TCP/IP is a set of communication protocols that allows devices to connect on the internet. It has two main protocols - TCP and IP. TCP ensures reliable delivery of segments through acknowledgements and retransmissions. IP handles addressing and routing of packets between networks. Common applications that use TCP/IP include HTTP, FTP, SMTP and more. It is popular due to its early development and support in operating systems like UNIX.
TCP/IP have 5 layers, whereas OSI model have 7 layers in its Model. TCP/IP is known for the secured connection and comunication. I have explained all functions and definitions of layers in TCP/IP Model
The document provides an overview of the TCP/IP model, describing each layer from application to network. The application layer allows programs access to networked services and contains high-level protocols like TCP and UDP. The transport layer handles reliable delivery via protocols like TCP and UDP. The internet layer organizes routing with the IP protocol. The network layer consists of device drivers and network interface cards that communicate with the physical transmission media.
The document discusses the TCP/IP protocol suite and compares it to the OSI model. It describes the layers of the TCP/IP model including the physical, data link, internet, and transport layers. The transport layer uses TCP and UDP, with TCP being connection-oriented and reliable, while UDP is connectionless. The internet layer uses IP to transport datagrams independently. The OSI model has 7 layers while TCP/IP has 5 layers that do not directly correspond to the OSI layers.
Protocols And IP suite PPT
Contents are
History
TCP/IP Suite Layer
a} Network Interface
b} Internet Layer
c} Transport Layer
d} Application Layer
3.Comparison of OSI and IP
This document discusses various application layer protocols. It begins with an agenda that lists OSI models, encapsulation processes, application protocol design, and specific protocols including HTTP, DNS, FTP, Telnet, DHCP, and SMTP. For each protocol, it provides details on how the protocol functions, message formats, and roles of clients and servers. The document is intended to describe key application layer protocols and their basic operations.
The transport layer provides efficient, reliable, and cost-effective process-to-process delivery by making use of network layer services. The transport layer works through transport entities to achieve its goal of reliable delivery between application processes. It provides an interface for applications to access its services.
The document discusses network models including the OSI model and TCP/IP model. It describes the seven layers of the OSI model and the functions of each layer. It also discusses the four layers of the TCP/IP model and compares the two models, noting they are similar in concept but differ in number of layers and how protocols fit within each model.
The document describes the seven-layer OSI model, with each layer responsible for certain network functions. The physical layer transmits raw bits over a transmission medium. The data link layer transmits frames between nodes. The network layer delivers packets from source to destination hosts via routing. The transport layer provides reliable process-to-process message delivery. The session layer establishes and manages communication sessions. The presentation layer handles translation and formatting. The application layer provides services to the user/application.
TCP/IP have 5 layers, whereas OSI model have 7 layers in its Model. TCP/IP is known for the secured connection and comunication. I have explained all functions and definitions of layers in TCP/IP Model
The document provides an overview of the TCP/IP model, describing each layer from application to network. The application layer allows programs access to networked services and contains high-level protocols like TCP and UDP. The transport layer handles reliable delivery via protocols like TCP and UDP. The internet layer organizes routing with the IP protocol. The network layer consists of device drivers and network interface cards that communicate with the physical transmission media.
The document discusses the TCP/IP protocol suite and compares it to the OSI model. It describes the layers of the TCP/IP model including the physical, data link, internet, and transport layers. The transport layer uses TCP and UDP, with TCP being connection-oriented and reliable, while UDP is connectionless. The internet layer uses IP to transport datagrams independently. The OSI model has 7 layers while TCP/IP has 5 layers that do not directly correspond to the OSI layers.
Protocols And IP suite PPT
Contents are
History
TCP/IP Suite Layer
a} Network Interface
b} Internet Layer
c} Transport Layer
d} Application Layer
3.Comparison of OSI and IP
This document discusses various application layer protocols. It begins with an agenda that lists OSI models, encapsulation processes, application protocol design, and specific protocols including HTTP, DNS, FTP, Telnet, DHCP, and SMTP. For each protocol, it provides details on how the protocol functions, message formats, and roles of clients and servers. The document is intended to describe key application layer protocols and their basic operations.
The transport layer provides efficient, reliable, and cost-effective process-to-process delivery by making use of network layer services. The transport layer works through transport entities to achieve its goal of reliable delivery between application processes. It provides an interface for applications to access its services.
The document discusses network models including the OSI model and TCP/IP model. It describes the seven layers of the OSI model and the functions of each layer. It also discusses the four layers of the TCP/IP model and compares the two models, noting they are similar in concept but differ in number of layers and how protocols fit within each model.
The document describes the seven-layer OSI model, with each layer responsible for certain network functions. The physical layer transmits raw bits over a transmission medium. The data link layer transmits frames between nodes. The network layer delivers packets from source to destination hosts via routing. The transport layer provides reliable process-to-process message delivery. The session layer establishes and manages communication sessions. The presentation layer handles translation and formatting. The application layer provides services to the user/application.
The document discusses the Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP). ICMP provides error reporting, congestion reporting, and first-hop router redirection. It uses IP to carry its data end-to-end and is considered an integral part of IP. ICMP messages are encapsulated in IP datagrams and are used to report errors in IP datagrams, though some errors may still result in datagrams being dropped without a report. ICMP defines various message types including error messages like destination unreachable and informational messages like echo request and reply.
Although the OSI reference model is universally recognized, the historical and technical open standard of the Internet is Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol (TCP/IP).
The TCP/IP reference model and the TCP/IP protocol stack make data communication possible between any two computers, anywhere in the world, at nearly the speed of light.
UDP is a connectionless transport layer protocol that runs over IP. It provides an unreliable best-effort service where packets may be lost, delivered out of order, or duplicated. UDP has a small 8-byte header and is lightweight, with no connection establishment or guarantee of delivery. This makes it fast and low overhead, suitable for real-time applications like streaming media where resending lost packets would cause delay.
switching techniques in data communication and networkingHarshita Yadav
This document discusses different types of network switching: circuit switching, packet switching, and message switching. It describes circuit switching as establishing a dedicated electrical path for communication between two ports. Packet switching breaks communication down into small packets that are routed through the network based on destination addresses. There are two approaches for packet switching - datagram and virtual circuit. Datagram packets can take different paths to the destination while virtual circuit establishes a pre-planned route. Message switching does not establish a dedicated path, and each message is treated independently with the destination address added. The document was submitted by several students to their professor.
A computer network is defined as the interconnection of two or more computers. It is done to enable the computers to communicate and share available resources.
