SUMMER TRAINING PROJECT REPORT

SUMMER TRAINING PROJECT REPORT
ON
DETAILED STUDY OF SOIL AND CONCRETE TESTING
AT
Olof Palme Marg, HauzKhas,
New Delhi-110016
SUBMITTED BY : SUBMITTED TO :
RAJDEEP MAURYA DR. R.CHITRA
SATISH SHARMA (SCIENTIST ‘D’)
TUSHAR AGGARWAL
PRAVEEN PANDEY
SYED ASHHAR ATEEQ
TAUSIF ALAM

CERTIFICATE
It is certified that project entitled,
“SOIL AND CONCRETE TESTING”
was completed by
SATISH SHARMA NOIDA INSTITUTE OF ENGG. & TECHNOLOGY
RAJDEEP MAURYA GALGOTIA’S COLLEGE OF ENGG. & TECHNOLOGY
TUSHAR AGGARWAL GALGOTIA’S COLLEGE OF ENGG. & TECHNOLOGY
PRAVEEN PANDEY GALGOTIA’S COLLEGE OF ENGG. & TECHNOLOGY
SYED ASHHAR ATEEQ GALGOTIA’S COLLEGE OF ENGG. & TECHNOLOGY
TAUSIF ALAM GALGOTIA’S COLLEGE OF ENGG. & TECHNOLOGY
under my guidance during the period w.e.f
20th
June to 29th
July
The same is here by approved.
Mr. MANISH GUPTA Dr. R.CHITRA
(SCIENTIST ‘C’) (SCIENTIST ‘D’)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Through this acknowledgement we express our special thanks,
gratitude and regards to all those who supported, helped and guided us
during whole period of our training.
We express our deep and sincere gratitude as well as profound regards
to Dr. R.Chitra , Scientist ‘D’ , CSMRS for providing us an opportunity to
undergo training under expertise soil department which provided us an
apt platform for learning.
We want to express our regards and vote of thanks to Mr. Shahid Noor
(Scientist ‘B’), Mrs. Pushpalata (Scientist-‘B’) , Mr. A.K. Jain(Research
Assistant) and Mr. Ram Baboo (Assistant Research Officer) for their
invaluable guidance and support.

CONTENTS
1. Preface
2. Synopsis
3. Soil sample
4. Soil tests
4.1 Sieve Analysis test
4.2 Mechanical Analysis
4.3 Light compaction test
4.4 Atterberg’s limit
• Liquid limit
• Plastic limit
4.5 Shrinkage limit test
4.6 Consolidation test
4.7 Permeability test
4.8 Tri-axial compression test
4.9 Free swelling index of soil
4.10 Specific gravity
5. Cement tests
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Types of cement
5.3 Fineness test
5.4 Initial and Final setting time test
5.5 Soundness of cement
5.6 Consistency of cement
6. Bibliography

PREFACE
The Central Soil and Materials Research Station (CSMRS), an attached office of
the Ministry of Water Resources, is a premier Institute in the country located at
New Delhi which deals with field and laboratory investigations, basic and applied
research on problems in geo-mechanics, concrete technology, construction
materials and associated environment issues, having direct bearing on the
development of irrigation and power in the country and functions as an adviser
and consultant in the above fields to various projects and organizations in India
and abroad.
Broadly, the sphere of activities encompasses the following disciplines:
• Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering including Soil Dynamics, Geo
textiles, Soil Chemistry and Rock fill Technology (Soil)
• Concrete Technology, Drilling Technology for sub-surface characterization
and Construction Materials (Concrete)
• Rock Mechanics including Instrumentation, Engineering Geophysics and
Numerical Modeling (RM)
Concrete Chemistry, Electronics and Information Technology (CC)
FUNCTIONS-
Investigations
• To undertake site characterization, laboratory and field investigations
including stress measurements, instrumentation and other measurements
of prototype structures to monitor their behavior and quality control for
water resource projects and other complex civil engineering structures.
• To undertake construction materials survey, to evolve mix design of
mortars, concrete etc. for use in projects to realize economical utilization of
locally available materials.
• To undertake chemical investigation including grouting technology.
Consultancy
• To act as consultants for problems in the field of geomechanics and
material sciences primarily for Central and State Government organizations

like Central Water Commission, Central Electricity Authority,
Ministries/Departments of Government of India, State Governments, Public
Sector Undertakings, etc. Such services are being made available to private
industry to the extent they are not detrimental to these primary
obligations.
• To provide consultancy in the field of geomechanics and construction
materials to other countries through the Water and Power Consultancy
Services (WAPCOS) and other such Government organizations functioning
in these countries.
• To undertake geomechanical investigations and research for international
and regional organizations like organs of the United Nations, Asian
Development Bank, etc.
Research
• To carry out basic and applied research in the fields of geomechanics,
material sciences, concrete technology and allied areas which have a vital
bearing on the irrigation and power development of the country.
• To evolve quality control procedures in the above fields.
• To conduct detailed studies on geomechanics and associated
environmental issues of the Himalayan region which poses complex
problems for water resource projects.
Dissemination of Information
• To create data base and to function as an information center for problems
in geo-mechanics, concrete technology and construction materials through
its Library and Documentation Centre as well as through its information
dissemination activities like organization of workshops, seminars, training
courses, publishing literature, etc.
Linkages
• To establish strong linkages with National Laboratories, state and other
Laboratories/Research Stations, Universities/IITs, Geological Survey of
India, etc. in carrying out the above functions.
Training

• To impart training to engineers from within the country and from overseas
for investigation and testing in the fields of geomechanics, construction
materials and concrete technology.
Miscellaneous
• To undertake special functions on behalf of the Government of India as and
when called upon to do so.
SYNOPSIS
To get an overview of the various civil engineering practices followed and real
job situations, I was interested in joining some short duration industrial training in
a good organization during my summer break.
After getting the permission from the CPDD department of our college, I
requested CSMRS (soil and concrete division) and got into a 6 weeks industrial
training.
During this period I have been exposed to various tests done on soil and
concrete under quality control program. I found this training very beneficial in

addition to my theoretical knowledge gained at institute, as it was more close to
the real scenario of the work.
This module of training consisted of a brief introduction about soil and various
tests done on soil. After bringing the soil sample from project site to the lab
destination, we maintain the records with lab no, field no etc.
The following tests have to be conducted
1. Sieve Analysis
2. M.A. (Mechanical Analysis)
3. Shrinkage Limit
4. Light compaction
5. Atterberg Limit
a. Liquid Limit
b. Plastic Limit
6. Permeability
a. Falling Head Test
b. Constant Head Test
7. Consolidation
8. Specific Gravity
9. Differential Swelling Index
SOIL SAMPLE
From the project site, soil sample is collected from the dam axis and structural
foundation of the dam.
The soil sample collected is basically of two type –
a) Undisturbed Sample
b) Disturbed Sample
CORE CUTTER WITH SAMPLE
UNDISTURBED SAMPLE: Undisturbed sample represents the in-situ condition of
the soil such as, natural moisture content , bulk density , porosity. In such sample
natural structure of soil and water content is retained. Undisturbed sample is

used for determining engineering properties such
as, compressibility, shear strength, and
permeability. Index property such as shrinkage
limit can be determined. Core cutter is used to
collect sample
DISTURBED SAMPLE: The samples in which the
natural structure of the soil get disturbed is called
disturbed soil sample. Disturbed soil sample
represent the composition and mineral content of
the soil. Disturbed sample is used to determine the
index properties of the soil, such as grain size, plasticity characteristics, specific
gravity. A borrow pit of 3m x 3m x 3m is dug and a top layer of about 150mm is
removed which contain vegetation, organic matter etc and with help of tools soil
is scratched and filled in the bags.
After bringing soil sample from the project site the lab destination, records are
maintained with lab no, reduced level , project no, sample no, pit no, date, etc
DISTURBED SAMPLE
SIEVE ANALYSIS
(IS: 2720 (PART 4)-1985)
INTRODUCTION
A sieve analysis (or gradation test) is a practice or procedure used to assess
the particle size distribution (also called gradation) of a granular material.
The size distribution is often of critical importance to the way the material
performs in use. A sieve analysis can be performed on any type of non-organic or
organic granular materials including sands, crushed rock, clays, granite, feldspars,
coal, soil, a wide range of manufactured powders, grain and seeds, down to a

