The document provides an overview of macroeconomics concepts taught by Dr. Ashutosh A. Deshmukh. It defines macroeconomics as the study of aggregates and averages covering the economy as a whole, such as total income, employment, output, prices. It discusses key events that influenced the development of macroeconomics like the Great Depression. It also outlines several macroeconomic topics, theories and models covered, including classical employment theory, Keynesian economics, economic growth, and limitations of the macroeconomic approach.
1. Say's law of markets states that supply creates its own demand and that full employment is the norm in economies.
2. The document outlines the key assumptions and implications of Say's law, including that production generates income to purchase goods, saving and investment automatically equalize, and wages adjust to maintain full employment.
3. Keynes criticized Say's law for failing to account for the possibility of overproduction and unemployment, and argued that demand does not necessarily increase with supply and that intervention may be needed to stimulate demand.
In Macroeconomics Income and Employment are interchangeable terms, since in the short-run National income depends on the total volume of employment or economic activity in the country. As income and employment are synonymous the employment theory is also called income theory.
It should be clear to readers that the classical economists did not formulate any specific theory of employment as such. They only laid down certain postulates which subsequently developed as a theory.
This document provides an overview of classical and Keynesian theories of income and employment. It discusses key differences between the two theories, including how they determine full employment. The classical theory believes full employment is the normal state, while Keynes argued unemployment can persist due to insufficient aggregate demand. The document then explains Keynesian concepts like aggregate demand, consumption, investment and their relationship to national income and output. It also outlines Keynes' model and equilibrium conditions between markets.
This document defines and discusses fiscal policy in India. It begins by introducing fiscal policy and its objectives of stabilizing the economy. It then defines fiscal policy as involving government revenue collection through taxation and spending. The objectives and instruments of fiscal policy are outlined, including the budget, taxation, public expenditure, and public debt. Data on India's fiscal deficit is presented, showing it as a percentage of GDP from 2005-2014. The achievements and reforms of India's fiscal policy are highlighted, such as increasing resources and savings. The Fiscal Responsibility and Budget Management Act of 2003 is described as institutionalizing financial discipline and reducing deficits. Current fiscal policy targets reducing the deficit to 3% of GDP by 2017-2018.
Macroeconomics deals with the economy as a whole, examining aggregates like total income, output, employment and prices. It emerged as a separate field of study due to Keynes' analysis of the Great Depression when existing theories failed to explain high unemployment. The circular flow model illustrates how income and spending circulate between producers and consumers in an economy.
The document discusses the business cycle, which refers to the regular fluctuations in economic activity between periods of expansion and contraction. It describes the different types of business cycles including minor, major, very long period, and Kuznets cycles. The phases of the business cycle are also outlined, including expansion, peak, recession, and trough. Finally, the document analyzes various internal and external causes that can trigger business cycles such as consumer spending, investment, government policy, technology, and human psychology.
J.S. Mill developed Ricardo's theory of comparative costs by introducing the concept of reciprocal demand. Reciprocal demand refers to the intensity of demand one country has for another country's exports. Mill argued that terms of trade are determined by the relative strength and elasticity of reciprocal demand between countries, as represented by their offer curves. While pioneering, Mill's theory makes unrealistic assumptions and neglects supply-side factors, leading some economists to criticize it as an imperfect framework for analyzing international trade.
1. Say's law of markets states that supply creates its own demand and that full employment is the norm in economies.
2. The document outlines the key assumptions and implications of Say's law, including that production generates income to purchase goods, saving and investment automatically equalize, and wages adjust to maintain full employment.
3. Keynes criticized Say's law for failing to account for the possibility of overproduction and unemployment, and argued that demand does not necessarily increase with supply and that intervention may be needed to stimulate demand.
In Macroeconomics Income and Employment are interchangeable terms, since in the short-run National income depends on the total volume of employment or economic activity in the country. As income and employment are synonymous the employment theory is also called income theory.
It should be clear to readers that the classical economists did not formulate any specific theory of employment as such. They only laid down certain postulates which subsequently developed as a theory.
This document provides an overview of classical and Keynesian theories of income and employment. It discusses key differences between the two theories, including how they determine full employment. The classical theory believes full employment is the normal state, while Keynes argued unemployment can persist due to insufficient aggregate demand. The document then explains Keynesian concepts like aggregate demand, consumption, investment and their relationship to national income and output. It also outlines Keynes' model and equilibrium conditions between markets.
This document defines and discusses fiscal policy in India. It begins by introducing fiscal policy and its objectives of stabilizing the economy. It then defines fiscal policy as involving government revenue collection through taxation and spending. The objectives and instruments of fiscal policy are outlined, including the budget, taxation, public expenditure, and public debt. Data on India's fiscal deficit is presented, showing it as a percentage of GDP from 2005-2014. The achievements and reforms of India's fiscal policy are highlighted, such as increasing resources and savings. The Fiscal Responsibility and Budget Management Act of 2003 is described as institutionalizing financial discipline and reducing deficits. Current fiscal policy targets reducing the deficit to 3% of GDP by 2017-2018.
Macroeconomics deals with the economy as a whole, examining aggregates like total income, output, employment and prices. It emerged as a separate field of study due to Keynes' analysis of the Great Depression when existing theories failed to explain high unemployment. The circular flow model illustrates how income and spending circulate between producers and consumers in an economy.