Components of computer network
Network benefits
Disadvantages of computer network
Classification by their geographical area
Network classification by their component role
Types of servers
HTTP is the application-layer protocol for transmitting hypertext documents across the internet. It works by establishing a TCP connection between an HTTP client, like a web browser, and an HTTP server. The client sends a request to the server using methods like GET or POST. The server responds with a status code and the requested resource. HTTP is stateless, meaning each request is independent and servers do not remember past client interactions. Cookies and caching are techniques used to maintain some state and improve performance.
IP specifies the format of packets, also called #datagrams, and the addressing scheme. Most networks combine IP with a higher-level protocol called Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), which establishes a virtual connection between a destination and a source.
If you want to purchase the content e-mail me on dulith1989@gmail.com
The document describes the TCP/IP model and its layers:
1. The application layer contains common protocols like FTP, SMTP, HTTP, and DNS.
2. The transport layer contains TCP and UDP which manage end-to-end message transmission and error handling.
3. The network layer is IP which handles routing and congestion of data packets.
4. The lower layers include the data link layer which manages reliable data delivery to physical networks, and the physical layer which defines the physical media.
Network architecture defines the design of a communications network, including its physical components and their organization, operational principles, and data formats. There are two main network architectures: the OSI reference model and the TCP/IP model. The OSI model has seven layers - physical, data link, network, transport, session, presentation, and application - with each layer performing a distinct function in sending data across a network in a standardized way.
This document discusses different types of computer network switching, including circuit switching, packet switching, and virtual circuit switching. Circuit switching establishes a dedicated connection between nodes for the duration of a call. Packet switching divides messages into packets that are routed independently through a network on a first-come, first-served basis without dedicated connections. Virtual circuit switching combines aspects of circuit switching and packet switching by establishing paths for packets through a three-phase process of setup, data transfer using local addressing, and teardown.
An internetwork connects individual networks together so they function as a single large network. It addresses the challenges of connecting different networks that may use varying technologies and speeds. The OSI reference model describes how information passes through seven layers as it moves between software applications on different computer systems. Each layer adds control information in the form of headers and trailers to communicate with its peer layer on other systems. This allows information to be reliably exchanged between networked devices.
The document is a presentation submitted by Harpreet Kaur on data communications. It contains information on various topics related to data communications including an introduction to data communication, components of data communication such as sender, receiver, message, transmission medium and protocol. It also discusses data flow modes, analog and digital signals, types of transmission media including guided media such as coaxial cable, twisted pair cable and fiber optic cable, and unguided media. Finally, it covers networking devices such as modem, hub, switch and router.
Transmission media (data communication)Pritom Chaki
Transmission media is the material pathway that connects computers, different kinds of devices and people on a network. It can be compared to a superhighway carrying lots of information. Transmission media uses cables or electromagnetic signals to transmit data.
This document provides an overview of various topics related to the network layer, including IPv4, IPv6, ARP, RARP, mobile IP, routing algorithms, and routing protocols. It begins with basics of IPv4 such as its addressing scheme and role in interconnecting networks. IPv6 is then introduced, along with reasons for its development and key features like its large 128-bit addresses. Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) and Reverse ARP (RARP) are also covered. The document concludes by discussing routing algorithms like link-state and distance-vector, as well as protocols including RIP, OSPF, and BGP.
This document provides an overview of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model, which defines seven layers of network communication. It describes each layer's functions and responsibilities, including the physical layer for transmitting bits, the data link layer for framing and addressing, the network layer for routing packets, the transport layer for process-to-process delivery, the session layer for dialog control, the presentation layer for data translation, and the application layer for user interfaces and services. The OSI model was designed by ISO in the late 1970s to provide a standard framework for network protocol implementation across different systems.
The document discusses internetworking models and the OSI reference model. It provides details on each of the 7 layers of the OSI model:
1. The Application layer handles communication between applications and users.
2. The Presentation layer translates and formats data for transmission.
3. The Session layer establishes and manages communication sessions between devices.
4. The Transport layer segments data, establishes logical connections, and ensures reliable delivery between hosts.
This document provides an overview of various computer networking concepts and components. It begins with definitions of networking basics like communications and telecommunications. It then describes the essential parts of a basic network including a message, transmitter, medium, receiver and destination. The document outlines different network topologies like bus, ring, star, star-bus and mesh. It also discusses network types like peer-to-peer and client-server networks. The document provides details on common networking media and components including coaxial cable, twisted pair cables, optical fibers, wireless transmission, hubs, gateways, routers, bridges and switches. It concludes with a brief introduction to the IEEE 802 family of standards related to local and metropolitan area networks.
The network layer is responsible for delivering packets from source to destination. It must know the topology of the subnet and choose appropriate paths. When sources and destinations are in different networks, the network layer must deal with these differences. The network layer uses logical addressing that is independent of the underlying physical network. Routing ensures packets are delivered through routers and switches from source to destination across interconnected networks.
TCP provides reliable data transfer over unreliable packet networks by using acknowledgments, retransmissions, and adaptive congestion control. It works with IP to transfer data through routers that may drop packets. While TCP ensures reliable delivery, it must control its transmission rate to avoid overwhelming network capacity and causing congestion collapse. This is achieved through additive-increase, multiplicative-decrease of the congestion window and techniques like active queue management.
- TCP uses congestion control and avoidance to prevent network congestion collapse. It operates in a distributed manner without centralized control.
- TCP's congestion control is based on additive increase, multiplicative decrease (AIMD) and uses a congestion window and packet pacing to smoothly increase and decrease transmission rates in response to packet loss as a signal of congestion.
- The key mechanisms are slow start for initial rapid ramp up, congestion avoidance for gradual increase, fast retransmit for quick recovery from single losses, and timeout for recovery from multiple losses or ack losses. These mechanisms work together to keep TCP stable and efficient under different network conditions.
The document discusses the Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP). ICMP provides error reporting, congestion reporting, and first-hop router redirection. It uses IP to carry its data end-to-end and is considered an integral part of IP. ICMP messages are encapsulated in IP datagrams and are used to report errors in IP datagrams, though some errors may still result in datagrams being dropped without a report. ICMP defines various message types including error messages like destination unreachable and informational messages like echo request and reply.
Although the OSI reference model is universally recognized, the historical and technical open standard of the Internet is Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol (TCP/IP).
The TCP/IP reference model and the TCP/IP protocol stack make data communication possible between any two computers, anywhere in the world, at nearly the speed of light.