minimum size depending on the exact method. Being such a simple technique of
particle sizing, it is probably the most common.
PREPARATION OF SAMPLE
In order to perform the test, a sample of the aggregate must be obtained from
the source. To prepare the sample, the aggregate should be mixed thoroughly
and be reduced to a suitable size for testing. The total weight of the sample is also
required.
PROCEDURE
1) A gradation test is performed on a sample of aggregate in a laboratory. A
typical sieve analysis involves a nested column of sieves with wire mesh
cloth (screen).
2) A representative weighed sample is poured into the top sieve which has the
largest screen openings. Each lower sieve in the column has smaller
openings than the one above. At the base is a round pan, called the
receiver.
3) The column is typically placed in a mechanical shaker. The shaker shakes the
column, usually for some fixed amount of time. After the shaking is
complete the material on each sieve is weighed.
4) The weight of the sample of each sieve is then divided by the total weight to
give a percentage retained on each sieve.
5) The size of the average particles on each sieve then being analysis to get the
cut-point or specific size range captured on screen.
6) The results of this test are provided in graphical form to identify the type of
gradation of the aggregate.
7) A suitable sieve size for the aggregate should be selected and placed in
order of decreasing size, from top to bottom, in a mechanical sieve shaker.
A pan should be placed underneath the nest of sieves to collect the
aggregate that passes through the smallest.
8) The entire nest is then agitated, and the material whose diameter is smaller
than the mesh opening pass through the sieves. After the aggregate reaches
the pan, the amount of material retained in each sieve is then weighed.

SET OF SEIVES USED FOR GRADATION
RESULT:-
The results are presented in a graph of percent passing versus the sieve size. On
the graph the sieve size scale is logarithmic. To find the percent of aggregate
passing through each sieve, first find the percent retained in each sieve. To do so,
the following equation is used,
% Retained = ×100%
Where
WSieve = weight of aggregate in the sieve
WTotal = total weight of the aggregate.

The next step is to find the cumulative percent of aggregate retained in each
sieve. To do so, add up the total amount of aggregate that is retained in each
sieve and the amount in the previous sieves.
The cumulative percent passing of the aggregate is found by subtracting the
percent retained from 100%.
%Cumulative Passing = 100% - %Cumulative Retained.
MECHANICAL ANALYSIS TEST
(IS: 2720 (PART 4)-1985)
INTRODUCTION
The mechanical analysis, also known as particle size analysis, is a method of
separation of soils into different fractions of particle size. It expresses
quantitatively the proportions, by mass, of various sizes of particles present
in a soil. It is shown graphically on a particle size distribution curve. The
mechanical analysis is done in two stages: (1) Sedimentation analysis (for size
smaller than 75 microns), (2) Sieve analysis (for size greater than 75 microns).
SCOPE
This test covers the method for the quantitative determination of grain size
distribution in soils ( passing 4.75mm IS SIEVE ).

APPARATUS
1. Balance :- to weigh up to 0.001g.
2. Sieves :- 2 mm,425 micron, 75 micron IS SIEVES and receiver.
3. Oven :- thermostatically controlled to maintain temperature of 105 to
110 degree centigrade.
4. Stop watch
5. Evaporating dish
6. Wash bottle :- containing distilled water
7. Filter papers
8. Mechanical shaker
9. Brushes :- sieve brush and a wire brush
10. Sampling pipette:- 20 ml capacity
11. Glass sedimentation tube:- 1000ml capacity
12. Stirring device
13. Thermometer:- 0 to 500
C , accurate to 0.50
C.
14. Trays or bucket
15. Reagents:- the reagents shall be of analytical quality
(i) Hydrogen peroxide:- 20 volume solution
(ii) Hydrochloric acid approximately N solution:- 89 ml of concentrated
hydrochloric acid (specific gravity 1.18) diluted with distilled water to
make 1 litre of solution.
(iii) Sodium hexametaphosphate solution:- dissolve 33 g of sodium
hexametaphosphate and 7g of sodium carbonate in distilled water to
make 1 litre of solution.

PRETREATMENT OF SOIL
The soil is taken in a beaker and first treated with a 20 volume hydrogen peroxide
solution to remove the organic matter, at the rate of about 100 ml of hydrogen
peroxide for every 100 gm of soil. The mixture is warmed to a temperature not
exceeding 60 deg C . Hydrogen peroxide causes oxidation of organic matter and
gas is liberated. When no more gas comes out, the mixture is boiled to
decompose the remaining hydrogen peroxide. The mixture is then cooled.
In case of soil containing calcium compound’s , hydrochloric acid shall be added
at the rate of 100 ml for every 100 g of soil. The solution shall be stirred with a
glass tube for a few minutes and allowed to stand for 1 hour or for longer
periods, if necessary. The treatment shall be continued till the solution gives an
acid reaction to litmus. The mixture after pretreatment with acid shall be filtered
and washed with distilled warm water until filtrate shows no acid reaction to
litmus.
PROCEDURE
1. Take about 50 gm oven dried pretreated soil sample passing 4.75 IS SIEVE
in a evaporating dish.
2. Add 20 ml sodium hexametaphosphate solution for dispersion and transfer
it to bottle by adding 100 ml of distilled water.
3. Place the rubber bung on the open end of bottle and place bottle on
mechanical shaker for shaking the suspension for 15 minutes or for higher
period in case of highly clayey soil.
4. Then transfer the suspension to 1000 ml suspension tube and dilute with
distilled water to exactly 1000 ml.
5. Note down the room temperature with the help of thermometer and stir
the suspension from stirring device and start the stop watch.

6. For finding the clay and silt content in the suspension, take 20 ml sample
with the help of pipette after a period of time as given in Table 1 of
IS:2720(part 4)-1985.
7. The pipette shall be lowered vertically into the soil suspension until the end
is 100±1 mm below the surface of the suspension. It shall be lowered with
great care some 15 seconds before the sample is due to be taken.
8. Contents of pipette are delivered to weighing dish. Any suspension left on
the inner walls of the pipette shall be washed into weighing dish by distilled
water.
9. Weighing dishes shall be placed in the oven maintained at 105 to 110 deg C
and samples evaporated to dryness. After cooling the weighing dishes shall
be weighed and mass of clay &silt is determined.
10. Soil suspension remaining in suspension tube should be washed
thoroughly over the nest of sieves specified above nested in order of their
fineness with the finest sieve (75 µ IS SIEVE ) at the bottom.
11. Washing shall be continued until the water passing each sieve is
substantially clean. The fraction retained on each sieve should be emptied
carefully without any loss of material in separate trays.
12. Then fractions are oven dried at 105 to 110 deg C and each fraction
weighed separately and mass recorded.
SOIL SAMPLE