The document discusses the business cycle, which refers to the regular fluctuations in economic activity between periods of expansion and contraction. It describes the different types of business cycles including minor, major, very long period, and Kuznets cycles. The phases of the business cycle are also outlined, including expansion, peak, recession, and trough. Finally, the document analyzes various internal and external causes that can trigger business cycles such as consumer spending, investment, government policy, technology, and human psychology.
J.S. Mill developed Ricardo's theory of comparative costs by introducing the concept of reciprocal demand. Reciprocal demand refers to the intensity of demand one country has for another country's exports. Mill argued that terms of trade are determined by the relative strength and elasticity of reciprocal demand between countries, as represented by their offer curves. While pioneering, Mill's theory makes unrealistic assumptions and neglects supply-side factors, leading some economists to criticize it as an imperfect framework for analyzing international trade.
This document provides an overview of Keynes' liquidity preference theory of interest. It defines interest as payment made by a borrower to a lender for borrowing money. It distinguishes between gross and net interest. The liquidity preference theory states that interest is determined by the interaction between the demand and supply of money, where demand is based on liquidity preference and the desire to hold cash. Demand for money has three motives: transactional, precautionary, and speculative. The demand curve is negatively sloped. The supply of money is determined by the central bank and is interest inelastic. The equilibrium interest rate is determined by the point where the demand curve intersects the vertical supply curve. Changes in liquidity preference
This presentation explains various monetary instruments being adopted by the Reserve Bank of India. It also shows their impact on stock market. It also show the statistic trend of inflation, repo rate, reverse repo rate, etc in India.
Baumol’s theory of sales maximisation Prabha Panth
Baumol's theory of sales maximization argues that managers prioritize increasing sales over maximizing profits for several reasons. According to the theory, managers prefer steady sales growth to maximize revenue (R) up to the quantity (Qs) where marginal revenue (MR) is zero, rather than the higher quantity (Qm) that would maximize profits. This ensures a minimum acceptable level of profits (Rs) to satisfy shareholders while allowing continued sales growth. However, the theory makes some simplifying assumptions and has been criticized for not fully considering factors like oligopoly interdependence and uncertainties that could impact firms' objectives.
The document discusses various sources of public revenue for governments. It begins by explaining that governments require large amounts of resources to perform functions in political, social, and economic areas to maximize welfare.
It then discusses two senses of public revenue - the narrow sense including only income sources described as revenue resources, and the wider sense including all government income irrespective of source. Some key classifications of public revenue sources are also outlined, including taxes, fees, duties, gifts/grants, commercial revenues, and loans.
The main sources are divided into tax revenue, including direct and indirect taxes, and non-tax revenue such as administrative revenues consisting of fees, special assessments, fines, forfeitures, and escheats. Direct taxes
Introduction to Economics ,Nature and scope of economics001Abhishek1
Economics is the study of how people use limited resources to satisfy unlimited wants. It can be defined as the science of production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services. There are several branches of economics:
Microeconomics studies individual units like households and firms. Macroeconomics looks at aggregates and examines the entire economy. Other branches include international economics, development economics, environmental economics, and urban/rural economics.
Economics is both a science and an art. As a science, it uses scientific methods to systematically study economic phenomena. As an art, it provides practical guidance to solve economic problems. Economics is also both a positive and normative discipline - positive economics describes what is, while normative economics
The document discusses Bain's limit pricing model. It states that under Bain's model, oligopoly firms do not maximize profits in the short run due to fear of attracting potential new entrants. Instead, firms fix a price on the inelastic portion of the demand curve called the limit price, which is the highest price that deters new firm entry. The limit price allows existing firms to earn abnormal profits above competitive levels but below monopoly profits, maintaining market stability. Diagrams are included showing the limit price between the perfect competition and monopoly price points.
National income: concept, methods, Importance and challengesPankaj Bhaydiya
In this presentation you are going to know about the concept of national income, circular flow of income under four sector economy its methods, Importance and the challenges faced by government in calculation of national income
Clement Juglar in 1860 was among the first to analyze business cycles using statistical data and identified cycles occurring every 8-11 years. Wesley Mitchell further empirically studied business cycles and helped establish the National Bureau of Economic Research. The main instruments to control business cycles are monetary policy by central banks, fiscal policy by governments, and direct controls such as price controls. Monetary policy involves interest rates and money supply, fiscal policy involves government spending and taxation, and direct controls more directly target prices, wages, and allocation of resources. No single measure can fully control cycles, so a combination of these instruments should be used.
In monetary economics, the quantity theory of money (QTM) states that the general price level of goods and services is directly proportional to the amount of money in circulation, or money supply. The theory was challenged by Keynesian economics,but updated and reinvigorated by the monetarist school of economics. While mainstream economists agree that the quantity theory holds true in the long run, there is still disagreement about its applicability in the short run. Critics of the theory argue that money velocity is not stable and, in the short-run, prices are sticky, so the direct relationship between money supply and price level does not hold.
Alternative theories include the real bills doctrine and the more recent fiscal theory of the price level.
The document discusses the business cycle, which refers to periods of economic expansion and contraction over time. A business cycle consists of expansions, recessions/general contractions, and revivals. Expansions are periods of increased production, prices, and employment. Recessions involve declining output, prices, and rising unemployment. Contractions occur when the economy experiences a steep decline. Revivals mark the beginning of the next expansion phase. The phases of the business cycle - peak, recession, trough, recovery - are explained in detail. Causes of recessions and theories to explain business cycles like Keynesian and real business cycle theories are also summarized.