UDP is a connectionless transport layer protocol that runs over IP. It provides an unreliable best-effort service where packets may be lost, delivered out of order, or duplicated. UDP has a small 8-byte header and is lightweight, with no connection establishment or guarantee of delivery. This makes it fast and low overhead, suitable for real-time applications like streaming media where resending lost packets would cause delay.
switching techniques in data communication and networkingHarshita Yadav
This document discusses different types of network switching: circuit switching, packet switching, and message switching. It describes circuit switching as establishing a dedicated electrical path for communication between two ports. Packet switching breaks communication down into small packets that are routed through the network based on destination addresses. There are two approaches for packet switching - datagram and virtual circuit. Datagram packets can take different paths to the destination while virtual circuit establishes a pre-planned route. Message switching does not establish a dedicated path, and each message is treated independently with the destination address added. The document was submitted by several students to their professor.
A computer network is defined as the interconnection of two or more computers. It is done to enable the computers to communicate and share available resources.
Components of computer network
Network benefits
Disadvantages of computer network
Classification by their geographical area
Network classification by their component role
Types of servers
HTTP is the application-layer protocol for transmitting hypertext documents across the internet. It works by establishing a TCP connection between an HTTP client, like a web browser, and an HTTP server. The client sends a request to the server using methods like GET or POST. The server responds with a status code and the requested resource. HTTP is stateless, meaning each request is independent and servers do not remember past client interactions. Cookies and caching are techniques used to maintain some state and improve performance.
IP specifies the format of packets, also called #datagrams, and the addressing scheme. Most networks combine IP with a higher-level protocol called Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), which establishes a virtual connection between a destination and a source.
If you want to purchase the content e-mail me on dulith1989@gmail.com
The document describes the TCP/IP model and its layers:
1. The application layer contains common protocols like FTP, SMTP, HTTP, and DNS.
2. The transport layer contains TCP and UDP which manage end-to-end message transmission and error handling.
3. The network layer is IP which handles routing and congestion of data packets.
4. The lower layers include the data link layer which manages reliable data delivery to physical networks, and the physical layer which defines the physical media.
Network architecture defines the design of a communications network, including its physical components and their organization, operational principles, and data formats. There are two main network architectures: the OSI reference model and the TCP/IP model. The OSI model has seven layers - physical, data link, network, transport, session, presentation, and application - with each layer performing a distinct function in sending data across a network in a standardized way.
This document discusses different types of computer network switching, including circuit switching, packet switching, and virtual circuit switching. Circuit switching establishes a dedicated connection between nodes for the duration of a call. Packet switching divides messages into packets that are routed independently through a network on a first-come, first-served basis without dedicated connections. Virtual circuit switching combines aspects of circuit switching and packet switching by establishing paths for packets through a three-phase process of setup, data transfer using local addressing, and teardown.
An internetwork connects individual networks together so they function as a single large network. It addresses the challenges of connecting different networks that may use varying technologies and speeds. The OSI reference model describes how information passes through seven layers as it moves between software applications on different computer systems. Each layer adds control information in the form of headers and trailers to communicate with its peer layer on other systems. This allows information to be reliably exchanged between networked devices.
The document is a presentation submitted by Harpreet Kaur on data communications. It contains information on various topics related to data communications including an introduction to data communication, components of data communication such as sender, receiver, message, transmission medium and protocol. It also discusses data flow modes, analog and digital signals, types of transmission media including guided media such as coaxial cable, twisted pair cable and fiber optic cable, and unguided media. Finally, it covers networking devices such as modem, hub, switch and router.
Transmission media (data communication)Pritom Chaki
Transmission media is the material pathway that connects computers, different kinds of devices and people on a network. It can be compared to a superhighway carrying lots of information. Transmission media uses cables or electromagnetic signals to transmit data.
This document provides an overview of various topics related to the network layer, including IPv4, IPv6, ARP, RARP, mobile IP, routing algorithms, and routing protocols. It begins with basics of IPv4 such as its addressing scheme and role in interconnecting networks. IPv6 is then introduced, along with reasons for its development and key features like its large 128-bit addresses. Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) and Reverse ARP (RARP) are also covered. The document concludes by discussing routing algorithms like link-state and distance-vector, as well as protocols including RIP, OSPF, and BGP.
This document provides an overview of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model, which defines seven layers of network communication. It describes each layer's functions and responsibilities, including the physical layer for transmitting bits, the data link layer for framing and addressing, the network layer for routing packets, the transport layer for process-to-process delivery, the session layer for dialog control, the presentation layer for data translation, and the application layer for user interfaces and services. The OSI model was designed by ISO in the late 1970s to provide a standard framework for network protocol implementation across different systems.
The document discusses internetworking models and the OSI reference model. It provides details on each of the 7 layers of the OSI model:
1. The Application layer handles communication between applications and users.
2. The Presentation layer translates and formats data for transmission.
3. The Session layer establishes and manages communication sessions between devices.
4. The Transport layer segments data, establishes logical connections, and ensures reliable delivery between hosts.
This document provides an overview of various computer networking concepts and components. It begins with definitions of networking basics like communications and telecommunications. It then describes the essential parts of a basic network including a message, transmitter, medium, receiver and destination. The document outlines different network topologies like bus, ring, star, star-bus and mesh. It also discusses network types like peer-to-peer and client-server networks. The document provides details on common networking media and components including coaxial cable, twisted pair cables, optical fibers, wireless transmission, hubs, gateways, routers, bridges and switches. It concludes with a brief introduction to the IEEE 802 family of standards related to local and metropolitan area networks.
The network layer is responsible for delivering packets from source to destination. It must know the topology of the subnet and choose appropriate paths. When sources and destinations are in different networks, the network layer must deal with these differences. The network layer uses logical addressing that is independent of the underlying physical network. Routing ensures packets are delivered through routers and switches from source to destination across interconnected networks.
TCP provides reliable data transfer over unreliable packet networks by using acknowledgments, retransmissions, and adaptive congestion control. It works with IP to transfer data through routers that may drop packets. While TCP ensures reliable delivery, it must control its transmission rate to avoid overwhelming network capacity and causing congestion collapse. This is achieved through additive-increase, multiplicative-decrease of the congestion window and techniques like active queue management.
- TCP uses congestion control and avoidance to prevent network congestion collapse. It operates in a distributed manner without centralized control.
- TCP's congestion control is based on additive increase, multiplicative decrease (AIMD) and uses a congestion window and packet pacing to smoothly increase and decrease transmission rates in response to packet loss as a signal of congestion.