SET OF
SEIVES USED
SAMPLE IN THE CYLINDRICAL MEASURING JAR LEFT FOR SEDIMENTATION…

RESULT
The results are presented in a graph of percent passing versus the sieve size.
On the graph the sieve size scale is logarithmic. To find the percent of aggregate
passing through each sieve, first find the percent retained in each sieve.
To do so, the following equation is used,
%Retained = ×100%
Where WSieve is the weight of aggregate in the sieve and
WTotal is the total weight of the aggregate. The next step is to find the cumulative
percent of aggregate retained in each sieve. To do so, add up the total amount of
aggregate that is retained in each sieve and the amount in the previous sieves.
The cumulative percent passing of the aggregate is found by subtracting the
percent retained from 100%.
%Cumulative Passing = 100% - %Cumulative Retained.
The values are then plotted on a graph with cumulative percent passing on the y
axis and logarithmic sieve size on the x axis
IMPORTANCE OF MECHANICAL ANALISIS
Gradation affects many properties of an aggregate. It affects bulk density,
physical stability and permeability. With careful selection of the gradation, it is
possible to achieve high bulk density, high physical stability, and low permeability.
This is important because in pavement design, a workable, stable mix with
resistance to water is important. With an open gradation, the bulk density is
relatively low, due to the lack of fine particles, the physical stability is moderate,
and the permeability is quite high. With a rich gradation, the bulk density will also
be low, the physical stability is low, and the permeability is also low. The
gradation can be affected to achieve the desired properties for the particular
engineering application.
ENGINEERING APPLICATION OF MECHNICAL ANALYSIS
Gradation is usually specified for each engineering application it is used for. For
example, foundations might only call for coarse aggregates, and therefore an
open gradation is needed. Gradation is a primary concern in pavement mix

design. Concrete could call for both coarse and fine particles and a dense graded
aggregate would be needed. Asphalt design also calls for a dense graded
aggregate. Gradation also applies to subgrades in paving, which is the material
that a road is paved on. Gradation, in this case, depends on the type of road (i.e.
highway, rural, suburban) that is being paved.
LIGHT COMPACTION TEST
(IS: 2720 (PART 7)-1980)
INTRODUCTION

Compaction is the most common and important method of soil improvement. In
the construction of engineering structures such as highway embankments or
earth dams, for example loose fill are required to be compacted to increase the
soil density and improve their strength characteristics. Compaction generally
leads to an increase in shear strength and helps improve the stability and bearing
capacity of soil. It also reduces compressibility and permeability of the soil.
SCOPE
This standard lays down the method for the determination of the relation
between the water content and the dry density of the soil using light compaction.
In this test, a 2.6kg rammer falling through a height of 310mm is used.
APPARATUS:
1. Moulds – It shall conform to IS: 10074-1982.
2. Balances – one of capacity 10 kg sensitive to 1 g and other of capacity
200 g sensitive to 0.1 g.
3. Oven- thermostatically controlled with interior of non-corroding material
to maintain temperature between 105 and 110 ® C.
4. Container- any suitable non- corrodible air tight container to determine
the water content for test conducted in the laboratory.
5. Steel Straight Edge – a steel straightedge about 30 cm in length and
having one bevelled edge.
6. Sieve- 4.75 mm and 19 mm IS sieve conforming to requirement of IS: 460
(part 1).
7. Mixing Tools – miscellaneous tools, such as tray or pan, spoon, trowel
and spatula or suitable mechanical device for thoroughly mixing the
sample of soil with addition of water.

PROCEDURE:
1. A 5 kg sample of air dried soil passing the 4.75mm IS test sieve shall be
taken. The sample shall be mixed thoroughly with a suitable amount of
water depending on the soil type.
2. The mould with base plate attached, shall be weighed to the nearest 1g.
3. The mould shall be placed on a solid base such as concrete floor or plinth
and the moist soil shall be compacted into the mould with the extension
attached, in 3 layers of approx. equal mass.
4. Each layer being given 25 blows from the 2.6 kg rammer dropped from
height of 310mm above the soil. The blows shall be distributed uniformly
over the surface of each layer.
5. The amount of soil used shall be sufficient to fill the mould, leaving not
more than 6 mm to be struck off when extension is removed.
6. The extension shall be removed and the compacted soil shall be levelled off
carefully to the top of the mould by means of straightedge.
7. The mould and soil shall then weighed to 1 g.
8. The compacted soil specimen shall be removed from the mould and placed
on the mixing tray. The water content of representative sample of the
specimen shall be determined as in IS : 2720 (part 2).
9. The remainder of the soil shall be broken up, rubbed through the 19 mm IS
test sieve, and then mixed with remainder of the original sample. Suitable
increment of water shall be added successively and mixed into the sample
and the above procedure is repeated for each increment of water added.

10. The total no. of determinations made shall be at least five, and the range of
moisture contents be such that the optimum moisture content, at which
the maximum dry density occurs, is within that range.
STANDARD PROCTOR TEST MACHINE FOR COMPACTION TEST
RESULT
A graph is plotted between moisture content and the dry density of the soil.
The value of moisture at max dry density (M.D.D) is known as optimum moisture
content (O.M.C).
Compaction is generally done at O.M.C as soil voids are minimum at this point
and max density soil can be achieved.

IMPORTANCE OF COMPACTION TEST
Compaction is a significant process of building if performed improperly,
settlement of the soil could occur and result in unnecessary maintenance costs or
structure failure.
• The principal reason for compacting soil is to reduce subsequent settlement
under working loads.
• Compaction increases the shear strength of the soil.
• Compaction reduces the voids ratio making it more difficult for water to flow
through soil. This is important if the soil is being used to retain water such as
would be required for an earth dam.
• Compaction can prevent the build up of large water pressures that cause soil to
liquefy during earthquakes.

ATTERBERG LIMIT TEST
(IS: 2720 (PART 5)-1985)
INTRODUCTION
The Atterberg limits are a basic measure of the nature of a fine-grained soil.
Depending on the water content of the soil, it may appear in four states: solid,
semi-solid, plastic and liquid. In each state the consistency and behavior of a soil
is different and thus so are its engineering properties. Thus, the boundary
between each state can be defined based on a change in the soil's behavior.
These limits were created by Albert Atterberg, a Swedish chemist. These
distinctions in soil are used in picking the soils to build structures on top of. These
tests are mainly used on clayey or silty soils since these are the soils that expand
and shrink due to moisture content. Clays and silts chemically react with the
water and thus change sizes and have varying shear strengths. Thus these tests
are used widely in the preliminary stages of building any structure to insure that
the soil will have the correct amount of shear strength and not too much change
in volume as it expands and shrinks with different moisture contents.
PLASTIC LIMIT TEST
The plastic limit (PL) is the water content where soil transitions plastic to brittle
behavior. A thread of soil is at its plastic limit when it begins to crumble when
rolled to a diameter of 3 mm. To improve test result consistency, a 3 mm
diameter rod is often used to gauge the thickness of the thread when conducting
the test.
LIQUID LIMIT TEST
The liquid limit (LL) is the water content at which a soil changes from liquid to
plastic behavior.

The original liquid limit test of Atterberg's involved mixing a pat of clay in a round-
bottomed porcelain bowl of 10-12cm diameter. A groove was cut through the pat
of clay with a spatula, and the bowl was then struck many times against the palm
of one hand.
SCOPE
This lab is performed to determine the plastic and liquid limits of a fine grained
soil. The liquid limit (LL) is arbitrarily defined as the water content, in percent, at
which a pat of soil in a standard cup and cut by a groove of standard dimensions
will flow together at the base of the groove for a distance of 13 mm (1/2 in.)
when subjected to 25 shocks from the cup being dropped 10 mm in a standard
liquid limit apparatus operated at a rate of two shocks per second. The plastic
limit (PL) is the water content, in percent, at which a soil can no longer be
deformed by rolling into 3.2 mm (1/8 in.) diameter threads without crumbling.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Casagrande’s Apparatus
2. Porcelain (evaporating) dish,
3. Grooving tool conform to (IS 9529-1979),
4. Eight moisture cans,
5. Balance
6. Glass plate
7. Spatula
8. Wash bottle filled with distilled water
9. Drying oven set at 105°C.
CASAGRANDE’S APPARATUS
PROCEDURE