This document discusses monetary and fiscal policy in India. It defines monetary policy as the central bank's use of tools like interest rates, reserve requirements, open market operations etc. to regulate money supply and achieve objectives like full employment and price stability. The key monetary policy tools discussed are bank rate, cash reserve ratio, statutory liquidity ratio, repo rate, and open market operations. Fiscal policy refers to the government's use of taxing and spending tools to impact the economy. The major fiscal policy tools covered are the deficit, public expenditure, taxation, and public debt.
The Harrod-Domer model theorizes that a country's economic growth rate is defined by its savings level and capital-output ratio. It suggests there is no natural balanced growth. The model was developed independently by Roy Harrod and Evsey Domar to explain growth in terms of savings and capital productivity. It requires continuous net investment to sustain real income and production growth. The model's assumptions include no government intervention, full initial employment, a closed economy, fixed capital-labor ratios and constant savings and interest rates. Its main criticism is the unrealistic assumption of no reason for sufficient growth to maintain full employment.
Consumption function shows the relationship between consumption and income. Keynes proposed the psychological law of consumption, which states that as income rises, consumption increases but by less than the rise in income. Consumption depends on both subjective psychological factors and objective external factors. The average propensity to consume is the ratio of consumption to income, while the marginal propensity to consume is the change in consumption from a change in income.
Keynes proposed that as income increases, consumption increases but not as much as the rise in income, meaning the marginal propensity to consume is less than one. The relationship between consumption and income can be expressed as C=A+BY, where C is consumption, A is autonomous consumption, B is the marginal propensity to consume, and Y is real disposable income. When total income in a community increases, consumption spending also increases but to a lesser degree, so increased income is split between consumption and savings.
The document discusses several theories of interest, including classical, neoclassical loanable funds, modern, productivity, abstinence, Austrian time preference, Fisher's time preference, and Keynes' liquidity preference theories. The classical theory views interest as determined by real factors like savings and investment. The loanable funds theory sees interest set by demand and supply of loanable capital. Modern theory combines monetary and non-monetary factors using IS and LM curves.
Macro Economics
For downloading this contact- bikashkumar.bk100@gmail.com
Prepared by Students of University of Rajshahi
Mohammad Abadullah
Dilruba Jahan Popi
Rabiul Islam
Effat Ara Saima
MD. Rajib Mojumder (Captain)
This theory relies on the market behaviour of the consumer to know about his preferences with regard to the various combinations for the two reactions and responses of the consumer.
This document defines and explains the key components of money supply and how it is measured. It discusses four main measures of money supply: M0, M1, M2, and M3. M1 includes currency in circulation and demand deposits. M2 adds savings deposits and time deposits. M3 includes longer-term time deposits. Each measure expands the definition in terms of liquidity and availability for use in transactions. The document also explains the components that make up each measure, such as currency, demand deposits, savings deposits, and time deposits.
Macroeconomics studies aggregate economic quantities such as growth, inflation, and unemployment across entire markets and national economies. The document outlines several key aspects of macroeconomics including its focus on economy-wide phenomena, its main areas of research, major schools of thought, differences from microeconomics, features such as giving an overall view of the national economy, and examining important macroeconomic issues like employment, inflation, and economic growth.
This document provides an introduction to macroeconomics. It defines macroeconomics as the study of factors that determine aggregate production, employment, prices and their changes over time in an economy. Key aspects covered include the classical and Keynesian views of macroeconomics, macroeconomic variables, models and approaches used in analysis. Important macroeconomic issues discussed are achieving economic growth, preventing business cycles, controlling inflation, unemployment, budget deficits, and managing international economic issues.
This document provides an overview of Keynes' liquidity preference theory of interest. It defines interest as payment made by a borrower to a lender for borrowing money. It distinguishes between gross and net interest. The liquidity preference theory states that interest is determined by the interaction between the demand and supply of money, where demand is based on liquidity preference and the desire to hold cash. Demand for money has three motives: transactional, precautionary, and speculative. The demand curve is negatively sloped. The supply of money is determined by the central bank and is interest inelastic. The equilibrium interest rate is determined by the point where the demand curve intersects the vertical supply curve. Changes in liquidity preference
This presentation explains various monetary instruments being adopted by the Reserve Bank of India. It also shows their impact on stock market. It also show the statistic trend of inflation, repo rate, reverse repo rate, etc in India.
Baumol’s theory of sales maximisation Prabha Panth
Baumol's theory of sales maximization argues that managers prioritize increasing sales over maximizing profits for several reasons. According to the theory, managers prefer steady sales growth to maximize revenue (R) up to the quantity (Qs) where marginal revenue (MR) is zero, rather than the higher quantity (Qm) that would maximize profits. This ensures a minimum acceptable level of profits (Rs) to satisfy shareholders while allowing continued sales growth. However, the theory makes some simplifying assumptions and has been criticized for not fully considering factors like oligopoly interdependence and uncertainties that could impact firms' objectives.
The document discusses various sources of public revenue for governments. It begins by explaining that governments require large amounts of resources to perform functions in political, social, and economic areas to maximize welfare.
It then discusses two senses of public revenue - the narrow sense including only income sources described as revenue resources, and the wider sense including all government income irrespective of source. Some key classifications of public revenue sources are also outlined, including taxes, fees, duties, gifts/grants, commercial revenues, and loans.