- The key mechanisms are slow start for initial rapid ramp up, congestion avoidance for gradual increase, fast retransmit for quick recovery from single losses, and timeout for recovery from multiple losses or ack losses. These mechanisms work together to keep TCP stable and efficient under different network conditions.
This document discusses TCP over wireless networks. It explains that TCP was designed for fixed networks with low delay and errors, but wireless networks have high delay, errors and variable bandwidth. This causes TCP to perform poorly over wireless. The document outlines various techniques to improve TCP performance over wireless like Fast Retransmit and Recovery, Slow Start proposals with larger initial windows, ACK counting and ACK-every-segment. It also discusses protocols like HTTP, RLP that operate between TCP and the wireless transmission layers.
The document discusses the actor model and how it relates to Erlang processes and fault tolerance. It introduces some key concepts of the actor model like actors communicating asynchronously via message passing. It also explains how Erlang processes are isolated with no shared memory, and how this helps enable fault tolerance since failures don't impact other processes. Finally, it mentions how OTP provides patterns like supervisors and state machines to help build robust and fault tolerant applications in Erlang.
The document summarizes election results and political changes in India in 2014. It discusses:
- The 2014 Indian general election was held from April to May in 9 phases, with over 814 million eligible voters. The BJP won 282 seats, becoming the first party in 30 years to win a majority.
- Narendra Modi was elected leader of the BJP and sworn in as Prime Minister on May 26th, marking the beginning of a new era and a rejection of dynastic and caste-based politics.
- Over 10 crore new, young voters influenced the results, expressing frustration with slow growth. Modi successfully tapped into the aspirations of this generation looking for better employment opportunities and governance.
List of CrowdFunding Websites and much more!Ari Massoudi
List of Crowd Funding Websites & Websites to Find & Connect with Angel Investors and Venture Capital-Private Equity firms + list of Outsourcing, Crowdsourcing and Open-Innovation Websites
This document is an issue of the Berlin city guide "In Your Pocket" for August-September 2014. It provides information for visitors on entertainment, culture, sights and transportation in Berlin. The guide includes articles on different Berlin neighborhoods, upcoming cultural events and performances, and details on the city's public transportation system. It also contains advertisements.
The document discusses various protocols and approaches for improving the performance of TCP over wireless networks. It notes that wireless networks have higher bit error rates, lower bandwidth, and mobility issues compared to wired networks. Several protocols are described that aim to distinguish wireless losses from congestion losses to avoid unnecessary TCP reactions:
- Indirect TCP splits the connection and handles losses locally at the base station. Snoop caches packets at the base station for retransmission.
- Mobile TCP further splits the connection and has the base station defer acknowledgments. It can also inform the sender about handoffs versus interface switches.
- Multiple acknowledgments uses two types of ACKs to isolate the wireless and wired portions of the network.
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Knowledge has been gathered from ten years of interdisciplinary addiction research as well as from two years of experience of the first German Alcohol and Baclofen Forum. This brochure aims at giving an overview of the present state of treatment methods of addiction, anxiety, and depression.
This „Blackbox“ and the matching „Whitebox“ contain more than forty authentic user reports covering their experiences over a period of 6 to 24 months. They provide a clear picture:
„The End of my Addiction“ remains no longer solely the individual experience of a French cardiologist (O. Ameisen, 2004). Moreover it is the reality as experienced by numerous patients and the doctors who treat them – out of necessity – relying on „off- label-use“.
Wi-Fi is a wireless networking technology that allows devices to connect to the Internet without being physically connected with wires. It uses radio waves to transmit data between devices like computers, smartphones and access points. Common standards include 802.11b, 802.11g and 802.11n. Wi-Fi networks have advantages like mobility and easy installation but also limitations such as limited range, security risks from interference and potential hacks. Basic security techniques are used to encrypt Wi-Fi connections and protect data transmission.
This document provides tips and best practices for deploying EPiServer sites, including planning for dependencies, licenses, server setup, file management, continuous integration, caching, security, and maintenance. It discusses phases like planning, development, deployment, and launch. Key areas covered are external integrations, server configuration in IIS, cache invalidation, log management, and performance optimization. Continuous integration tools and configuring remote event handling are also recommended.
The document discusses different channel assignment strategies for wireless networks, including fixed channel assignment where each cell is predetermined channels and dynamic channel assignment where channels are allocated on request based on factors like channel occupancy. It also describes a partially overlapping channel (FPOC) assignment strategy that aims to increase capacity while minimizing interference through intelligent channel allocation between neighboring nodes.
The document summarizes several trends in technology, including:
1) Rich internet applications are becoming more common through technologies like AJAX and JavaScript, though challenges around different form factors and inputs remain.
2) Programming languages like Python, Ruby, and Scala are growing in popularity while Java's mindshare declines, and polyglot programming is increasing.
3) Cloud computing and NoSQL databases are becoming more widely adopted beyond early adopters, with NoSQL providing alternatives to relational databases for some applications.
4) REST and web services will compete inside enterprises, while trends like mashups, map reduce, and social networking are originating on the internet and moving into enterprises.
This document contains a list of links to various Freenet sites in the form of Universal Site Keys (USKs). There are over 30 USKs listed spanning topics including images, forums, blogs and more.
This paper attempts to look behind the wheels of android and keeping special focus on custom rom’s and basically check for security misconfiguration’s which could yield to device compromise, which may result in malware infection or data theft.
The document provides a list of over 100 URLs. It appears to be sharing backlink opportunities for a contest related to search engine optimization (SEO). The URLs are from a variety of sites and domains and cover different topics. The purpose seems to be to gather links from these sites for a marketing or SEO campaign.
The document discusses the TCP/IP protocol suite including the layers, protocols, addressing, and routing. It describes the layers of TCP/IP including application, transport, internet, and link layers. Examples are provided of protocols at each layer like SMTP, TCP, IP, and ARP. Network addressing, subnets, port numbers, and routing between routers is also covered at a high level.
TCP/IP is a set of communication protocols used to connect devices on the internet and private networks. It includes the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and Internet Protocol (IP). TCP provides reliable data transmission and IP provides routing of packets between networks. TCP/IP was adopted by the internet and became popular due to its early development and support in UNIX. It uses port numbers and IP addresses to allow multiple applications to operate over the same network connection. Domain names are used to make IP addresses easier for humans to remember.