Liquid Limit:
1. Take roughly 3/4 of the soil and place it into the porcelain dish. Assume
that the soil was previously passed though a 425 µIS sieve, air-dried, and
then pulverized. Thoroughly mix the soil with a small amount of distilled
water until it appears as a smooth uniform paste.
2. Weigh four of the empty moisture cans with their lids, and record the
respective weights and can numbers on the data sheet.
3. Adjust the liquid limit apparatus by checking the height of drop of the cup.
The point on the cup that comes in contact with the base should rise to a
height of 10 mm. The block on the end of the grooving tool is 10 mm high
and should be used as a gage. Practice using the cup and determine the
correct rate to rotate the crank so that the cup drops approximately two
times per second.
4. Place a portion of the previously mixed soil into the cup of the liquid limit
apparatus at the point where the cup rests on the base. Squeeze the soil
down to eliminate air pockets and spread it into the cup to a depth of
about 10 mm at its deepest point. The soil pat should form an
approximately horizontal surface.
5. Use the grooving tool carefully cut a clean straight groove down the center
of the cup. The tool should remain perpendicular to the surface of the cup
as groove is being made. Use extreme care to prevent sliding the soil
relative to the surface of the cup.
6. Make sure that the base of the apparatus below the cup and the underside
of the cup is clean of soil. Turn the crank of the apparatus at a rate of
approximately two drops per second and count the number of drops, N, it
takes to make the two halves of the soil pat come into contact at the
bottom of the groove along a distance of 13 mm (1/2 in.) If the number of
drops exceeds 50, then go directly to step eight and do not record the
number of drops, otherwise, record the number of drops on the data
sheet.
7. Take a sample, using the spatula, from edge to edge of the soil pat. The
sample should include the soil on both sides of where the groove came into
contact. Place the soil into a moisture can cover it. Immediately weigh the

moisture can containing the soil, record its mass, remove the lid, and place
the can into the oven. Leave the moisture can in the oven for at least16
hours. Place the soil remaining in the cup into the porcelain dish. Clean
and dry the cup on the apparatus and the grooving tool.
8. Remix the entire soil specimen in the porcelain dish. Add a small amount
of distilled water to increase the water content so that the number of
drops required to fill the groove decrease.
9. Repeat steps six, seven, and eight for at least two additional trials
producing successively lower numbers of drops to close the groove. One of
the trials shall be for a closure requiring 25 to 35 drops, one for closure
between 20 and 30 drops, and one trial for a closure requiring 15 to 25
drops. Determine the water content from each trial by using the same
method used in the first laboratory. Remember to use the same balance
for all weighing.
Plastic Limit:
1. Weigh the remaining empty moisture cans with their lids, and record the
respective weights and can numbers on the data sheet.
2. Take the remaining 1/4 of the original soil sample and add distilled water
until the soil is at a consistency where it can be rolled without sticking to
the hands.
3. Form the soil into an ellipsoidal mass. Roll the mass between the palm or
the fingers and the glass plate. Use sufficient pressure to roll the mass into
a thread of uniform diameter by using about 90 strokes per minute. (A
stroke is one complete motion of the hand forward and back to the starting
position.) The thread shall be deformed so that its diameter reaches 3.2
mm (1/8 in.), taking no more than two minutes.
4. When the diameter of the thread reaches the correct diameter, break the
thread into several pieces. Knead and reform the pieces into ellipsoidal
masses and re-roll them. Continue thisalternate rolling, gathering
together, kneading and re-rolling until the thread crumbles under the
pressure required for rolling and can no longer be rolled into a 3.2 mm
diameter thread.

5. Gather the portions of the crumbled thread together and place the soil into
a can, then cover it. If the can does not contain at least 6 grams of soil, add
soil to the can from the next trial (See Step 6). Immediately weigh the
moisture can containing the soil, record it’s mass, remove the lid, and place
the can into the oven. Leave the moisture can in the oven for at least 16
hours.
6. Repeat steps three, four, and five at least two more times. Determine the
water content from each trial by using the same method used in the first
laboratory. Remember to use the same balance for all weighing.
LIQUID LIMIT IS OBTAINED AT THIS POINT
RESULT
The value of liquid limit can be determined from graph plotted
between moisture content and strokes. The value of m.c.
corresponding to 25 no of strokes is liquid limit of soil sample.
Plastic limit is the value of m.c at a point when crack begins to appear
in the threads of soil sample having 3mm dia.
SHRINKAGE LIMIT
(IS: 2720 (PART 6)-1972)
INTRODUCTION

Shrinkage limit is the maximum water content expressed as percentage of
oven dry weight at which any further reduction in water content will not cause
a decrease in volume of soil mass .It is also defined as the smallest water
content at which the soil is saturated.
SHRINKAGE INDEX
The numerical difference between the plastic limit and shrinkage limit is called
shrinkage index.
SHRINKAGE RATIO
The ratio of a given volume change, expressed as a percentage of dry volume,
to the corresponding change in water content above the appropriate
shrinkage limit, expressed as percentage of the weight of oven dried soil.
VOLUMETRIC SHRINKAGE
The decrease in volume, expressed as a percentage of the soil mass when
dried, of a soil mass when the water content is reduced from a given
percentage to the appropriate shrinkage limit.
SCOPE
Shrinkage factors, namely shrinkage limit, shrinkage ratio, shrinkage index, and
volumetric shrinkage of soils can be determined. Soils which undergo large This
standard lays down the method of test for obtaining data from which the volume
changes with change in water content may be troublesome. Volume changes may
usually will not be equal.
A shrinkage limit test should be performed on a soil.
1. To obtain a quantitative indication of how much change in moisture can occur
before any appreciable volume changes occurs
2. To obtain an indication of change in volume.

The shrinkage limit is useful in areas where soils undergo large volume changes
when going through wet and dry cycles (as in case of earth dams)
APPARATUS
1. Evaporating dish:- Two, porcelain, about 12 cm in diameter with a pour out
and flat bottom, the diameter of flat bottom, being not less than 55mm or
an enamel iron tray with pour out.
2. Spatula:- Flexible, with the blade about 8cm long and 2cm wide.
3. Shrinkage dish:- circular, porcelain or non-corroding metal dish inert to
mercury having a flat bottom and 45 mm in diameter and 15 mm height
internally. The internal corner between the bottom and the vertical sides
shall be rounded into a smooth concave curve.
4. Straight edge:- steel, about 15 cm in length
5. Glass cup: - 50 to 55 in diameter and 25 mm in height, the top rim of which
is ground smooth and level.
6. Glass plates: - two, each 75*75mm, 3mm thick. One plate shall be of plain
glass and the other shall have three metal prongs inert to mercury.
7. Oven: - thermostatically controlled to maintain the temperature between
105⁰ and 110⁰C with interior of non-corroding material.
8. Sieve:- 425-micron IS Sieves
9. Balances:- sensitive to 0.1g and 0.01g(m IS:1433-1965)
10. Mercury: - clean, sufficient to fill the glass cup to overflowing.
11. Desiccator: - with any desiccating agent other than sulphuric acid.
PROCEDURE

1. Take a sample of mass about 100 g from a thoroughly mixed soil passing
425 µ IS SIEVE.
2. Take about 30 g of the soil sample in a large evaporating dish. Mix it with
distilled water to make a creamy paste which can be readily worked
without entrapping the air bubbles.
3. Take the shrinkage dish. Clean it and determine its weight.
4. Fill mercury in the shrinkage dish. Remove the excess mercury by pressing
the plain glass plate over the top of the shrinkage dish. The plate should be
flush with the top of the dish, and no air should be entrapped.
5. Transfer the mercury of the shrinkage dish to a mercury weighing dish and
determine the weight of the mercury to an accuracy of 0.1 g. The volume of
the shrinkage dish is equal to the weight of mercury divided by the specific
gravity of mercury.
6. Coat the inside of the shrinkage dish with a thin layer of silicon grease or
Vaseline. Place the soil specimen in the center of the shrinkage dish, equal
to about one-third the volume of the shrinkage dish.
Tap the shrinkage dish on a firm, cushioned surface and allow the paste to
flow to the edges.
7. Add more soil paste, approximately equal to the first portion and tap the
shrinkage dish as before, until the soil is thoroughly compacted.
Add more soil and continue the tapping till the shrinkage dish is completely
filled, and excess soil paste projects out about its edge.
Strike out the top surface of the paste with straight edge. Wipe off all soil
adhering to the outside of the shrinkage dish. Determine the weight of the
wet soil (W₁).
8. Dry the soil in the in the shrinkage dish in air until the colour of the pat
turns from dark to light. Then dry the pat in the oven at 105⁰ to 110⁰ C to
constant weight.