The main sources are divided into tax revenue, including direct and indirect taxes, and non-tax revenue such as administrative revenues consisting of fees, special assessments, fines, forfeitures, and escheats. Direct taxes
Introduction to Economics ,Nature and scope of economics001Abhishek1
Economics is the study of how people use limited resources to satisfy unlimited wants. It can be defined as the science of production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services. There are several branches of economics:
Microeconomics studies individual units like households and firms. Macroeconomics looks at aggregates and examines the entire economy. Other branches include international economics, development economics, environmental economics, and urban/rural economics.
Economics is both a science and an art. As a science, it uses scientific methods to systematically study economic phenomena. As an art, it provides practical guidance to solve economic problems. Economics is also both a positive and normative discipline - positive economics describes what is, while normative economics
The document discusses Bain's limit pricing model. It states that under Bain's model, oligopoly firms do not maximize profits in the short run due to fear of attracting potential new entrants. Instead, firms fix a price on the inelastic portion of the demand curve called the limit price, which is the highest price that deters new firm entry. The limit price allows existing firms to earn abnormal profits above competitive levels but below monopoly profits, maintaining market stability. Diagrams are included showing the limit price between the perfect competition and monopoly price points.
National income: concept, methods, Importance and challengesPankaj Bhaydiya
In this presentation you are going to know about the concept of national income, circular flow of income under four sector economy its methods, Importance and the challenges faced by government in calculation of national income
Clement Juglar in 1860 was among the first to analyze business cycles using statistical data and identified cycles occurring every 8-11 years. Wesley Mitchell further empirically studied business cycles and helped establish the National Bureau of Economic Research. The main instruments to control business cycles are monetary policy by central banks, fiscal policy by governments, and direct controls such as price controls. Monetary policy involves interest rates and money supply, fiscal policy involves government spending and taxation, and direct controls more directly target prices, wages, and allocation of resources. No single measure can fully control cycles, so a combination of these instruments should be used.
In monetary economics, the quantity theory of money (QTM) states that the general price level of goods and services is directly proportional to the amount of money in circulation, or money supply. The theory was challenged by Keynesian economics,but updated and reinvigorated by the monetarist school of economics. While mainstream economists agree that the quantity theory holds true in the long run, there is still disagreement about its applicability in the short run. Critics of the theory argue that money velocity is not stable and, in the short-run, prices are sticky, so the direct relationship between money supply and price level does not hold.
Alternative theories include the real bills doctrine and the more recent fiscal theory of the price level.
The document discusses the business cycle, which refers to periods of economic expansion and contraction over time. A business cycle consists of expansions, recessions/general contractions, and revivals. Expansions are periods of increased production, prices, and employment. Recessions involve declining output, prices, and rising unemployment. Contractions occur when the economy experiences a steep decline. Revivals mark the beginning of the next expansion phase. The phases of the business cycle - peak, recession, trough, recovery - are explained in detail. Causes of recessions and theories to explain business cycles like Keynesian and real business cycle theories are also summarized.
This document discusses monetary and fiscal policy in India. It defines monetary policy as the central bank's use of tools like interest rates, reserve requirements, open market operations etc. to regulate money supply and achieve objectives like full employment and price stability. The key monetary policy tools discussed are bank rate, cash reserve ratio, statutory liquidity ratio, repo rate, and open market operations. Fiscal policy refers to the government's use of taxing and spending tools to impact the economy. The major fiscal policy tools covered are the deficit, public expenditure, taxation, and public debt.
The Harrod-Domer model theorizes that a country's economic growth rate is defined by its savings level and capital-output ratio. It suggests there is no natural balanced growth. The model was developed independently by Roy Harrod and Evsey Domar to explain growth in terms of savings and capital productivity. It requires continuous net investment to sustain real income and production growth. The model's assumptions include no government intervention, full initial employment, a closed economy, fixed capital-labor ratios and constant savings and interest rates. Its main criticism is the unrealistic assumption of no reason for sufficient growth to maintain full employment.
Consumption function shows the relationship between consumption and income. Keynes proposed the psychological law of consumption, which states that as income rises, consumption increases but by less than the rise in income. Consumption depends on both subjective psychological factors and objective external factors. The average propensity to consume is the ratio of consumption to income, while the marginal propensity to consume is the change in consumption from a change in income.
Keynes proposed that as income increases, consumption increases but not as much as the rise in income, meaning the marginal propensity to consume is less than one. The relationship between consumption and income can be expressed as C=A+BY, where C is consumption, A is autonomous consumption, B is the marginal propensity to consume, and Y is real disposable income. When total income in a community increases, consumption spending also increases but to a lesser degree, so increased income is split between consumption and savings.
The document discusses several theories of interest, including classical, neoclassical loanable funds, modern, productivity, abstinence, Austrian time preference, Fisher's time preference, and Keynes' liquidity preference theories. The classical theory views interest as determined by real factors like savings and investment. The loanable funds theory sees interest set by demand and supply of loanable capital. Modern theory combines monetary and non-monetary factors using IS and LM curves.
Macro Economics
For downloading this contact- bikashkumar.bk100@gmail.com
Prepared by Students of University of Rajshahi
Mohammad Abadullah
Dilruba Jahan Popi
Rabiul Islam
Effat Ara Saima
MD. Rajib Mojumder (Captain)
This theory relies on the market behaviour of the consumer to know about his preferences with regard to the various combinations for the two reactions and responses of the consumer.
This document defines and explains the key components of money supply and how it is measured. It discusses four main measures of money supply: M0, M1, M2, and M3. M1 includes currency in circulation and demand deposits. M2 adds savings deposits and time deposits. M3 includes longer-term time deposits. Each measure expands the definition in terms of liquidity and availability for use in transactions. The document also explains the components that make up each measure, such as currency, demand deposits, savings deposits, and time deposits.