TCP/IP is a set of communication protocols used to connect devices on the internet and other networks. It has two main protocols - TCP for reliable transmission of data between devices, and IP for addressing devices and routing packets across networks. TCP/IP uses ports to allow multiple applications to run simultaneously on a single device. Routers use IP addressing and routing tables to determine the best path for sending packets between devices on different networks.
The Internet protocol suite, commonly known as TCP/IP, is a framework for org...MathivananP4
The Internet protocol suite, commonly known as TCP/IP, is a framework for organizing the set of communication protocols used in the Internet and similar computer networks according to functional criteria.
The document discusses the OSI 7-layer model and TCP/IP networking stack. It describes the purpose and key characteristics of each layer, including the physical, data link, network, transport, and application layers. Each layer uses protocol data units and passes information to other layers using predefined services. Well-known ports are assigned at the transport layer to indicate the destination for incoming data traffic.
TCP/IP Protocol Suite model Transmission Control Protocol27230106
TCP/IP is a set of protocols developed to allow cooperating computers to share resources across a network
TCP stands for “Transmission Control Protocol”
IP stands for “Internet Protocol”
They are Transport layer and Network layer protocols respectively of the protocol suite
The most well known network that adopted TCP/IP is Internet – the biggest WAN in the world
The document discusses the four levels of addressing used in TCP/IP:
1. Physical address - identifies network interfaces or devices
2. Logical address - IP addresses that identify devices on the network
3. Port address - identifies applications/processes on devices using port numbers
4. Application-specific address - some applications use their own addressing schemes above the port level.
Get into Networking by Clearing Comptia Network+ Testcertblaster
The document summarizes key aspects of the OSI model, including:
1) The OSI model breaks network communication into 7 layers (physical, data link, network, transport, session, presentation, application) to standardize network components and allow different hardware/software to communicate.
2) Each layer has a specific role like physical addressing (data link), logical addressing (network), and ensuring reliable data transmission (transport).
3) The TCP/IP model is similar to OSI but combines some layers. It uses IP addresses, TCP/UDP, and port numbers to route packets between applications running on devices.
4) Common network devices operate at different layers, with cables and wireless access points at layer 1
TCP/IP is an internet protocol suite developed by DARPA that defines the rules and standards for communication between electronic devices connected to the internet. It operates on four layers - application, transport, internet, and network interface. Key protocols include TCP and IP which work together to break data into packets and route them to the correct destination. ARP and RARP protocols map IP addresses to MAC addresses to enable communication between devices on a local network.
The document discusses the TCP/IP protocol suite and transport layer services. Some key points:
- TCP/IP was originally developed by DARPA and later included in UNIX. It maps to the OSI layers and supports various physical/data link protocols.
- The transport layer provides logical communication between application processes on different hosts. TCP and UDP are the main transport protocols.
- TCP provides reliable, in-order byte streams using connection establishment and acknowledgments. UDP is a simpler connectionless protocol.
- Port numbers and IP addresses are used to multiplex/demultiplex segments between sockets at hosts for processes to communicate.
- TCP uses a three-way handshake to establish reliable connections between
The document discusses the TCP/IP reference model and its layers. It describes the four layers - network access, internet, transport and application layers. The network access layer deals with sending and receiving packets on the network medium. The internet layer handles addressing and routing of packets using protocols like IP, ARP, ICMP. The transport layer engages in host-to-host transport of data using protocols like TCP and UDP. The application layer provides applications access to lower layers and contains various protocols for different applications such as HTTP, FTP, SMTP, DNS etc.
The document discusses the TCP/IP reference model and its layers. It describes the four layers - network access, internet, transport, and application layers. The network access layer deals with sending and receiving packets on the network medium. The internet layer handles addressing and routing of packets. The transport layer engages in host-to-host transport of data using protocols like TCP and UDP. The application layer provides applications access to services and contains various protocols like HTTP, FTP, SMTP etc. The document also maps the TCP/IP layers to the seven layer OSI reference model.
This document provides an overview of the TCP/IP protocol suite. It begins by defining what TCP/IP is, noting that it is a set of protocols that allow cooperating computers to share resources across a network. TCP/IP is made up of the TCP and IP protocols at the transport and network layers respectively. The document then discusses specific protocols at each layer, including application layer protocols like FTP, SMTP, and HTTP, as well as transport layer protocols TCP and UDP. It also covers network layer protocols like IP, ARP, and ICMP. The document concludes by discussing TCP/IP addressing schemes and how networks are divided into subnets.
This document provides an overview of TCP/IP concepts and networking fundamentals. It describes the four layers of the TCP/IP protocol stack - application, transport, internet and network. It explains key TCP and UDP concepts like ports, flags, and segments. It also covers IP addressing fundamentals like classes, subnetting, and planning address assignments. Binary, hexadecimal and base64 numbering systems are defined.
This document provides an overview of key topics in data communications and networking protocols. It defines what a protocol is, describing the key elements of syntax, semantics, and timing. It also discusses layered protocol architectures like TCP/IP and the OSI model. Common protocol functions are explained, such as encapsulation, fragmentation and reassembly, and addressing. Application layer protocols for the internet like HTTP, SMTP, and TCP sockets are covered. The document uses examples to illustrate client-server and peer-to-peer network architectures as well as socket programming.
UDP is a transport layer protocol that provides an unreliable datagram service. It is positioned directly above IP in the TCP/IP protocol stack. UDP packets contain a header with source and destination port numbers as well as length fields, but do not establish connections, provide sequencing, or guarantee delivery like TCP. Well-known ports are assigned to common UDP applications like DNS, time synchronization, and trivial file transfer.
TCP/IP is a set of protocols that allows computers to communicate over a network. It includes IP for routing packets between hosts and TCP and UDP for transporting data between processes. TCP provides reliable, connection-oriented delivery while UDP provides simpler, connectionless delivery. The protocols originated in the 1970s from research funded by the US military and became the standard for internet communication, allowing different computer platforms to interconnect globally through a common protocol.
The document discusses the history and layers of the TCP/IP protocol model. It was created by the Department of Defense to build a network that could survive any conditions. The four layers are application, transport, internet, and network access. The application layer supports protocols for file transfer, email, and other applications. The transport layer provides end-to-end control and segmentation of data. The internet layer routes packets through the network using IP. The network access layer defines LAN and WAN technologies.
The document provides an overview of the TCP/IP protocol stack, including its layers and core protocols. It discusses the four layers of TCP/IP - network interface, internet, transport and application layers. Key protocols like IP, TCP, UDP, ARP are explained along with their functions. The relationship between TCP/IP and OSI models is covered. The use of ports, common port numbers, and risks of open ports are also summarized.
TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) is the basic communication language or protocol of the Internet. It can also be used as a communications protocol in a private network (either an intranet or an extranet).
This is my presentation of a baseband processor, which I have developed as a major project in masters, This presentation, gives you an overview of results and effectiveness, of the processor in respect of FPGA and ASIC level.
The document proposes using a distributed and cooperative communication approach for controlling future robots. A distributed approach would provide robustness over a centralized system by avoiding single point of failures. However, the environment is unpredictable, so cooperative mechanisms are needed like storing commands that can be used when needed. The document also suggests combining centralized and distributed systems by allowing the centralized system to change dynamically. This would decrease the probability of failure enormously. It then discusses using concepts from network science like scale-free networks to help define fast routing protocols for vehicle communication networks where nodes change positions quickly.
This presentation is all about, prediction approach when, n number of users have entered the system, then the n+1 th user will enter, what he will buy most favourably
This document provides an overview of equalizer design in digital communication systems. It discusses the need for equalization to address inter-symbol interference caused by channel limitations. It describes two main equalizer designs: zero-forcing equalizers that apply the inverse channel response and minimum mean square error equalizers that minimize the error between the equalized signal and desired signal. It explains how the tap coefficients of these equalizers can be calculated using linear algebra methods like solving sets of equations. The document concludes by noting that equalization is a key technique in modern communications to compensate for channel distortions.
The document describes generating and analyzing a scale-free network using the Barabási-Albert (BA) preferential attachment model and Fruchterman-Reingold (FR) force-directed graph drawing algorithm. Key points:
- The BA model is used to generate an undirected scale-free network with 500 nodes and approximately 688 edges based on the given mean degree of 2.75.
- Degree distribution and circular layout are analyzed for the initial BA network. Giant components are then removed, increasing the average degree to 3.19.
- The FR algorithm is applied to visualize the network, treating nodes as electrons and edges as springs. Darker colors represent higher-degree nodes.
This is basically a case study which is done on vehicles braking system which is effected due to emic effect which caused many accidents.
This presentation thus points out the emic effects and how it can be controlled in safety products
This presentation shows the emic effects in instruments of radio frequency and how it can be minimized.
Note: Just using this work which I found on internet during my work on EMIC effect and re edited for use
Vacuum circuit breakers use vacuum to extinguish the arc when opening contacts. They have fixed contacts, moving contacts, and an arc shield mounted inside a vacuum chamber. When a fault is detected, the contacts separate and the arc is quickly extinguished in the vacuum. This allows vacuum circuit breakers to reliably interrupt high fault currents. They have advantages over other circuit breakers like being compact, reliable, and able to interrupt heavy fault currents without fire hazards.
A stepper motor converts electrical pulses into discrete mechanical movements of its shaft. The shaft rotates in discrete step increments that correspond directly to the sequence and frequency of input pulses. There are three main types of stepper motors: variable-reluctance, permanent magnet, and hybrid. Stepper motors provide controlled movement and are well-suited for applications that require control of rotation angle, speed, position, and synchronization. They have advantages like full torque at standstill and excellent response to starting, stopping, and reversing.
Rockets propel themselves through the combustion of onboard fuel and ejection of exhaust gases from a nozzle. They produce thrust through Newton's third law of equal and opposite reactions. Rockets come in different propulsion types including chemical, nuclear, and electric and are used to launch missiles, scientific sounding rockets, satellite launch vehicles, and spacecraft thrusters. Key components include multiple staging to increase thrust capacity during launch, and control systems to maintain stability and steer the rocket during flight.
Robotics in army presentation is just an another term used in this presentation as to lead all the way how robots have became main and constructive parts in army and wars
Quarks are elementary particles that combine to form composite particles like protons and neutrons. There are six types of quarks that differ in their mass and electric charge. Quarks are never found in isolation due to the strong force and possess properties like spin, electric charge, and color charge. The up, down, charm, strange, top, and bottom quarks make up three generations and have corresponding antiquarks. Experiments in the 1960s-70s discovered quarks were the constituents of protons and neutrons. The quark model helped explain experimental results and is part of the Standard Model of particle physics.
Power plant technology involves the engineering and processes used to generate electricity. There are three main types of power plants: thermal, hydroelectric, and nuclear. Thermal power plants burn fossil fuels to heat water and create steam that spins turbines connected to generators. Hydroelectric plants use the kinetic energy of moving water from dams to drive turbines. Nuclear plants use controlled nuclear fission to heat water and create steam to power generators.
This presentation is all on optical tweezers .Optical tweezers (originally called "single-beam gradient force trap") are scientific instruments that use a highly focused laser beam.
E-waste refers to electronic products that are near or at the end of their useful life. It contains toxic materials like lead, cadmium, and mercury that can harm the environment and human health. The amount of e-waste is increasing rapidly as electronics usage grows. Most e-waste in India is handled by the informal sector using unsafe methods. Proper e-waste management includes collection, sorting, recycling, and treatment to safely handle toxins. The government is working with organizations and implementing regulations, but increased awareness and producer responsibility are still needed to address this challenging waste stream.
This presentation talks about the carbon nano tubes technology.A nanotube is a nanometer-scale tube-like structure which helps in developing a strong and intuitive structures for future and possible uses
The document discusses anti-collision devices for trains and cars. It describes an anti-collision device called "Raksha Kavach" developed by Konkan Railways for trains that uses radio communication, GPS, and microprocessors to automatically assess trains' courses and prevent collisions. It also discusses the concept of "crashless cars" that use sensors, cameras, radars and vehicle-to-vehicle networking to monitor traffic and issue collision warnings to drivers or automatically apply brakes to avoid accidents by recognizing objects over 100 feet away and detecting unintentional lane departures. The document notes that while such technologies could prevent most train and vehicle collisions, high costs remain a major obstacle to their widespread adoption.
An In-Depth Exploration of Natural Language Processing: Evolution, Applicatio...DharmaBanothu
Natural language processing (NLP) has
recently garnered significant interest for the
computational representation and analysis of human
language. Its applications span multiple domains such
as machine translation, email spam detection,
information extraction, summarization, healthcare,
and question answering. This paper first delineates
four phases by examining various levels of NLP and
components of Natural Language Generation,
followed by a review of the history and progression of
NLP. Subsequently, we delve into the current state of
the art by presenting diverse NLP applications,
contemporary trends, and challenges. Finally, we
discuss some available datasets, models, and
evaluation metrics in NLP.
