraction of groundwater leading to shortages, and contamination putting millions of people at health risks. The presentation then examines the critical water quality parameters to test like alkalinity, hardness, arsenic, chloride, coliform, pH, fluoride, iron and turbidity. It describes the testing methods and instruments used and health impacts of parameter levels outside acceptable limits. The goal is to assess water quality and safety for drinking.
Nutrient loads and heavy metals assessment along sosiani river, kenya.Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a study that analyzed nutrient loads and heavy metal levels along the Sosiani River in Kenya. Water, soil, and sediment samples were collected from 5 sites along the river and analyzed for nitrates, phosphates, and heavy metals. Nitrate and phosphate levels were found to be below recommended limits. However, concentrations of heavy metals like iron, lead, cadmium, zinc, and copper exceeded Kenyan standards, with zinc levels above WHO standards for drinking water. The study concluded that the river water is not safe for domestic use due to heavy metal contamination.
Routine analysis of wastewaters quality parametersArvind Kumar
This document discusses parameters for analyzing waste water quality. It describes the objectives of waste water analysis which include monitoring treatment plant efficiency. Physical analyses examine characteristics like color and odor, while chemical analyses determine substance amounts. Key parameters discussed include biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), dissolved oxygen, pH, nitrogen, and solids. BOD testing measures oxygen consumed by bacteria breaking down organic matter over time. COD testing uses chemical oxidization to similarly assess ability to consume oxygen. Their ratio provides information on a waste water's biodegradability.
1. Disinfection is the destruction of pathogenic microorganisms. Common disinfection methods include chemical disinfection using chlorine or ozone, and non-chemical methods like heat or UV radiation.
2. Chlorine is the most widely used disinfectant. It reacts with water to form hypochlorous acid and hydrochloric acid. Hypochlorous acid then dissociates to form hypochlorite ion, both of which are effective disinfectants.
3. The CT concept is used to determine chlorination efficiency, where C is the chlorine concentration and T is the contact time. Higher CT values are needed to achieve greater levels of pathogen inactivation.
Chemical oxygen demand (COD) is a measure of the oxygen-consuming capacity of inorganic and organic matter in water. COD determines the amount of oxygen required to oxidize organic compounds and inorganic matter in water. There are two main methods to measure COD - the open reflux method and closed reflux method. The open reflux method involves refluxing the sample and dichromate solution for 2 hours, then titrating the remaining dichromate with ferrous ammonium sulfate to determine COD concentration in mg/L. A high COD means more oxidizable organic material is present in water, which can reduce dissolved oxygen and harm aquatic life. COD is useful for assessing waste strength and effects on receiving environments
This document provides an introduction to physical-chemical water treatment. It discusses the instructor, Hans van Leeuwen, and his background and research interests in wastewater treatment and bioengineering. It then covers various topics related to water treatment including ozone applications, exotic species in ports, human technological development, pollution, waterborne diseases, dissolved oxygen, biochemical oxygen demand, oxygen depletion in streams, and uses the Streeter-Phelps model to analyze an example of oxygen sag in a river.
The document discusses various types of drinking water and their characteristics, as well as WHO and Pakistan water quality standards. It provides details on parameters for bottled water quality limits and methods for water quality analysis. Several studies on water sources and quality in Gilgit-Baltistan are summarized. Spring water is described as naturally filtered and free from contamination, while bottled water may be affected by plastic toxicity, UV radiation during processing, and chemicals added through reverse osmosis.
This Presentation Clarifying about potable Water analysis and their methods which i gave training on operation and maintenance team for Oman Al Ghubrah Independence Water Project (SWRO Desalination 42 MIGD)
This document describes a test to determine the total dissolved solids (TDS) in a water sample. The student measured an electrical conductivity of 440 μS/cm and calculated a TDS level of 264 mg/L. This result is within the WHO excellent range of less than 300 mg/L for drinking water. High TDS can cause water to taste bitter or salty and can harm aquatic animals. Reverse osmosis can be used to remove dissolved solids from water with elevated TDS levels.