Macroeconomics studies aggregate economic quantities such as growth, inflation, and unemployment across entire markets and national economies. The document outlines several key aspects of macroeconomics including its focus on economy-wide phenomena, its main areas of research, major schools of thought, differences from microeconomics, features such as giving an overall view of the national economy, and examining important macroeconomic issues like employment, inflation, and economic growth.
This document provides an introduction to macroeconomics. It defines macroeconomics as the study of factors that determine aggregate production, employment, prices and their changes over time in an economy. Key aspects covered include the classical and Keynesian views of macroeconomics, macroeconomic variables, models and approaches used in analysis. Important macroeconomic issues discussed are achieving economic growth, preventing business cycles, controlling inflation, unemployment, budget deficits, and managing international economic issues.
1-Importance of Macroeconomic issues-31-07-2023.pdfSanthosh45925
This document provides an overview of macroeconomics. It defines macroeconomics as the study of economic aggregates like total output, employment, inflation, and interest rates [1]. The document notes that macroeconomics examines factors that determine these variables and how they change over time, and is policy-oriented in analyzing how government policies can impact outputs and goals like unemployment and inflation [2]. It then provides examples of macroeconomic indicators in the US from 1953-2010 and frames questions that macroeconomics seeks to address about topics like economic growth, instability, and the relationship between inflation and unemployment [3]. Finally, it outlines several major schools of macroeconomic thought: Classical, Keynesian, Monetarist, New Classical,
This document provides an overview of macroeconomics as a subject, including:
- Definitions of macroeconomics as the study of aggregates and averages across the whole economy. It deals with issues like employment, growth, inflation.
- Key differences between microeconomics which looks at individual units, and macroeconomics which looks at the overall economy.
- The importance of macroeconomics in understanding how the economy works overall and for policymaking.
- Limitations of macroeconomics include overgeneralization and issues with aggregates.
- Explanations of the circular flow of income and models showing flows between households, firms, and other sectors in two and three sector economies.
This document provides an introduction to macroeconomics. It defines macroeconomics as the study of the economy as a whole, including aggregates like total employment, income, and prices. Macroeconomics is important because it helps understand how the entire economy works and analyze factors that influence growth, development, income, output, and employment. The objectives of macroeconomics include achieving full employment, price stability, and economic growth. Macroeconomics also examines problems like unemployment and inflation that can occur during economic contractions and expansions.
John Maynard Keynes was a highly influential 20th century British economist. He developed modern macroeconomics and established the school of thought known as Keynesian economics. During the Great Depression, Keynes challenged classical economic theories and advocated for fiscal and monetary policies to mitigate recessions. Some of Keynes' major contributions included establishing macroeconomics as a field, developing Keynesian economics which focuses on using government policy to manage aggregate demand, introducing concepts like liquidity preference and the fiscal multiplier, and establishing the AD-AS macroeconomic model which is used to analyze the business cycle.
Macroeconomics is the study of the economy as a whole, examining aggregates such as national income, output, employment and price levels. It analyzes how these aggregates interact and how policies affect their behavior. Macroeconomics emerged as a separate field due to the failure of classical economics to explain the Great Depression. John Maynard Keynes developed theories emphasizing aggregate demand and the role of government in managing the economy. Later schools include monetarism, supply-side economics and new classical macroeconomics, debating the factors driving output and inflation.
PRESENTATION ON THE INTRODUCTIONTO MACROECONOMICSTopu Kawser
Group A presented on the introduction to macroeconomics. They defined economics and macroeconomics, explaining that macroeconomics studies overall economies and economy-wide phenomena. They discussed how John Maynard Keynes and his book The General Theory revolutionized macroeconomics in response to the Great Depression. Finally, they outlined some key issues addressed by macroeconomics like employment, inflation, economic growth, and exchange rates.
This document provides an outline for an introductory macroeconomics course. It includes the course description, content, textbooks, delivery methods, and assessment. It also summarizes the key ideas from Chapter 1 on the evolution of macroeconomic thought from classical to Keynesian to new classical and new Keynesian schools of thought. The chapter objectives are to understand what macroeconomics studies, its historical development, and differences between the major schools of thought.
This document provides an introduction and overview of macroeconomics. It defines key concepts in macroeconomics like stocks and flows, equilibrium and disequilibrium. It outlines the development of macroeconomics from classical economists to Keynes and modern macroeconomics. It also discusses the goals of macroeconomic policy like full employment and price stability. The document concludes by discussing tools used in macroeconomic policy including fiscal policy and monetary policy.
Macroeconomics is the study of the overall economy, including factors like total output, income, unemployment, inflation, and economic growth. It examines how the whole system works and the effects of policies on outcomes. The document traces the evolution of macroeconomic thought from classical to Keynesian to new classical schools. Classical economists believed markets always clear on their own, while Keynes argued governments need policies to boost demand and employment during recessions. Modern macro draws on different schools but remains an imperfect science for predicting crises and their effects.
Macro Economics: Intoduction to Macro EconomicsSreerenjini Kb
Macroeconomics studies the economy as a whole by examining aggregates like total output, employment, inflation, and interest rates. It emerged in response to the Great Depression, when John Maynard Keynes published his work challenging classical theories. Keynes argued the economy may experience long-term unemployment rather than automatically reaching full employment. Macroeconomics examines topics like national income, economic growth, monetary policy, fiscal policy, and international economics. It seeks to understand fluctuations in the overall economy and formulate policies for stability and growth.