9. Cool the dry pat in a desiccater. Remove the dry pat from the desiccater
after cooling, and weigh the shrinkage dish with the dry pat to determine
the dry weight of the soil (Ws).
10. Place a glass cup in a large evaporating dish and fill it with mercury.
Remove the excess mercury by pressing the glass plate with prongs firmly
over the top of the cup. Wipe off any mercury adhering to the outside of
the cup.
11. Take out the dry pat of the soil from the shrinkage dish and immerse it in
the glass cup full of mercury. Take care not to entrap air under the pat.
Press the plate with prongs on the top of the cup firmly.
12. Collect the mercury displaced by the dry pat in the evaporating dish, and
transfer it to the mercury weighing dish. Determine the mass of the
mercury to an accuracy of 0.1 g. The volume of the dry pat (V₂) is equal to
the mass of the mercury divided by the specific gravity of mercury.
13. Repeat the test at least three times.
Empty shrinkage dish Shrinkage dish filled with soil sample.

The sample shrinks after oven drying.
CALCULATION AND FORMULA
1. Moisture content (w) :- Calculate the moisture content of wet soil pat as a
percentage of the dry weight of the soil as follows
w = ( (W-W₀) * 100 ) / W₀
Where
w = moisture content of the pat
W = weight of wet soil pat obtained by subtracting the weight of the
shrinkage dish from the weight of the dish and wet pat.
W₀ = weight of dry soil pat obtained by subtracting the weight of the
shrinkage dish from the weight of the dish and dry pat.
2. Shrinkage limit(wѕ) – calculate the shrinkage limit using the following
formula:
ws = w – ((V-V₀)/W₀) X 100
Where
wѕ = shrinkage limit in percent
w = moisture content of wet soil pat(m 7.1) in percent
V = volume of wet soil pat in ml
V₀ = volume of the dry soil pat in ml, and
W₀ = weight of oven dry soil pat in g.
3. Shrinkage Index(Is) – calculate the shrinkage index using the following
formula:
Is = Ip - ws
Where
Ip = plasticity index

4. Shrinkage Ratio(R) – calculate the shrinkage ratio using the following
formula:
R = W₀/V₀
Where
W₀ = weight of oven-dry pat in g, and
V₀ = volume of oven-dry soil pat in ml
5. Volumetric shrinkage(Vѕ) – calculate the volumetric shrinkage using the
following formulas:
Vs = (w₁ - wS)R
Where
w₁ = given moisture content in percent
wS = shrinkage limit
R = shrinkage ratio

CONSOLIDATION TEST
(IS: 2720(PART15)-1986)
INTRODUCTION
The compression of a saturated soil under steady static pressure is known as
Consolidation .When soil is fully saturated then , compression of soil mainly occur
due to expulsion of water from the voids.
In consolidation , when a fully saturated soil is subjected to pressure , initially all
the applied pressure is taken up by the pore water pressure as water is
incompressible as compared to soil structure. A hydraulic gradient develops due
to which water start flowing out and the soil particles starts shifting from one
position to another by rolling and sliding and thus attains a closer packing, so the
volume of the soil reduces.
The consolidation depends upon the permeability of the soil and thus it is time
dependent . In fine-grained soil , the consolidation occur over a long time
whereas in coarse-grained , consolidation occurs rather quickly.
The consolidation test is conducted in a laboratory for studying compressibility of
soil using consolidometer or oedometer .
The oedometer consist of a loading device and a cylindrical container called
consolidation cell. The soil specimen is placed between top and bottom porous
stones. There are two type of cells
i) Floating ring cell :
In this type of consolidation cell both top and bottom porous stones are
free to move, the top porous can move downward and the bottom
stone can move upwards as specimen consolidates.
ii) Fixed ring cell :

In fixed ring cell, the bottom porous stone cannot move. Only top stone
moves as sample consolidates under steady static pressure.
APPARATUS
1. Consolidometer, with loading device.
2. Specimen ring, made up of non
corroding material.
3. Water reservoir to saturate the sample.
4. Porous stones
5. Weighing balance
6. Oven
7. Pressure pad
8. Dial guage
9. Water content cans
10. Large container

PROCEDURE
1. From the project site, U.D and disturbed samples are collected and sent to
lab for testing which contains information such as pit no. , sample no., date,
place, reduced level, etc.
2. Clean and dry the metal ring. Measure its diameter and height and take the
mass of the empty ring.
3. Before conducting the test, porous stones are saturated by boiling them for
15 min.
4. A known amount of oven dried soil is mixed with water at 98%M.D.D (max.
dry density) to prepare sample for consolidation test.
5. Consolidation cell is properly cleaned weight of the ring is noted down after
oven drying it.
6. The bottom porous stone is placed first over the consolidation cell and then
a filter paper is kept over the porous stone.
7. The prepared soil sample is filled in3 layers in the consolidation ring and
with gentle shaking without pressing it hard.
8. The excess soil is gently removed from the edges with help of spatula.
9. The weight of the ring and soil sample is noted down.
10. The ring is then placed over the bottom filter paper in consolidation cell.
11. A filter paper is placed over the sample and then the top porous stone is
placed over it.
12. Loading pad is placed on top of porous stone and bolts are tightened to
hold the entire assembly.
13. The consolidation cell is kept under loading unit such that load is applied
axially.

14. The dial gauge is mounted and adjusted. The assembly is connected to the
water reservoir to saturate the sample.
15. Now initially a small load is given and dial gauge reading is noted and is left
for 24 hour. Next day the reading of the dial gauge is taken as final reading
and soil pressure is computed.
16. The lever is locked and the loading is increased to .25KN/m2
.
17. Stop watch is reset to zero and as soon lock of the loading unit is
unlocked , the stop watch is started and reading of the dial gauge is taken
at various time interval of .25,.50,.75,1.0,2.0,……….1440 minutes.
18. After 1440 min. the load is increased and similarly dial gauge reading is
noted down as for .50KN/m2
,1.0 KN/m2
,………8 KN/m2
.
19. After the last load increment is applied and readings taken, then the load is
reduced to 1/4th
of the previous load and the same procedure is repeated.
Likewise , further reduce the load to 1/4th
of previous load and follow same
procedure. Finally load is reduced to the initial sitting load and kept it for
24 hours and take the final dial gauge reading.
20. Dismantle the assembly. Takeout the ring with specimen.
21. Take the mass of the ring the specimen.
22. Dry the specimen in the oven for 24hours and determine the dry mass of
the specimen.
RESULT
A graph is plotted between the dial gauge reading and time. A curve is plotted
corresponding to the readings. With the help of curve plotted on semi log graph
we find the time taken for 50% consolidation and use it to determine various
quantities such as,
Settlement, coefficient of compressibility , coefficient of volume change.etc

SIGNIFICANCE
The consolidation test is designed to measure the compressibility of soils.
In this test a laterally confined, axially drained soil specimen is subjected to a
series of constant axial loads. The results of the test are used to compute the
quantity of settlement and the rate at which the settlement will occur in
foundation soils under imposed loads. Study of settlement is extremely important
for forecasting the magnitude and the rate of settlement of the structure.
Settlement is gradual sinking of structure due to settlement of soil below.