The document discusses water quality assessment and surveillance. It outlines various physical, chemical and biological parameters used to evaluate drinking water quality according to WHO guidelines. These include turbidity, total dissolved solids, colour, odor, taste, temperature, pH and presence of inorganic constituents like chloride, calcium, magnesium, iron and sodium. Methods for testing parameters like turbidity, chloride, hardness, iron and fluoride are described. The document also covers bacteriological indicators of water quality including coliforms, E. coli and presence of pathogens. It provides methods for testing coliform bacteria using membrane filtration and multiple tube techniques.
This document summarizes key parameters for characterizing wastewater: pH, total suspended solids (TSS), total dissolved solids (TDS), dissolved oxygen (DO), chemical oxygen demand (COD), and biological oxygen demand (BOD). It provides the typical ranges for these parameters in wastewater and describes the methods for measuring each one, such as using electrodes to measure pH, filtering samples to determine TSS, and titration methods for COD and BOD. Maintaining these parameters within the given ranges is important for ensuring good water quality.
This presentation discusses the drinking water quality parameters, drinking water quality standards, water quality index and classification of water bodies and standards
Enhancing the adsorption of disinfection by products onto activated carbon us...Ahmed Hasham
The removal of contaminants from consumable waters by the traditional water treatment techniques is highly difficult. Disinfection of water alludes to the inactivation or pulverization of unsafe living pathogenic beings, which living in the water. Occurrence of disinfection by products (DBPs) during disinfection normally demonstrates lethal impacts on human health. Granular activated carbon (GAC) has the oldest history of decreasing of organic matters, but its role is reducing by time. TiO2 is used to accelerate the removal of the DBPs. TiO2 nanoparticles have good adsorption phenomena on the removal of those organic compounds at various pHs and temperatures and give good results. This study proved that TiO2 nanoparticles enhanced the efficiency of GAC to remove DBPs from water. While the elimination of trihalomethanes (THMs), dichloroacetic acid (DCAA) and trichloroacetic acid (TCAA) using 0.5 g of GAC was determined as 61.7, 69.8 and 83.2% respectively, the elimination of them by 0.1 g of TiO2 nanoparticles :GAC (1:1) was estimated as 100, 96 and 100%, respectively.
Lecture notes of Environmental Engineering-II as per Solapur university syllabus of TE CIVIL.
Prepared by
Prof S S Jahagirdar,
Associate Professor,
N K Orchid college of Engg and Technology,
Solapur
This document investigates the potential use of spent coffee grounds as a biosorbent for removing heavy metals from wastewater. It first outlines the problem of heavy metal pollution and the need for a low-cost removal method. The objective is to determine if spent coffee grounds can effectively remove heavy metals like lead, copper, and chromium. Experiments test the effects of pH, contact time, adsorbent dose, and initial metal concentration on removal efficiency. Results show that spent coffee grounds can remove over 97% of lead, 94% of copper, and 84% of chromium from solutions. This demonstrates that spent coffee grounds are a promising biosorbent that could provide an inexpensive way to treat wastewater while reusing coffee waste
The document discusses biodiversity, defining it as the variability among living organisms, including diversity within and between species and of ecosystems. It notes that biodiversity is key to human livelihoods and development as it provides ecosystem services and resources that support life. The document then summarizes the Convention on Biological Diversity, which aims to conserve biodiversity and promote its sustainable use and equitable benefit-sharing. Finally, it discusses the importance of biodiversity for achieving poverty reduction, sustainable development, and the UN's Millennium Development Goals.
The document discusses hazardous waste management. It defines hazardous waste and provides examples of sources of hazardous waste such as hospitals, timber treatment, and vehicle servicing. The waste management hierarchy is described which aims to first eliminate hazardous waste production, then reduce, reuse, and recycle waste before disposal. Methods of managing hazardous waste are outlined including waste minimization techniques, chemical, physical, biological, and thermal treatment methods like incineration. The goal of treatment is to reduce the hazard and mobility of wastes to safely dispose of residues.
This document discusses the analysis and design of one-way and two-way concrete slabs. It describes how one-way slabs transfer loads in one direction while two-way slabs transfer loads in two perpendicular directions. The coefficient method is presented for analyzing bending moments in two-way slabs using moment coefficients from tables based on support conditions and span ratios. An example is provided to calculate moment coefficients and design a two-way slab using working stress and ultimate strength design methods.