This document provides an introduction to macroeconomics. It defines macroeconomics as the study of a country's overall economic structure, performance, and how government policy impacts economic conditions. Macroeconomics analyzes factors that contribute to economic growth like job opportunities, goods/services, and standards of living. It also examines broad aggregates like total employment, income, and prices. The objectives of macroeconomics are achieving full employment, price stability, and economic growth. Common macroeconomic problems discussed are inflation, unemployment, and the business cycle.
This document provides an introduction to macroeconomics, including:
- Defining macroeconomics as the study of an overall economy and its aggregates, rather than individual units.
- Describing key macroeconomic variables such as output, unemployment, prices, and objectives like economic growth, full employment, and price stability.
- Explaining the importance of learning macroeconomics by how the overall economy impacts society's well-being and individuals, and how it influences politics and current events.
A fantastic PPT on the introduction of macroeconomics. The PPT includes meaning and concept of macroeconomics, its importance, its scope and relationship between microeconomics and macroeconomics. Just download it and make your concepts stronger. Happy Learning !!
This document provides an overview of a presentation on macroeconomics. It includes:
1. The names and roll numbers of the group members giving the presentation.
2. The topics to be discussed, including an introduction to macroeconomics, its objectives and basics, its development over time, applications, future, and limitations.
3. An introduction defining microeconomics as focused on individual actors, and macroeconomics as dealing with whole economy performance, structure, and behavior.
This document provides an overview of macroeconomics. It defines macroeconomics as the study of aggregate economic quantities, such as national income, output, consumption, investment, unemployment and price indices. It outlines the development of macroeconomics from classical economists to Keynes and modern macroeconomic schools of thought. It describes key macroeconomic concepts like equilibrium, stocks and flows. It also explains important macroeconomic goals like full employment and price stability. Finally, it discusses macroeconomic policies like fiscal and monetary policy and their tools, as well as the circular flow of income in closed, open and two-sector economies.
Macroeconomics deals with the study of an economy as a whole, focusing on aggregate measures like total output, employment, prices, and income. It analyzes how these economic variables are determined and how they change over time. The main topics of macroeconomics include the theories of national income, employment, money, price levels, and economic growth.
Economics is the study of how people and societies make choices about production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services. It explains phenomena like rising food costs when gas prices increase and why countries and politicians worry about bankruptcy. Economics looks at how individuals and groups interact in markets to satisfy wants and needs. It is divided into microeconomics, which examines individual agents and markets, and macroeconomics, which looks at aggregates and the overall economy.
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Meaning, definition, nature, scope, importance and limitation of macro economics
1. DR. ASHUTOSH A. DESHMUKH
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR,
N. B. NAVALE COLLEGE OF COMMERCE AND
SCIENCE, KUSGAON BK, LONAVALA
UNIT 1 Basic Concept of Macro
Economics
Dr. Ashutosh A. Deshmukh 1
2. Contents
1.1 Meaning and Definition of Macro Economics.
1.2 Nature of Macro Economics.
1.3 Scope of Macro Economics.
1.4 Significance of Macro Economics.
1.5 Limitations of Macro Economics.
1.6 Macro Economic Objectives.
3. Learning Objectives
• To make the students aware of concepts in
macroeconomics
• To develop Analytical skills.
• To improve understanding of economic activity
4. Introduction
• The term macro was first introduced in economics by Ragnar
Frisch, a famous economist in 1933. It is used to describe the
study of aggregates and averages covering the economy as a
whole. Such as total income, total employment, National
income, Aggregate demand, General Price level, Total savings,
Wage level etc.
5. The Great Depression
• The Great Depression was the greatest and longest economic recession in modern world history. It began
with the U.S. stock market crash of 1929 and did not end until 1946 after World War II. Economists and
historians often cite the Great Depression as the most catastrophic economic event of the 20th century.
• Important Points:
• The Great Depression was the greatest and longest economic recession in modern world history.
• The American public began a frenzy of investing in the speculative market in the 1920s.
• The 1929 market crash wiped out a great deal of nominal wealth for individuals and businesses alike.
• Other factors including inactivity followed by overaction by the Fed also contributed to the Great
Depression.
• Both Presidents Hoover and Roosevelt tried to mitigate the impact of the depression through government
policies.
• Neither the government policies or the beginning of WWII can be single-handedly credited with ending
the depression.
• Trade routes created during WWII remained open and helped the market recover.
6. Classical Theory of Employment
• The classical economists believed in the existence of full employment in the economy. To
them, full employment was a normal situation and any deviation from this regarded as
something abnormal. According to Pigou, the tendency of the economic system is to
automatically provide full employment in the labour market when the demand and supply of
labour are equal.
• Unemployment results from the rigidity in the wage structure and interference in the working
of free market system in the form of trade union legislation, minimum wage legislation etc.
Full employment exists “when everybody who at the running rate of wages wishes to be
employed.”
• Those who are not prepared to work at the existing wage rate are not unemployed because
they are voluntarily unemployed. Thus full employment is a situation where there is no
possibility of involuntary unemployment in the sense that people are prepared to work at the
current wage rate but they do not find work.