PERMEABILITY TEST
(IS: 2720(PART 17)-1986)
INTRODUCTION
Average flow rate of water flowing continuously through the particular soil is
known as permeability. The property of the soil which permits water to percolate
through the continuously connected voids is called permeability.
Permeability of soil has a decisive effect on the stability of foundations, seepage
loss through embankment of reservoirs, drainage of subgrades, excavation of
open cuts in water baring sand, rate of flow of water in to wells and many others.
Coefficient of permeability (k) depends upon the porosity and size of the voids
and can be determined by Darcy’s law,
Q= k*A*i
Where
A: cross sectional area of the specimen
I: hydraulic gradient
Permeability test is conducted by two methods namely
(1) Constant head method: this test is conducted for coarse grained soil such
as coarse and medium soil.
(2) Falling head method: this test is conducted for fine materials such as fine
soils.
Range of permeability for following grain size strata:
Gravel 103
to 1 cm/s
Sand 1 to 10-3
cm/s
Silt 10-3
to 10-6
cm/s
Clay <10-6
cm/s
Grade of permeability:

Impervious ……………. < 10-6
cm/s
Semi pervious …………… 10-6
to 10-4
cm/s
Pervious …………… > 10-4
cm/s
SCOPE:
This test covers the laboratory determination of the coefficient Of permeability of
soil using constant and falling head method. This test is recommended for soil
with coefficient of permeability in range of 10-3
to 10-7
cm/s and 4.75 mm passing.
APPARATUS:
1. Permeability mould: weight (2.0 kg), internal diameter (100mm +- .1),
length (127.3mm +- .1), thickness of cell (5mm).
2. Rammer (2.6 kg)
3. Set of stand pipe: glass stand pipe for falling head test arrangement varying
in diameter from 5 to 20 mm suitably mounted on stand or fixed on wall.
HAMMER
CYLINDRICAL RING
POROUS STONE
FILTER PAPER

COMPONENETS OF PERMEABILITY APPARATUS
PROCEDURE:
• For Constant head method
1. In Sample of 98 % of known max dry density and known OMC, 10% water is
added to process the soil.
2. Then sample is packed in three layers with each of 25 blows in the
specimen and connect with the tube which is filled with water.
3. Allow water to flow through the sample by keeping head and tail water
level constant by overflows.
4. The quantity of the water (Q) in time period (t) is noted down.
• For falling head method:
a) Sample is prepared and packed same as in 1.1 and 1.2
b) When the sample is fully saturated, then head (h1) and time (t1) is noted
down.
c) After some time (t2), head (h2) are noted down and by formulae coefficient
of permeability is determined.

VARIABLE FALLING HEAD TEST
CALCULATION AND FORMULAE:
1. Constant head:
K= Q/ (A*i*t) cm/s
2. Falling head:
K= C *log10 (h1/h2)* (1/ (t2-t1))
Where,
C = constant = 2.303 (aL)/A
a = cross sectional area of tube
L=height of the specimen
A= cross sectional area of the specimen
H1 =initial height of hydraulic reading
H2 = final hydraulic reading
T1 = initial time
T2= final time
Calculation before packing:
Weight of dry soil (a) = volume of mould *(.98* MDD)
Weight of processed soil (b) = 1.1 * a
Weight of water required = ((OMC-9.98)*a)/100
Where
OMC is in percentage (%).
RESULT
Coefficient Of permeability (k) of given sample is ………………….cm/s.

TRIAXIAL COMPRESSION TEST
(IS: 2720 (PART 11) 1986 )
INTRODUCTION
The tri-axial compression test, is used for the determination of shear
characteristics of all types of soils under different drainage conditions. In this test,
a cylindrical specimen is stressed under conditions of axial symmetry. In first
stage of test, the specimen is subjected to an all round confining pressure (σc) on
the sides and at the top and bottom. This stage is known as the consolidation
stage.
In the second stage of the test, called the shearing stage, an additional axial
stress, known as the deviator stress (σd), is applied on the top of the specimen
through a ram. Thus, the total stress in the axial direction at the time of shearing
is equal to (σc +σd ). When the axial stress is increased, the shear stresses develop
on the inclined planes due to compressive stresses on the top.
SCOPE
This test is done to determine
(i) Cohesion of soil “c”.
(ii) Angle of frictional resistance of soil “ ” .ϕ
APPARATUS
(i) Triaxial cell
(ii) Loading machine
(iii) Soil specimen (37.5 mm dia and 75 mm height)
(iv) Mercury pot system

(v) Pore water pressure measurement device
(vi) Burette for volume change measurement
PROCEDURE
(a) Consolidated- Undrained test
(i) A de-aired, coarse porous disc or stone is placed on the top of the
pedestal in the tri-axial test apparatus and then a filter paper is placed.
(ii) The specimen of cohesive soil is then placed over the filter paper. The
usual size of specimen is about 37.5 mm dia. and 75 mm height.
(iii) A porous stone is also placed on the top of specimen. De-aired vertical
filter strips are placed at regular spacing around the entire periphery
such that these touch both porous stones.
(iv) The sample is then enclosed in a rubber membrane, which is slid over
the specimen with the help of a membrane stretcher. The membrane is
sealed to the specimen with o-rings.
(v) The tri-axial cell is placed over the base and fixed to it by tightening the
nuts. The cell is then filled with water by connecting it to the pressure
supply.
(vi) Some space in the top portion of the cell is filled by injecting oil through
the oil valve. When excess oil begins to spill out through the air-vent
valve, both the valves(oil valve and air vent valve) are closed.
(vii) Pressure is applied to the water filled in the cell by connecting it to the
mercury-pot system. As soon as the pressure acts on the specimen, it
starts consolidating.
(viii) The specimen is connected to the burette through pressure connections
for measurement of volume changes. The consolidation is complete
when there is no more volume change.

(ix) When the consolidation is complete, the specimen is ready for being
sheared. The drainage valve is closed.
(x) The proving ring dial gauge is set to zero. Proving ring records the force
due to friction and the upward thrust on the ram. The dial gauge for
measuring axial deformation of the specimen is set to zero.
(xi) The sample is sheared by applying the deviator stress by loading
machine. The proving ring readings are generally taken corresponding
axial strains of 1/3%, 2/3%,1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%,….until failure or 20%
axial strain.
(xii) Upon completion of the test, the loading is shut off. The specimen is
then recovered after removing loading cap and the top porous stone.
The post shear mass and length are determined. The water content of
the specimen is also found.
(b) Unconsolidated – undrained test
The procedure is similar to that of consolidated –undrained test,with
one basic difference that the specimen is not allowed to consolidate in
the first stage. The drainage valve during test is kept closed.
(c) Consolidated- drained test
The procedure is similar to that for a consolidated – undrained test, with
one basic difference that the specimen is sheared slowly. After the
consolidation of the specimen, the drainage valve is not closed. It
remains connected to the burette throughout the test.
Soil sample prepared at S.M.C
Specimen

Specimen is under tri axial loading.
CALCULATIONS
The tri axial specimen is subjected to all round pressure equal to the
lateral pressure ( σ3 ) and applied vertical or deviater stress (σd ) such
that total vertical stress,
σ1 = σd + σ3
Mohr’s circles are plotted at normal stress intercept of σd and σ3 or
diameter equal to the deviator stresses. Mohr rupture envelope is then
obtained by drawing tangent to the circles. The intercept of his line
with Y – axis represent the cohesion (c) where as inclination with X- axis
represent the angle of internal friction ( ф ) of the soil.
The shear resistance of the soil is found by the following equation:
S = c + σd tan(ф)
RESULT

The value of cohesion and angle of friction are calculated from the lateral and
cell pressure and then drawing Mohr’s circle. This help in predicting the bearing
capacity of soil.
FREE SWELL INDEX OF SOILS
(IS: 2720(PART 40)-1977)
INTRODUCTION
Free swell is the increase in volume of a soil, without any external constraints, on
submergence in water. The possibility of damage to swelling of expensive clays
need be identified, at the outset, by an investigation of those soils likely to
possess undesirable expansion characteristics. Inferential testing is resorted to
reflect the potential of the system to swell under different simulated conditions.
Actual magnitude of swelling pressures developed depends upon the dry density,
initial water content, surcharge loading and several other environmental factors.
SCOPE