Priodeep Chowdhury is a lecturer in the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering at Uttara University. The document discusses the process of designing small water supply systems. It covers determining water demand, factors that influence demand, defining different service levels, population projections, water consumption calculations, non-revenue water allowances, fire flow requirements, storage needs, and analyzing pipe networks. Key steps include assessing existing and projected populations, estimating domestic and non-domestic water usage, accounting for system losses, and sizing infrastructure to reliably meet demand under various conditions.
This document provides instructions for performing a sieve analysis test to determine the particle size distribution of fine aggregates or sand. The key steps include: 1) preparing a representative sample, 2) arranging sieves in order of decreasing size, 3) sieving the sample and weighing the material retained on each sieve, 4) calculating the percentage retained, cumulative percentage retained, and cumulative percentage passing through each sieve. The results are used to evaluate whether the sand is well graded or poorly graded and to calculate metrics like the uniformity coefficient.
This document discusses soil classification systems. It describes the purpose of classifying soils and two commonly used systems: the Unified Soil Classification System (USCS) and the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials System (AASHTO). The USCS divides soils into major groups based on grain size and plasticity characteristics. The AASHTO system focuses on classifying soils for road construction using groups determined by liquid limit, plasticity index, and grain size distribution. Procedures and examples are provided for classifying soils in both systems.
The document discusses soil texture and grain size distribution. It defines different soil types based on particle size, including gravel, sand, silt and clay. Various classification systems are used to categorize soils based on predominant particle sizes. The size of particles in a soil can range widely, from boulders larger than 60mm to clay particles smaller than 2 micrometers. The grain size distribution of a soil, including metrics like D10, D30 and D60, impact its engineering properties such as permeability and compressibility.
The document discusses two common soil classification systems: the Unified Soil Classification System (USCS) and the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials system (AASHTO). The USCS classifies soils into four major categories based on grain size, plasticity, and compressibility. The AASHTO system classifies soils into eight groups based on particle size distribution, liquid limit, and plasticity index for use in road construction. Both systems provide a standardized way to categorize soils based on simple tests to understand their engineering properties and behavior.
Water treatment involves many processes to purify water for human use and consumption. Preliminary treatment includes screening to remove large debris, presedimentation to settle out sand and grit, and aeration to remove gases like carbon dioxide. The main processes are coagulation/flocculation to combine particles, sedimentation to settle the floc, filtration, and disinfection. Aeration is used to remove gases that cause odor, taste, or corrosion issues from the water supply.
The document summarizes various stages of wastewater treatment processes. It discusses preliminary treatment which removes solids, grit, and grease. Primary treatment uses sedimentation to remove 60% of suspended solids. Secondary treatment uses biological processes like activated sludge and oxidation ditches to remove organic matter. Tertiary treatment further removes nutrients and particles through processes like filtration and disinfection. The document provides details on the treatment units and processes involved at each stage of wastewater treatment.
Determination of the Ph &Turbidity Value in Betul Block Five YearIJERA Editor
Acidic and basic are two extremes that describe chemicals, just like hot and cold are two extremes that describe
temperature. Mixing acids and bases can cancel out their extreme effects; much like mixing hot and cold water
can even out the water temperature. A substance that is neither acidic nor basic is neutral. The ph of the water in
betul block is increasing year by year and day by day. It was observed that there are 0.5% increase in the ph of
water in betul block. The optimum pH will vary in different supplies according to the composition of the water
and the nature of the construction materials used in the distribution system, but is often in the range 6.5–9.5.
Extreme pH values can result from accidental spills, treatment breakdowns, and insufficiently cured cement
mortar pipe linings. No health-based guideline value is proposed for pH.
Water sources and types are analyzed to understand water quality. There are two aspects of water analysis - physical and chemical. Physical analysis measures properties like taste, odor, color, turbidity, pH and total dissolved solids. Chemical analysis identifies substances like arsenic, lead, iron and chlorine. Hardness is caused by calcium and magnesium salts from temporary sources like bicarbonates or permanent sources like chlorides and sulfates. Understanding water sources and properties through analysis is important for determining potability and treatment needs.
The document discusses various physical, chemical, and biological properties that are monitored in water resources, including:
1. Acidity, alkalinity, conductivity, color, phosphorus, nitrogen, and total solids. It describes methods for measuring these parameters and their environmental significance.
2. Hardness is discussed in detail, including what causes hard water, its effects on soap and limescale formation, and methods for softening hard water using heating or sodium carbonate.