• The basis of the classical theory is Say’s Law of Markets which was carried forward by
classical economists like Marshall and Pigou. They explained the determination of output and
employment divided into individual markets for labour, goods and money. Each market
involves a built-in equilibrium mechanism to ensure full employment in the economy
7. Keynesian Economics
• Keynesian economics is an economic theory of total spending in the
economy and its effects on output and inflation. Keynesian economics was
developed by the British economist John Maynard Keynes during the 1930s
in an attempt to understand the Great Depression. Keynes advocated for
increased government expenditures and lower taxes to stimulate demand and
pull the global economy out of the depression.
• Subsequently, Keynesian economics was used to refer to the concept that
optimal economic performance could be achieved—and economic slumps
prevented—by influencing aggregate demand through activist stabilization
and economic intervention policies by the government. Keynesian
economics is considered a "demand-side" theory that focuses on changes in
the economy over the short run.
8. Key Points
• Keynesian Economics focuses on using active government
policy to manage aggregate demand in order to address or
prevent economic recessions.
• Keynes developed his theories in response to the Great
Depression, and was highly critical of classical economic
arguments that natural economic forces and incentives would
be sufficient to help the economy recover.
• Activist fiscal and monetary policy are the primary tools
recommended by Keynesian economists to manage the
economy and fight unemployment.
9. Definition:
• According to Prof. Ackley “Macroeconomics deals with economic affairs “in the large”, it
concerns the overall dimensions of economic life.” Thus it deals with the major economic
issues, problems and policies.
• Prof. Boulding stated that, “Macroeconomics deals not with individual quantities as such but
with aggregates of these quantities: not with individual incomes but with the national
incomes; not with individual prices but with the price level; not with individual outputs but
with the national output”.
10. Nature or Characteristics of Macroeconomics
1. Macroeconomics does not deals with the individual units of the economy like a firm but it deals
with aggregates like national income total unemployment, aggregate demand etc. It studies the
problems related to the economy as a whole.
2. The objective of macro economics is to study the problems, policies and principles relating to full
employment of resources and growth of resources. Its goals are a high level and rapid growth of
output, low employment and price level stability.
3. The subject matter of macro economics is full employment, national income general price level,
trade cycle, economic growth.
4. Macroeconomics deals with economic aggregates like total employment aggregate demand etc.
and the interdependence of these economic aggregates are studied in details.
5. Macroeconomics assumes factor distribution as given and tries to explain how full employment
can be achieved.
11. Nature or Characteristics of
Macroeconomics:
• Macro economic analysis deals with the equilibrium between the forces of demand and supply of the economy
as a whole. Aggregate supply and aggregate demand are expressed in terms of money. As total income and total
expenditure. Thus aggregate demand and supply are related to total income.
• As macroeconomics is concerned with aggregates related to the society as a whole which is immortal in nature.
• Macroeconomics suffers form paradoxes. It means that the act which is beneficiate for an individual may disturb
working of the economy as a whole. The economy. For example if an individual saves money his family is
benefited. But if unemployment will increase and national income also will decrease. Thus micro decisions may
not hold good for the economy as a whole.
• Macroeconomic analysis initially concentrated on short term period where technological conditions, habits of
people, population and availability of labour force etc. are constant, hence the norm of economic activity does
not change Keynes held that short term analysis is more realistic, as in the long term all of us are dead. So
economic problems should be solved from the short term point of view.
• As Prof. Dernburg has pointed out, “macro economics is first and foremost a policy science.” Macroeconomics
is basically policy oriented subject. It deals with macroeconomic policies to solve problems faced by the
economy as a whole.
12. Scope of Macroeconomics
1. Determination of National Income: Macroeconomics aims at explaining the determinants
of the level of cause’s involuntary unemployment.
2. General Price Level and Inflation: Macroeconomics tries to explain the problem of
inflation faced by both developed and underdeveloped countries in the world. Keynes
adopted macroeconomic approach to explain that involuntary unemployment and fall in
general price level and depression were due to the deficiency of aggregate demand and
inflation or rise in general price level was due to excessive aggregate demand.
3. Business or Trade Cycles: The capitalist free enterprise economics suffer from business
cycles, Business cycles refer to the fluctuations in the output and employment with
alternative periods of depression and prosperity. During the period of prosperity output and
employment tend to remain at high levels. Whereas during the recession periods both, the
output and employment decline significantly which results into widespread unemployment.
4. Stagflation: During 1970s as after, It was observed that, recession or stagnation was
accompanied by high level of unemployment and rapid inflation, the phenomena known as
stagflation. But this stagflation could not be explained with Keynesian theory which
concentrates on demand side. Hence a new economic approach known as supply side
economics was developed to explain the situation characterized by stagflation.
13. Scope of Macroeconomics
• Economics Growth: Macroeconomics also deals with explaining determinate of economic
growth in an economy. Harrod and Domar applied macroeconomic analysis to the study of
long run problem of economic growth with stability. They explained the rate of growth of
income required for attaining steady growth of the economy.
• Balance of Payments and Exchange Rate: Balance of payments is a systematic statement of
all economic transitions between the country and the rest of the world, during a period. There
may be deficit or surplus in balance of payments. And both create problem for the economy.
The transactions in the balance of payment are affected by the exchange rate, the instability in
exchange rate gives rise to serious balance of payments problems and it may lead to economic
crisis. Macroeconomics helps in analyzing and solving these problems for protecting
economic health of a country.
• Macroeconomic Policies : Macroeconomic policies, such as monetary policy, fiscal policy,
income and achieving macro economic goals like economic stability, full employment, price
stability, external stability and economic growth.