This standard covers a test for the determination of free swell index of soil which
helps to identify the potential of a soil to swell which might need further detailed
investigation regarding swelling and swelling pressures, under different field
conditions.
APPARATUS
1. SIEVE :- 425 µ IS SIEVE
2. GLASS GRADUATED CYLINDERS :- Two, 100 ml capacity.
PROCEDURE
1. Take two 10 g soil specimens of oven dry soil passing through 425 µ IS
SIEVE.
2. Each soil specimen shall be poured in each of the two glass graduated
cylinders of 100 ml capacity.
3. One cylinder shall then be filled with kerosene oil and the other with
distilled water up to the 100 ml mark.
4. After removal of entrapped air (by gentle shaking or stirring with a glass
rod) the soils in both cylinders shall be allowed to settle.
5. Sufficient time (not less 24 h) shall be
allowed for the soil sample to attain
equilibrium state of volume without any
further change in the volume of the
soils.
6. The final volume of soils in each of the
cylinders shall be read out.
7. The level of the soil in the kerosene
graduated cylinder shall be read out as

the original volume of the soil sample, kerosene being a non-polar liquid
does not cause swelling of the soil.
8. The level of the soil in the distilled water cylinder shall be read as the free
swell level.
SOIL SWELLS IN RIGHT JAR
FORMULA AND CALCULATIONS
The free swell index of the soil shall be calculated as follows:
Free swell index, percent = (( Vd – Vk )/ Vk) * 100
Where
Vd = the volume of soil specimen read from the graduated cylinder containing
distilled water, and
Vk = the volume of soil specimen read from the graduated cylinder containing
kerosene.
SPECIFIC GRAVITY
(IS: 2720 (PART 3/SEC 1)-1980)
INTRODUCTION
The specific gravity of solid particles is the ratio of the mass density of solids to
that of water. Specific gravity of soils is used to find the degree of saturation and
unit weight of moist soils. The unit weights are needed in pressure, settlement
and stability problems in soil engineering.

SCOPE
This standard lays down the methods of test for the determination of the specific
gravity of soil particle of fine grained soils.
APPARATUS
1. Two density bottles of approximately 50 ml capacity with stoppers.
2. A water-bath maintained at a constant temperature to within (If standard
density bottles are used, this constant temperature is 27 C)
3. A vacuum desiccators (a convenient size is one about 200 mm to250 mm in
diameter).
4. A thermostatically controlled drying oven, capable of maintaining a
temperature of 105 to 110 ⁰C.
5. A balance readable and accurate to 0.001 g.
6. A source of vacuum, such as a good filter pump of a vacuum pump.
7. A spatula (a convenient size is one having a blade 150 mm long and 3mm
long wide; the blade has to be small enough to go through the neck of the
density bottle), or piece of glass rod about 150 mm long and 3 mm
diameter.
8. A wash bottle, preferably made of plastics, containing air-free distilled
water.
9. A length of rubber tubing to fit the vacuum pump and the desiccators.

Specific gravity bottle
PROCEDURE
1. Wash the density bottle and dry it in an oven at 105 ⁰C to 110 ⁰C. Cool it in
desiccators.
2. Weigh the bottle, with stopper, to the nearest 0.001 g (M1)
3. Take 5 to 10 g of the oven-dried soil sample and transfer it to the density
bottle with the stopper and the dry sample (M2).
4. Add de-aired distilled water to the density bottle just enough to cover the
soil. Shake gently to mix soil and water.
5. Place the bottle containing the soil and water, after removing the stopper,
in the vacuum desiccators.
6. Evacuate the desiccator gradually by operating the vacuum pump. Reduce
the pressure to about 20 mm of mercury. Keep the bottle in the desiccator
for at least 1 hour or until no further movement of air is noticed.
7. Remove the bottle from the desiccators. Add air-free water until the bottle
is full. Insert the stopper.

8. Determine the mass of the bottle and its contents (M3).
9. Empty the bottle and clean it thoroughly. Fill it with distilled water. Insert
the stopper.
10. Immerse the bottle in the constant-temperature bath until it has attained
the constant temperature of the bath.
11. Wipe it dry and take the mass (M4).
FORMULA AND CALCULATIONS
The specific gravity of soil particles G shall be measured by using following
equation
G = ( M2-M1 ) / ( ( M4-M1 )-( M3-M1 ) )
Where
M1 = mass of empty bottle.
M2 = mass of the bottle and dry soil.
M3 = mass of bottle, soil and water.
M4 = mass of bottle filled with water only.

CEMENT
INTRODUCTION
Cement in a general sense is adhesive and cohesive materials which is capable of
bonding together particles of solid matter into compact durable mass. For civil
engineering works, they are restricted to calcareous cements containing
compounds of lime as their chief constituent, its primary function being to bind
the fine(sand) and coarse (grits) aggregate particles together.
Cement used in construction industry may be classified as hydraulic and non
hydraulic. The latter does not set and harden in water such as non- hydraulic lime
or which are unstable in water, e.g. Plaster of Paris. The hydraulic cement set and
hardens in water to give a product which is stable. Portland cement is such one.
Composition of cement clinker
The silicates C3S and C2S are the most important compounds and are mainly
responsible for the strength of the cement paste. They constitute the bulk of the
composition. C3A and C4AF do not contribute much to the strength, but in the
manufacturing process they facilitate combination of lime and silica, and act as a
flux.

Composition of cement clinker
Clinker CCN Mass %
Tricalcium silicate (CaO)3 · SiO2 C3S 45-75%
Dicalcium silicate (CaO)2 · SiO2 C2S 7-32%
Tricalcium aluminate (CaO)3 · Al2O3 C3A 0-13%
Tetracalcium aluminoferrite (CaO)4 · Al2O3 · Fe2O3 C4AF 0-18%
Gypsum CaSO4 · 2 H2O 2-10%
Role of compounds on properties of cement
Characteristic C3S C2S C3A C4AF
Setting Quick Slow Rapid -
Hydration Rapid Slow Rapid -
Heat Liberation
(Cal/gm) 7 days
Higher Lower Higher Higher
Early Strength
High up to 14
days
Low up to 14
days
Not much
beyond 1 day
Insignificant
Later Strength
Moderate at
later stage
High at later
stage after 14
days
- -

TYPES OF CEMENT
1. Ordinary Portland Cement (IS:8112)
•
• Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) is the most important type of cement.
• The OPC was classified into three grades, namely 33 grade, 43 grade and53
grade depending upon the strength of the cement at 28 days when tested as per IS
4031-1988. If the 28 days strength is not less than 33N/mm2, it is called 33 grade
cement, if the strength is not less than 43N/mm2, it is called 43 grade cement, and if
the strength is not less than 53 N/mm2, it is called 53 grade cement.
Properties
1. Specific surface < 225 m2/kg
2. Initial setting time 30 minutes
3. Final setting time 10 hours
4. Soundness Expansion (mm)
a. Le.- Chattlier test 10 gm
b. Autoclave Max% 0.8%
5. Compressive strength N/mm
DAY GRADE 33 43 53
a. 1 day
b. 3 days 16 23 27
c. 7 days 22 33 37
d. 28 days 33 43 53