3. Sources of parameters like phosphorus, nitrogen, and dissolved solids that can impact water quality are outlined. Maintaining appropriate levels of these is important for balancing aquatic life and human use of water resources.
An explanation of water basics, designed to facilitate an understanding of typical water contaminants. This presentation will be very helpful for those interested in water filtration.
water pollution control and measurmentRekha Kumari
Today we all are facing the biggest problem that is scarcity of drinking water as the level of water is continually decreasing.
In many countries people die because of contaminated water as they do not have any water resources that contain pure water.
The first question comes in mind when we talk about water management is how can we manage water. For this we need some well-planned strategies like if we know the places where heavy rainfall occur, then we can put extra efforts there in order to save water for future use.
This document provides information about an interior services course focused on plumbing. It includes 5 units: water supply in buildings, building drainage, plumbing, solid waste disposal, and a services studio. Unit 1 discusses water quality standards and methods for removing impurities from water, including chlorination. It also describes factors that affect water quality like turbidity, pH, and hardness. The document provides detailed information about an interior services course curriculum and content related to plumbing and water supply.
This document provides an introduction to water treatment. It discusses that contaminated water can cause diseases and outlines some global statistics on water-related illnesses. It then describes the objectives and basic processes of water treatment. The document focuses on characterizing raw water sources and quality by examining physical, chemical, and biological parameters. Key water quality indicators discussed include turbidity, pH, hardness, chlorides, bacteria (including coliforms) and more. Standard methods for measuring various water quality parameters are also introduced.
This document discusses various physicochemical parameters that are used to test water quality, including temperature, pH, electrical conductivity, carbon dioxide, alkalinity, bicarbonate, biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), and chemical oxygen demand (COD). It explains that water quality must be regularly monitored and tested against these parameters to ensure it is safe for drinking, domestic, agricultural, and industrial uses. Each parameter is important to measure as it provides insight into the water ecosystem and potential contamination issues.
This document summarizes water quality and sources of raw water. It discusses that water quality is analyzed physically, chemically, and biologically. The physical characteristics discussed are turbidity, color, taste and odor, and temperature. Turbidity measures the clarity of water and is impacted by suspended particles. Color in water can indicate organic substances or algae. Taste and odor come from minerals, metals, salts, or biological reactions. Temperature affects chemical reactions in water systems and the growth of microorganisms. Overall water quality impacts the health, aesthetic, and usable properties of water.
This document provides information on water chemistry standards and how to interpret water quality data. It discusses key water quality parameters like dissolved oxygen, biological oxygen demand, nitrogen, pH, turbidity, and others. Optimal levels are outlined for supporting aquatic life. Methods for testing parameters like temperature, dissolved oxygen, biochemical oxygen demand, salinity, phosphates, nitrogen, hardness and more are described.
This document provides descriptions of commonly considered water quality constituents including dissolved oxygen, biochemical oxygen demand, pH and acidity, nutrients, conductivity and dissolved solids, and metals, pesticides, and other organic contaminants. It explains how each constituent affects water quality and aquatic life. For example, it describes how dissolved oxygen levels influence what types of fish can survive, how biochemical oxygen demand reduces dissolved oxygen, and how pH affects the solubility of chemicals and their toxicity to aquatic organisms.
This document discusses water quality parameters that are analyzed to evaluate raw or treated water. It describes several physical characteristics like turbidity, color, taste, and odor that are measured. It also discusses various chemical characteristics tested like pH, hardness, chlorides, and nitrates. Finally, it covers bacteriological characteristics like coliform testing using standard plate count, membrane filter technique, and most probable number methods to indicate water quality.
This document provides an overview of water quality parameters for water treatment. It discusses the importance of water quality for drinking water and outlines several physical, chemical, and biological parameters that are used to define water quality. These include turbidity, color, temperature, tastes and odors, total solids, alkalinity, pH, and more. The document also gives information on analytical testing methods for various parameters and how treatment processes can be used to improve water quality.
The document discusses water treatment and its importance. It provides information on water sources and common impurities. Standards for drinking water quality according to BIS and WHO are listed. Hardness of water is defined as the characteristic that prevents soap lathering. Types of hardness including temporary and permanent hardness are described. Methods for determining water hardness, including the complexometric titration method using EDTA, are outlined. Issues caused by hard water in industries and households are summarized. Boiler troubles from hard water like scaling, corrosion and foaming are explained along with their causes and prevention methods.