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3. 3
A. What is TCP/IP?
• TCP/IP is a set of protocols developed to allow
cooperating computers to share resources across a
network
• TCP stands for “Transmission Control Protocol”
• IP stands for “Internet Protocol”
• They are Transport layer and Network layer
protocols respectively of the protocol suite
• The most well known network that adopted
TCP/IP is Internet – the biggest WAN in the world
TCP/IP
4. 4
• A protocol is a collection of rules and procedures
for two computers to exchange information
• Protocol also defines the format of data that is
being exchanged
What is a protocol?
TCP/IP
5. 5
Why TCP/IP is so popular?
• TCP/IP was developed very early
• Technologies were widely discussed and circulated
in documents called “Request for Comments”
(RFC) – free of charge
• Supported by UNIX operating system
TCP/IP
6. 6
TCP/IP Model
• Because TCP/IP was developed earlier than the
OSI 7-layer mode, it does not have 7 layers but
only 4 layers
OSI 7-layerTCP/IP Protocol Suite
FTP, SMTP, Telnet,
HTTP,…
TCP, UDP
IP, ARP, ICMP
Network Interface
TCP/IP
7. 7
• Application layer protocols define the rules when
implementing specific network applications
• Rely on the underlying layers to provide accurate
and efficient data delivery
• Typical protocols:
• FTP – File Transfer Protocol
• For file transfer
• Telnet – Remote terminal protocol
• For remote login on any other computer on the
network
• SMTP – Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
• For mail transfer
• HTTP – Hypertext Transfer Protocol
• For Web browsing
TCP/IP
8. 8
• TCP/IP is built on “connectionless” technology,
each datagram finds its own way to its destination
• Transport Layer protocols define the rules of
• Dividing a chunk of data into segments
• Reassemble segments into the original chunk
• Typical protocols:
• TCP – Transmission Control Protocol
• Provide further the functions such as reordering
and data resend
• UDP – User Datagram Service
• Use when the message to be sent fit exactly into a
datagram
• Use also when a more simplified data format is
required
TCP/IP
9. 9
• Network layer protocols define the rules of how to
find the routes for a packet to the destination
• It only gives best effort delivery. Packets can be
delayed, corrupted, lost, duplicated, out-of-order
• Typical protocols:
• IP – Internet Protocol
• Provide packet delivery
• ARP – Address Resolution Protocol
• Define the procedures of network address / MAC
address translation
• ICMP – Internet Control Message Protocol
• Define the procedures of error message transfer
TCP/IP
12. 12
• The underlying layers have guaranteed accurate
data delivery
• We need to make a lot agreements with the server
in application layer before sending mail
1. Agree on how data is represented
• Binary or ASCII
2. Ensure the right recipient
• There may be 1000 users served by the server
3. Ensure the client has the right to send mail
• Some clients are not welcome
4. How to tell the server it is the end of the message
• All mail looks the same
:
TCP/IP
13. 13
• Example: SMTP
The following mail is to be sent:
Date: Fri, 18 Jan 02 13:26:31 IST
From: harshxtime@iiitdm.in
To: cds12m001@iiitdm.in
Subject: meeting
Let’s get together Monday at 1pm.
TCP/IP
14. 14
SMTP ServerClient
access port 25 of server
HELO iiitdm.in
MAIL From:
<cds12m001@iiitdm.ac.in>
220 cds.iiitdm.ac SMTP Service
at 20 Jan 02 05:17:18 EDT
250 cds.iiitdm.ac – Hello,
iitdm.in
250 MAIL accepted
TCP/IP
15. 15
Client SMTP Server
Date: Fri, 18 Jan 02 13:26:31 EDT
From: harshxtime@iiitdm.in
To: cds12m001@iiitdm.in
Subject: meeting
Let’s get together Monday at 1pm.
.
RCPT To:<harshxtime@iiitdm.in>
DATA
250 Recipient accepted
354 Start mail input;
end with .
TCP/IP
16. 16
• The agreement made in the SMTP protocol
• All messages use normal text
• All ASCII characters
• The responses all begin with numbers
• To indicate the status when receiving the command
• Some words are reserved words
• HELO, MAIL, RCPT…
• Mail ends with a line that contains only a period
• The information passed with the SMTP messages
• The recipient name
• The sender name
• The mail
TCP/IP
17. 17
C. Domain Name (mentioned before)
• Every computer has a network address
• e.g. 158.132.161.99
• To access a computer, we need to specify its
network address
• Human beings are weak in memorizing numbers
• We prefer computer name or domain name
• e.g. hkpu10.iiitdm.ac.in
• Need a machine on the Internet to convert name to
number
TCP/IP
18. 18
Client
Domain Name Server
(DNS) of
XXXX.ac.in
Address of
www.yahoo.com
Where is
www.yahoo.co
m?usually UDP
DNS of com
DNS of Yahoo.com
Where is
www.yahoo.co
m?
Address of
www.Yahoo.com
Where is
yahoo.com? Address of the
DNS of
Yahoo.com
Become
client
TCP/IP
19. 19
• Nevertheless, such a complicated procedure needs
not perform in most cases
• Client computers usually remember the answers
that it got before
• It reduces the loading to the root DNS
• To further reduce loading, there can be many root
DNS on the Internet
• e.g. there are a few “com” root DNS
TCP/IP
21. 21
D. TCP and UDP
• TCP is a connection-oriented protocol
• Does not mean it has a physical connection between
sender and receiver
• TCP provides the function to allow a connection
virtually exists – also called virtual circuit
• TCP provides the functions:
• Dividing a chunk of data into segments
• Reassembly segments into the original chunk
• Provide further the functions such as reordering and
data resend
• Offering a reliable byte-stream delivery service
TCP – Transmission Control Protocol
TCP/IP
23. 23
• A Typical Procedure
• Sender
• TCP divides a message into segments
• Add sequence no.
• Send the segments in sequence and wait for
acknowledgement
• If an acknowledgement for a segment is not received
for a certain period of time, resend it until an
acknowledgement is received
• Recipient
• When receiving segments, send the
acknowledgement with correct number
• Reassembly the segments back to the message
TCP/IP
24. 24
• A computer may perform a number of network
applications at the same time
• FTP + SMTP + HTTP, etc.
• Each computer has only one network address, how
can it serve so many applications at the same time?