2. Rapid Hardening Cement ( IS : 8041)
•
• This cement is similar to ordinary Portland cement. As the name indicates it
develops strength rapidly and as such it may be more appropriate to call it as high
early strength cement.
• Rapid hardening cement which develops higher rate of development of
strength should not be confused with quick-setting cement which only sets quickly.
• Rapid hardening cement develops at the age of three days, the same strength
as that is expected of ordinary Portland cement at seven days.
• The rapid rate of development of strength is attributed to the higher fineness
of grinding and higher C3S and lower C2S content.
• The higher fineness of cement particles expose greater surface area for action
of water and also higher proportion of C3S results in quicker hydration.
• Therefore, rapid hardening cement should not be used in mass concrete
construction.
Uses:
• In pre-fabricated concrete construction.
• Where formwork is required to be removed early for reuse.
• Road repair works.
• In cold weather concrete where the rapid rate of development of strength
reduces the vulnerability of concrete to the frost damage.
Properties
1. Specific surface <325 m2/kg
a. 1 day
b. 3 days 16
c. 7 days 22

d. 28 days 33
3. Low Heat Cement (IS: 12600)
•
• It is well known that hydration of cement is an exothermic action which
produces large quantity of heat during hydration.
• Formation of cracks in large body of concrete due to heat of hydration has
focused the attention of the concrete technologists to produce a kind of cement
which produces less heat or the same amount of heat, at a low rate during the
hydration process.
• Cement having this property was developed in U.S.A. during 1930 for use in
mass concrete construction, such as dams, where temperature rise by the heat of
hydration can become excessively large.
• A low-heat evolution is achieved by reducing the contents of C3S and C3A
which are the compounds evolving the maximum heat of hydration and increasing
C2S.
• A reduction of temperature will retard the chemical action of hardening and so
further restrict the rate of evolution of heat. The rate of evolution of heat will,
therefore, be less and evolution of heat will extend over a longer period.
Properties
a. Le.-Chattlier test 10 gm
5. Compressive strength N/mm2
a. 1 day
b. 3 days 7
c. 7 days 22
d. 28 days 26.5
4. Portland Puzzolana Cement (IS 1489)

•
• The history of pozzolanic material goes back to Roman’s time. The descriptions
and details of pozzolanic material will be dealt separately under the chapter
‘Admixtures’.
• Portland Pozzolana cement (PPC) is manufactured by the inter-grinding of OPC
clinker with 10 to 25 per cent of pozzolanic material (as per the latest amendment, it
is 15 to 35%).
• A pozzolanic material is essentially a silicious or aluminous material which
while in itself possessing no cementitious properties, which will, in finely divided
form and in the presence of water, react with calcium hydroxide, liberated in the
hydration process, at ordinary temperature, to form compounds possessing
cementitious properties.
• The pozzolanic materials generally used for manufacture of PPC are calcined
clay or fly ash.
• The pozzolanic action is shown below:
Calcium hydroxide + Pozzolana + water ----> C – S – H (gel)
• Portland pozzolana cement produces less heat of hydration and offers greater
resistance to the attack of aggressive waters than ordinary Portland cement.
Moreover, it reduces the leaching of calcium hydroxide when used in hydraulic
structures. It is particularly useful in marine and hydraulic construction and other
mass concrete constructions.
Uses:
• For hydraulic structures;
• For mass concrete structures like dam, bridge piers and thick foundation;
• For marine structures;
• For sewers and sewage disposal works.
Properties

a. 1 day
b. 3 days 16
c. 7 days 22
d. 28 days 33
5. Portland masonry cement (IS: 3466)
• Ordinary cement mortar, though good when compared to lime mortar with
respect to strength and setting properties, is inferior to lime mortar with respect
to workability, water retentively, shrinkage property and extensibility.
• Masonry cement is a type of cement which is particularly made with such
combination of materials, which when used for making mortar, incorporates all
the good properties of lime mortar and discards all the not so ideal properties of
cement mortar.
• This kind of cement is mostly used, as the name indicates, for masonry
construction.
• It contains certain amount of air-entraining agent and mineral admixtures
to improve the plasticity and water retentively
Properties
a. 1 day ---
b. 3 days ---

c. 7 days 2.5
d. 28 days 5
.
FINENESS TEST OF CEMENT
(IS: 4031 (Part 1) – 1996)
PRINCIPLE
The principle of this is that we determine the proportion of cement whose grain
size is larger than specified mesh size.
APPARATUS USED
1. 90µm IS Sieve
2. Balance capable of weighing 10g to the nearest 10mg
3. A nylon or pure bristle brush, preferably with 25 to 40mm, bristle, for
cleaning the sieve.
PROCEDURE
1. Weigh approximately 10g of cement to the nearest 0.01g and place it on
the sieve.
2. Agitate the sieve by swirling, planetary and linear movements, until no
more fine material passes through it.
3. Weigh the residue and express its mass as a percentage R1,of the quantity
first placed on the sieve to the nearest 0.1 percent.
4. Gently brush all the fine material off the base of the sieve.

5. Repeat the whole procedure using a fresh 10g sample to obtain R2. Then
calculate R as the mean of R1 and R2 as a percentage, expressed to the
nearest 0.1 percent. When the results differ by more than 1 percent
absolute, carry out a third sieving and calculate the mean of the three
values.
CONSISTENCY OF CEMENT
(IS: 4031 (Part 4) – 1988)
AIM
The basic aim is to find out the water content required to produce a cement paste
of standard consistency .
PRINCIPLE
The principle is that standard consistency of cement is that consistency at which
the Vicat’s plunger penetrates to a point 5-7mm from the bottom of Vicat’s
mould.
APPARATUS REQUIRED
1. Vicat’s apparatus conforming to IS: 5513 – 1976
2. Balance, whose permissible variation at a load of 1000g should be +1.0g
3. Gauging trowel conforming to IS: 10086 – 1982.
PROCEDURE

1. Weigh approximately 400g of cement and mix it with a weighed quantity
of water. The time of gauging should be between 3 to 5 minutes.
2. Fill the Vicat’s mould with paste and level it with a trowel.
3. Lower the plunger gently till it touches the cement surface.
4. Release the plunger allowing it to sink into the paste.
5. Note the reading on the gauge.
6. Repeat the above procedure taking fresh samples of cement and different
quantities of water until the reading on the gauge is 5 to 7mm.
INITIAL AND FINAL SETTING TIME
Time of initial set: The time at which the concrete can no longer be properly
mixed, finished or compacted. (Represented by a Vicat needle penetration of 25
mm or less).
Time of final set: The time required for the cement to harden to a point where
it can sustain some load (Represented by no penetration of Vicat’s needle.)
REQUIREMENT:
Vicat’s apparatus, trowel, tray, water, cement , needle.
PROCEDURE-
1. Mix 500 g of cement with the percentage of water required for normal
consistency as described above. (The specimen used for the normal
consistency test can be used.)
2. After moulding cement paste into the test ring, place specimen in moist room
for 30 minutes.
3. Place specimen ring under Vicat apparatus and lock needle on surface of
paste. Set indicator scale to zero.
4. Release weighted needles and record the penetration in mm after 30 seconds.

5. Repeat process every fifteen minutes until initial set is achieved.
6. Repeat processes every hour until final set is achieved.
SOUNDNESS OF CEMENT
(IS: 4031 (Part 3) – 1988 )
Soundness of cement is determined by Le-Chatelier method as per IS: 4031 (Part
3) – 1988.
APPARATUS–
The apparatus for conducting the Le-Chatelier test should conform to IS: 5514 –
1969,
1. balance, whose permissible variation at a load of 1000g should be +1.0g
2. Water bath.
PROCEDURE
1. Place the mould on a glass sheet and fill it with the cement paste formed by
gauging cement with 0.78 times the water required to give a paste of standard
consistency.
2. Cover the mould with another piece of glass sheet, place a small weight on this
covering glass sheet and immediately submerge the whole assembly in water at a
temperature of 27 ± 2o
C and keep it there for 24hrs.
3. Measure the distance separating the indicator points to the nearest 0.5mm
(say d1).

4. Submerge the mould again in water at the temperature prescribed above.
Bring the water to boiling point in 25 to 30 minutes and keep it boiling for 3hrs.
5. Remove the mould from the water, allow it to cool and measure the distance
between the indicator points (say d2 ).
6. (d2 – d1 ) represents the expansion of cement.
LE-CHATELIER’S TEST
BIBLIOGRAPHY
 Soil mechanics by K.R. Arora
 Soil mechanics by V.N.S Murthy
 Internet
 CSRMS

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