The document discusses water treatment and the importance of water. It provides information on water sources and common impurities. Standards for drinking water parameters according to BIS and WHO are listed. Hardness of water is defined and types are described. Methods for determining hardness including complexometric titration are outlined. Issues caused by hard water in industries and domestic use are explained. Boiler troubles from hard water like scaling, corrosion and carryover are discussed along with their causes and prevention methods.
wholesomeness, Requirements for Domestic Use. Impurities in Water. Objects & purpose of Water Analysis.Collection of Samples. Classification of Analysis of Water: Physical,
Chemical & Biological Examination of Water.
The document discusses various water quality parameters including water pollution, water quality standards, and important requirements of water for domestic use. It defines total solids as the total of all solids in a water sample, including total suspended solids, total dissolved solids, and volatile suspended solids. It also discusses how total solids are measured by weighing the solids present in a known water sample volume before and after drying to evaporate the water. The document provides classifications of impurities based on size and nature, and describes several common methods for analyzing water quality parameters.
Water is essential for life but requires treatment to remove contaminants and make it safe for human use. The document outlines various processes involved in water treatment including coagulation and flocculation to remove small particles, sedimentation to allow particles to settle, filtration to remove remaining particles, and disinfection to kill pathogens. It also discusses common contaminants found in water and standards for drinking water quality set by the EPA. The overall goal of water treatment is to provide a safe, clean water supply for public health.
Water is essential for life and covers most of the Earth's surface. It needs to be treated to remove contaminants that can harm human health or cause aesthetic issues. The main water treatment processes include filtration, disinfection, coagulation, and sedimentation to remove pathogens, chemicals, and particles. Proper treatment provides safe drinking water.
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Water quality
1. Priodeep Chowdhury; Lecturer; Dept. of CEE; Uttara University.//Water Quality.
W A T E R Q U A L I T Y
Color
Pure water should not possess any color.
Most water available to us is colored to some extent due to the presence of various impurities (i.e.,
iron and manganese in association with organic matter from decaying vegetation).
Impurities may be in the colloidal form in water or it may be in suspended state.
Color caused by dissolved and colloidal form of impurities is called true color and that caused by
suspended matter, in addition to dissolved and colloidal matters, is called apparent color.
Ground water may show color due to the presence of iron compound.
Color intensity generally increases with an increase in pH. For this reason recording pH along with
color is advised.
Unit
Color is usually expressed in platinum-cobalt units (Pt-Co Units) which is based on the intensity of
color produced by a solution of Platinum and Cobalt salts that approximate the yellow-brown color of
natural waters.
For easier comparison color discs are prepared to represent various units of color. The sample is
compared with the color discs and the color is determined.
Limit
According to Bangladesh Environment Preservation Act (1997), drinking water standard for color is
15 units.
Environmental Significance
Colored water is not always harmful to man, but in most cases it is.
Even if the water is not harmful, it is not preferred by people for aesthetic reasons.
Also, disinfection by chlorination of waters containing natural organics (which produces color)
results in the formation of chloroform, other trihalomethanes, and a range of other chlorinated
organics, leading to problems which are a major concern in water treatment.
So it is important to limit the color of water for domestic supplies.
pH
pH is a measure of the acid or alkaline condition of water.
It is a way of expressing the hydrogen ion concentration, or more preciously, the hydrogen ion
activity.
pH is defined as follows:
pH = -log [H+
] (1)
Where, [H+
] is the concentration (or activity) of hydrogen ion (or proton) in moles per liter (M).
2. Priodeep Chowdhury; Lecturer; Dept. of CEE; Uttara University.//Water Quality.
Water dissociates to form hydrogen ion (H+
) and hydroxyl ion (OH-
) according to the following
equation:
H2O=H+
+ OH-
(2)
At equilibrium, we can write,
= [H+
][OH-
]/ [H20] (3)
But, since concentration of water is extremely large (approximately 55.5 mol/L) and is diminished very
little by the slight degree of ionization, it may be considered as a constant and its activity is taken as 1.0.