Port Multiplexing
⇒ by port multiplexing
Network add:
158.132.161.99
Port 21 Port 25
Port 80
FTP SMTP
HTTP
TCP/IP
25. 25
Well-known Port Numbers
• Some port numbers are reserved for some
purposes
• Port 21: FTP – file transfer
• Port 25: SMTP – mail transfer
• Port 23: TELNET – remote login
• Port 80: HTTP – Web access
• These port numbers are well known to all
computers in the network
• E.g. whenever a client access port 25 of the server,
it means the client needs SMTP service
TCP/IP
26. 26
Client SMTP Server
Located by: network
address + TCP port
no.
Source Port
= 1357
Destination
Port = 25
Sequence Number
Acknowledgement
Number
Checksum
Message Data
SMTP port
= 1357
SMTP port
= 25
TCP/IP
27. 27
Client A SMTP + FTP Server
Client B
SMTP port
= 1357
FTP port
= 1361
Network address:
158.132.161.99
SMTP port
= 25
FTP port
= 21
TCP/IP
29. 29
E. Network Addresses and
Subnets
• A header is added to each segment in the
Network layer
IP3
Total
Length
Time to
Live
Protocol Header
CheckSum
Source Address
Destination Address
Segment
Segment
TCP/IP
30. 30
• Total Length – Total length of a packet (up to
65535 bytes)
• Time to Live – How many times this packet can
be routed on the network (up to 255)
• Protocol – The transport layer protocol that
the packet belongs to
• TCP: 6
• UDP: 17
• ICMP: 1
• Source address – the network address of the
computer that sends the data
• Destination address – the network address of
the computer that the data is sending to
TCP/IP
31. 31
• (Already mentioned)
• Each computer (host) must have a unique
network address (or IP address for TCP/IP suite)
• Each IP address is 32-bit long (four bytes)
• The four-byte address is written out as a.b.c.d
• e.g. Byte 1 Byte 2 Byte 3 Byte 4
158 132 161 99
• IP addresses are hierarchical
• network I.D. and host I.D.
• Each Network I.D. on the Internet needs to be
registered to the Internet Assigned Number
Authority
TCP/IP
32. 32
Net I.D.
Class A – for very large network
Host I.D.0
1 bit 7 bits 24 bits
• Only 27
(63) networks can belong to this class
• Each network, there are 224
hosts or computers
• Very few class A networks in the world
• e.g. Arpanet – the earliest packet switched
WAN (started 40 years ago)
TCP/IP
33. 33
Net I.D.
Class B – for medium size network
Host I.D.0
2 bits 14 bits 16 bits
• 214
(16384) networks can belong to this class
• Each network, there are 216
(65536) hosts or
computers
• XXXX’s address belongs to this group
• e.g. 158.132.14.1
1
1001 1110 1000 0100 0000 1110 0000 0001
Network I.D. Host I.D.
TCP/IP
34. 34
Class C – for small network
Net I.D. Host I.D.0
3 bits 21 bits 8 bits
• 221
networks can belong to this class
• Each network, there are only 28
(256) hosts or
computers
11
TCP/IP
35. 35
Class D – for multicast network
Group no.0
4 bits 28 bits
• Packets are addressed to a multicast group
• Not often supported on Internet
111
TCP/IP
36. 36
Special Addresses
• Host I.D. = all ‘1’s ⇒ Directed broadcast
“Broadcast to all hosts in the network or
subnetwork”, not assigned
• Host I.D. = all ‘0’s ⇒ “This network”, not
assigned
• Network I.D. = 127 is reserved for loopback and
diagnostic purposes, not assigned
• Network I.D. + Host I.D. = all ‘1’s ⇒ Limited
broadcast
“Broadcast to all hosts in the current network”,
not assigned
TCP/IP
37. 37
Subnets
• A class B address can have 65536 hosts
• Difficult to manage
• Usually subdivide into a few small subnets
• Subnetting can also help to reduce broadcasting
traffic
All traffic to
158.132.0.
158.132.0.0
Total 65536 hosts
Router Router
All traffic to
158.132.0.0
158.132.1.0
158.132.2.0
158.132.3.0
Each subnet 256 hosts
TCP/IP
38. 38
Subnet Mask
• How does the router know which subnet a packet
should go?
• For each interface of the router, a subnet mask is
provided to redefine which part of the address is
Net ID and which part is Host ID
• Become classless addressing
A subnet mask: 255.255.255.0
1111 1111.1111 1111. 1111 1111. 0000 0000
‘1’s Net ID ‘0’s Host ID
TCP/IP
40. 40
F. Overview Of Routing
• How a packet finds its way to a computer in a
network?
• By using Routers
• Routing is the selection of a path to guide a
packet from the source to the destination
• Criteria in selecting a path may be:
• Shortest path
• Quickest path
• Cheapest path
TCP/IP
42. 42
• Each router has a table that records the
estimated distance to all other routers
• If a router knows the entire network topology,
the shortest path can be calculated
• To achieve this, routers broadcast Link State
Advertisement to all other routers periodically
• By means of routing protocol
• Each router knows the exact topology, and
then calculates the shortest path
• In practice, it is not possible for a router to all
paths. Only the nearer ones are kept
• Hence can give wrong estimation
TCP/IP
43. 43
Host A
158.132.148.66
Default gateway: Router C
Host B
160.64.123.98
Router C
S0
T1
T1
S1
T0
S1
S1
T0
S0
T0
T0
Router A
Subnet
160.64.123.0
Router B
Routing Table
Subnet
158.132.166.0
S1 158.132.166.0
255.255.255.0
Direct
T1 160. 64. 0. 0
255.255. 0. 0
Forward
Subnet
160.64.124.0
Routing Table
S0
S0
S1
160. 64.124.0
255.255.255.0
160. 64.123.0
255.255.255.0
Direct
Direct
TCP/IP
44. 44
1. Host A wants to send a packet to Host B with address
160.64.123.98
2. Host A checks that 160.64.123.98 is not in the same
network
3. Send packet to default gateway (Router C)
4. Default gateway finds that it cannot provide the best
route for the packet, inform Host A to send the
packet to Router A next time
5. Router C sends the packet to Router A
6. Router A checks from the table the packet should
forward to Router B
7. Router B receives the packet and checks in its table
the packet should directly deliver to subnet
160.64.123.0
8. Host B (160.64.123.98) receives the packet
TCP/IP
45. 45
Reference: Charles L. Hedrick, “Introduction to the Internet Protocols”, Rutgers
University, http://oac3.hsc.uth.tmc.edu/staff/snewton/tcp-tutorial/
Reference
TCP/IP