14. Importance or Significance of
Macroeconomics:
• To understand working of the Economy: Macro economic analysis helps
in understanding functioning of the economy. Most of the economic
problems are related to economic aggregates, such as total income total
output, total demand, general price level etc. As these variables are
measurable, their effects on the functioning of the economy can be
analyzed and necessary can be taken in time to avoid anvil consequences.
• Empirical evidences: Macro studies are based on empirical date relating
to the economic issues hence it is more realistic and practical.
• Policy Orientation: Macroeconomics is basically policy oriented. It
suggests most suitable policy measures, such as fiscal policy, monetary
policy, income policy etc. to deal with complex economic problems, like
unemployment, inflation, poverty etc.
15. Importance or Significance of
Macroeconomics:
• National Income: Macroeconomics is useful for estimating and using
national income data for the purpose of forecasting economic activities. It
also helps in explaining distribution of income among different sections of
the society.
• Economic Growth: Macroeconomics provides basis for evaluation of
growth performance of the economy. Plans are prepared to achieve
increase in national income, output and employment for promotion
economic development of the economy as a whole.
• Business Cycles: Macroeconomics helps in analyzing causes and
understanding effects of business cycles which take place in free enterprise
capitalist economics. It also provides remedies to achieve economic
stability.
16. Importance or Significance of
Macroeconomics:
• Monetary problems: Macroeconomics is useful for analyzing monetary
problems like inflation or deflation which adversely affect to economy. It
suggests suitable policy measures like monetary and fiscal policies to
overcome them.
• Understanding Behaviour of Individual Units: The study of
macroeconomics is necessary to understand the Behaviour of individual
units. For example, the reasons for increase in costs of a firm cannot be
analyzed without knowing the average cost conditions of the economy as a
whole.
• Dynamic Science: Macroeconomics adopts dynamic approach to analyze
economic problems and suggest suitable solutions.
• Macroeconomic Paradoxes: Macroeconomic paradoxes, such as paradox
of thrift on private
17. Importance or Significance of
Macroeconomics:
• saving is a virtue but public vice and the futility of wage cut
policy as remedy during the period of depression, explain the
importance of the study of macro economics.
• Issues of vital importance: Macroeconomics deals with the
issues of vital importance, such as unemployment, inflation,
instability of foreign exchange rates etc. which directly affect
the well being of the people.
• Decision Making: Macroeconomics helps in understanding
the working of the economy as a whole; hence individuals
and businessmen are able to take right decision at right time.
•
18. Limitations of Macroeconomics:
• Fallacy of composition: In macroeconomics aggregate economic Behaviour is assumed to
be the total of individual activities. But what may be true at the individual level may not be so
at the aggregate level. For example savings are private virtue but a public vice. If an
individual depositor withdraws all his money form the bank, there is no problem, but if all the
depositors withdraw all their deposits at the same time, the banking system will be adversely
affected.
• To Regard the Aggregates as Homogenous: In macroeconomic analysis, macro variables
are considered as aggregates of homogenous components, and individual differences are not
taken into consideration. For example, inflation is measured as a change in the general price
level, with the help of wholesale price index number. The changes in relative prices of
different goods are not considered and only average price is taken for measuring the change.
• Aggregate variables may not be important: It may be observed that the aggregate variables
forming the economic system sometimes may not be significant. For example, increase in
national income may be the result of increase in incomes of rich people only, in the country.
Such increase of national income may not be useful for estimating rise in welfare of the
society as a whole.
19. Limitations of Macroeconomics:
• Indiscriminate use of Macroeconomics tend to be misleading: An
Indiscriminate use of macroeconomics for analyzing economic problems
may be misleading. For example, the policy measures adopted to achieve
full employment may not be suitable for solving the problem of structural
unemployment in individual firms and industries. Similarly measures
adopted for controlling general prices may not be effective for controlling
prices of individual commodities.
• Statistical and conceptual difficulties: If individual units are homogenous
aggregation becomes easy, but if the microeconomic variables related to
dissimilar units, then their aggregation into one macroeconomics variable
tends to be wrong and dangerous.
• In spite of these limitations, macroeconomics has been popular tool used for
analysis of economic problems faced by the economy as a whole.
20. Summary
• The classical economists assumed that there is full employment of the resources and
concentrated on explaining the process of allocation of resources and determination
of relative prices of products and factors of production. They believed in free play of
market forces in arriving at the equilibrium between supply and demand. They
adopted microeconomic approach to explain economic problems faced by the
economy and suggested suitable measures to solve them but during the great
depression of 1930’s their policy prescriptions failed to solve classical economist
and suggested macroeconomic approach to solve the problems faced by the
economy as a whole. Macro economics deals with the study of the Behaviour of the
economy as a whole. It examines the forces that affect many firms consumers and
workers at the same time.” Thus is a deal with economic aggregates and
interrelationships between them. The main objective of macroeconomics is to study
the problems, policies, and principles relating to full employment and growth of
resources.
21. Summary
• Macro economics includes the study of national income, general price level and
inflation, business cycles, economic growth, balance of payments, macroeconomics
policies etc.
• Macro economics helps in understanding of the working of the economy developing
suitable policies, estimating and using national income data, evaluation growth
performance of the economy, analyzing causes and effects of business cycles and
helps in decisions making.
• The main limitations of macroeconomics are fallacy of composition, regarding
aggregates as homogenous, excessive importance to aggregate economic variables,
statistical and conceptual difficulties etc.
• In-spite of these limitations, macroeconomics plays an important role in
understanding the functioning of the economic system as a whole, its problems and
helps in suggesting suitable policy measures to solve these problems.