Thus, Eq. 3 may be written as:
Kw = [H+
][OH-
] (4)
Where Kw = Equilibrium Constant
For pure water at 25 C, 1Kw = 1477
101010
. This is known as the ion product of water or
ionization constant for water. In other words, water (dc-ionized or distilled water) at 25 0C
dissociates to yield 10-7
mol/L of hydrogen ion (H+
) and 10-7
mol/L of hydroxyl ion (OH-
). Hence,
according to Eq. 1, pH of deionized water is equal to 7.0.
The pH is usually represented by a scale ranging from zero to 14 with 7 being neutral.
Most natural waters are slightly alkaline due to the presence of bicarbonate and less often carbonate.
Water with pH outside the desirable neutral range may exhibit sour tastes and accelerate the corrosion
of metallic plumbing fittings and hot water services.
Aeration removes carbon dioxide and hence causes a rise in pH value.
Limit
According to WHO & Bangladesh Environment Preservation Act (1997), drinking water standard for
pH is 6.5 - 8.5.
Environmental Significance
A controlled value of pH is desired in water supplies, sewage treatment and chemical process plants.
In water supply pH is important for coagulation, disinfection, water softening and corrosion control.
In biological treatment of waste pH is the most significant. Organisms involved in treatment plants
are operative within certain pH range.
Turbidity
Turbidity is defined by the International Standards Organization (ISO) as the reduction of
transparency of a liquid caused by the presence of undissolved matter.
Turbidity can be interpreted as a measure of the relative clarity of water and often indicates the
presence of dispersed, suspended solids; particles not in true solution such as silt, clay, algae and
other microorganisms; organic matter and other minute particles.
Turbidity is the phenomena where by a specific portion of a light beam passing through a liquid
medium is deflected from undissolved particles.
3. Priodeep Chowdhury; Lecturer; Dept. of CEE; Uttara University.//Water Quality.
The diffusion of light caused by undissolved particles in the medium to a lesser or greater degree of
the deflection depends on:
the type of the particles (absorbance)
the size of particles
the concentration (the number of particles)
the type and shape of particles
the wavelength of the light
the angle of measurement
Unit
Nephelometric Turbidity Unit
The propensity of particles to scatter a light beam focused on them is now considered a more
meaningful measure of turbidity in water. Turbidity measured this way uses an instrument called
a nephelometer with the detector set up to the side of the light beam. More light reaches the detector if
there are lots of small particles scattering the source beam than if there are few. The units of turbidity
from a calibrated nephelometer are called Nephelometric Turbidity Units (NTU). To some extent, how
much light reflects for a given amount of particulates is dependent upon properties of the particles like
their shape, color, and reflectivity. For this reason (and the reason that heavier particles settle quickly
and do not contribute to a turbidity reading), a correlation between turbidity and total suspended
solids (TSS) is somewhat unique for each location or situation.
Jackson Turbidity Unit:
There are several practical ways of checking water quality, the most direct being some measure
of attenuation (that is, reduction in strength) of light as it passes through a sample column of water. The
alternatively used Jackson Candle method (units: Jackson Turbidity Unit or JTU) is essentially the
inverse measure of the length of a column of water needed to completely obscure a candle flame viewed
through it. The more water needed (the longer the water column), the clearer the water. Of course water
alone produces some attenuation, and any substances dissolved in the water that produce color can
attenuate some wavelengths. Modern instruments do not use candles, but this approach of attenuation of
a light beam through a column of water should be calibrated and reported in JTUs.
Environmental Significance
Excessive turbidity, or cloudiness, in potable water is aesthetically unappealing, and may also
represent a health concern.
Turbidity can provide food and shelter for pathogens. If not removed, turbidity can promote re
growth of pathogens in water distribution systems, leading to waterborne disease out-breaks, which
have caused significant cases of gastroenteritis throughout the world.
Suspended solids (the particles of turbidity) provide shelter" for microbes by reducing their exposure
to disinfectants.
Further, waters with high turbidity from organic sources may give rise to a substantial chlorine
demand.
This could result in reductions in the free chlorine residual in distribution systems as protection
against possible recontamination.
4. Priodeep Chowdhury; Lecturer; Dept. of CEE; Uttara University.//Water Quality.
Alkalinity
Alkalinity is a measure of the acid-neutralizing capacity of water.
It is an aggregate measure of the sum of all titratable bases in the sample.
Alkalinity in most natural waters is due to the presence of carbonate (CO3
2-
), bicarbonate (HCO3),
and hydroxyl (OH-
) anions.
However, borates, phosphates, silicates, and other bases also contribute to alkalinity if present.
This property is important when determining the suitability of water for irrigation and/or mixing
some pesticides and when interpreting and controlling wastewater treatment processes.
Alkalinity is usually reported as equivalents of calcium carbonate (CaCO3).
Hardness
Hardness is most commonly associated with the ability of water to precipitate soap.
As hardness increases, more soap is needed to achieve the same level of cleaning due to the
interactions of the hardness ions with the soap.
Chemically, hardness is often defined as the sum of polyvalent cation concentrations dissolved in the
water. The most common polyvalent cations in fresh water are calcium (Ca++
) and magnesium
(Mg++
).
Hardness is usually divided into two categories: carbonate hardness and noncarbonate hardness.
Carbonate hardness is usually due to the presence of bicarbonate [Ca(HCO3)2 and Mg(HCO3)2]
and carbonate (CaCO3 and MgCO3) salts.
Non-carbonate hardness is contributed by salts such as calcium chloride (CaCl2), magnesium
sulfate (MgSO4), and magnesium chloride (MgCl2).
Total hardness equals the sum of carbonate and non-carbonate hardness. In addition to Ca++
and
Mg++
, iron (Fe++
), strontium (Sr++
), and manganese (Mn++
) may also contribute to hardness (APHA
et al. 1998).
Table. Principal cations causing hardness and the major anions associated with them
Cations causing
Hardness
Anion
Ca2+
HCO3
-
Mg2+
SO4
2-
Sr2+
Cl-
Fe2+
NO3
-
Mn2+
SiO3
2-
However, the contribution of these ions is usually negligible.
Hardness is usually reported as equivalents of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and is generally classified
as soft, moderately hard, hard, and very hard.
5. Priodeep Chowdhury; Lecturer; Dept. of CEE; Uttara University.//Water Quality.
Table: Water hardness classifications (reported as CaCO3 equivalents) used by the U.S. EPA
(EPA 1986).
It is best to report results as the actual equivalents of CaCO3 since the inclusive limits for each
category may differ between users of the information.
Pseudo-Hardness
Sea, brackish, and other waters that contain appreciable amounts of Na+
interfere with the normal
behavior of soap because of the common ion effect. Sodium is not a hardness-causing cation, and so
this action which it exhibits when present in water in high concentration is termed pseudo-hardness.
Significance of Hardness
Hardness can also affect the utility of water for industrial purposes. Hard water is often the source of
scale formed in hot water heaters and industrial systems where water is heated. This scale results from
the precipitation of calcium carbonate, which becomes less water soluble as the temperature increases
(Snoeyink and Jenkins 1980). In these situations, water is usually softened by precipitating the CaCO3 or
by using ion exchange softening methods.
Sources of Alkalinity and Hardness
Water alkalinity and hardness are primarily a function of
1) The geology of the area where the surface water is located; and
2) The dissolution of carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere.
The ions responsible for alkalinity and hardness originate from the dissolution of geological minerals
into rain and ground water.
Rainwater is naturally acidic, which tends to solubilize some minerals more easily.
Surface and ground water sources in areas with limestone formations are especially likely to have
high hardness and alkalinity due to the dissolution of bicarbonates and carbonates.
Chemical Action:
The interaction of CO2 with the dissolved minerals is described by the carbonate system.
The carbonate system describes a series of chemical equilibrium with CO2(g) in the atmosphere and
various bicarbonates and carbonates dissolved from surrounding mineral deposits. CO2(g) readily
dissolves in water (Eq. 1).
The dissolved CO2(aq)reacts with water molecules to form carbonic acid (H2CO3*), which is very
unstable and quickly dissociates, yielding H+
and a bicarbonate ion (HCO3
-
) (Eq. 2 and 3).
Soft <75
Moderately hard 75–150
Hard 150–300
Very hard >300
6. Priodeep Chowdhury; Lecturer; Dept. of CEE; Uttara University.//Water Quality.
At pH = 6.3, the amount of CO2 dissolved in water equals the amount of bicarbonate ion (HCO3
-
).
Dissolved CO2 is dominant when pH < 6.3.
At higher pH, the HCO3
-
dissociates to yield H+
and a carbonate ion (CO3
2-
) (Eq. 4).
CO2(g)↔CO2(aq) Eq. 1
CO2(aq) + H2O↔H2CO3* Eq. 2
H2CO3*↔H+
+ HCO3
-
pKa= 6.3 Eq. 3
HCO3
-
↔H+
+ CO3
=
pKa= 10.3 Eq. 4
At pH 10.3, the bicarbonate ion concentration equals the carbonate ion concentration.
CO3
2-
is dominant at pH > 10.3, and HCO3
-
dominates between pH 6.3 and 10.3.
The pH of most natural waters falls in the 6 to 9 range because of the bicarbonate buffering.
Alkalinity and Hardness Relationship
Alkalinity and hardness are related through common ions formed in aquatic systems.
Specifically, the counter-ions associated with the bicarbonate and carbonate fraction of alkalinity are
the principal ions responsible for hardness (usually Ca++
and Mg++
) (Eq. 3 and 4).
As a result, the carbonate fraction of hardness (expressed as CaCO3 equivalents) is chemically
equivalent to the bicarbonates of alkalinity present in water (Burton Jr. and Pitt 2002) in areas where
the water interacts with limestone (Timmons et al. 2002).
Any hardness greater than the alkalinity represents non-carbonate hardness.
7. Priodeep Chowdhury; Lecturer; Dept. of CEE; Uttara University.//Water Quality.
Calculating Calcium Hardness as CaCO3
The hardness (in mg/L as CaCO3) for any given metallic ion is calculated using following Equation:
Problem1.
A water sample has calcium content of 51 mg/L. What is this calcium hardness expressed as CaCO3?
Solution
Problem 2.
The calcium content of a water sample is 26 mg/L. What is this calcium hardness expressed as CaCO3?
Solution
CALCULATING MAGNESIUM HARDNESS AS CaCO3
Problem 3.
A sample of water contains 24 mg/L magnesium. Express this magnesium hardness as CaCO3.
Solution
8. Priodeep Chowdhury; Lecturer; Dept. of CEE; Uttara University.//Water Quality.
CALCULATING TOTAL HARDNESS
Calcium and magnesium ions are the primary cause of hardness in water. To find total hardness, we
simply add the concentrations of calcium and magnesium ions, expressed in terms of calcium carbonate
(CaCO3)
Problem 4.
A sample of water has calcium content of 70 mg/L as CaCO3 and magnesium content of 90 mg/L as
CaCO3.
Solution
Total hardness (mg/L) = 70 mg/L + 90 mg/L
= 160 mg/L as CaCO3
Problem 5.
Determine the total hardness as CaCO3 of a sample of water that has calcium content of 28 mg/L and
magnesium content of 9 mg/L.
Solution
Express calcium and magnesium in terms of CaCO3:
9. Priodeep Chowdhury; Lecturer; Dept. of CEE; Uttara University.//Water Quality.
CALCULATING CARBONATE AND NONCARBONATE HARDNESS
As mentioned, total hardness is comprised of calcium and magnesium hardness.
Once total hardness has been calculated, it is sometimes used to determine another expression
hardness — carbonate and non-carbonate.
When hardness is numerically greater than the sum of bicarbonate and carbonate alkalinity, that
amount of hardness equivalent to the total alkalinity (both in units of mg CaCO3/L) is referred to as
the carbonate hardness; the amount of hardness in excess of this is the noncarbonated hardness.
When the hardness is numerically equal to or less than the sum of carbonate and non-carbonate
alkalinity, all hardness is carbonate hardness, and non-carbonate hardness is absent.
Again, the total hardness is comprised of carbonate hardness and non-carbonate hardness:
Total hardness = carbonate hardness + non-carbonate hardness
When the alkalinity (as CaCO3) is greater than the total hardness, all the hardness is carbonate
hardness:
Total hardness (mg/L) as CaCO3 = carbonate hardness (mg/L) as CaCO3
When the alkalinity (as CaCO3) is less than the total hardness, then the alkalinity represents
carbonate hardness and the balance of the hardness is non-carbonate hardness:
When carbonate hardness is represented by the alkalinity: