This document discusses the scaling of MOS circuits. Some key points:
- Scaling involves proportionally shrinking device dimensions while maintaining electrical properties, allowing for smaller, faster devices. It has driven increased functionality, performance, and lower costs per chip according to Moore's Law.
- Figures of merit for scaling include minimum feature size, transistor count, power, frequency, die size, and cost. The International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors guides scaling targets.
- Scaling models include full scaling with constant electrical fields, fixed voltage scaling, and general scaling. Device parameters are scaled by different factors depending on the model.
- Implications of scaling include improved performance but also interconnect delays, power dissip
This presentation discusses MOSFET scaling and its challenges. It begins by covering Moore's Law, which states that the number of transistors on a chip doubles every 18 months. As sizes shrink due to scaling, short channel effects like drain-induced barrier lowering and hot carrier effects emerge. The presentation covers two types of scaling: constant field scaling, which keeps electric fields constant but increases power density; and constant voltage scaling, which is preferred as it avoids increased power density but reduces threshold voltage. Narrow width effects also occur when channel widths shrink and depletion regions overlap. Overall, the presentation provides an overview of MOSFET scaling techniques and the short channel effects that emerge as sizes shrink.
Effects of Scaling on MOS Device Performanceiosrjce
This paper presents effects on MOS transistor performance due to scaling of its dimensions. Scaling
theory deals with the change in the device characteristics with the decrease in the dimensions of a MOS
transistor. MOS transistors are continuously scaled down due to the desire for high density and high
functionality VLSI chips. The driving forces behind these developments are increasing the demand for portable
systems requiring high throughput and high integration capacity. Effects of scaling on the performance
characteristics of a MOS device are analyzed in this paper
This document discusses the absorption processes and calculation of absorption coefficients in bulk semiconductors and quantum wells. It describes how electromagnetic waves interact with materials through reflection and absorption. For bulk semiconductors, it outlines band-to-band, band-to-exciton, band-to-impurity, and free carrier absorption processes. For quantum wells, it discusses intra-band and inter-band absorption processes. It then provides the mathematical derivation of absorption coefficients for both bulk semiconductors and quantum wells based on transition probability calculations.
Two-Stage Power Conversion Architecture Suitable for Wide Range Input VoltageProjectsatbangalore
This paper proposes a two-stage power conversion architecture suitable for wide input voltage ranges. The architecture combines a soft-charging switched-capacitor pre-regulator stage to compress a wide input voltage range into a narrower intermediate range, with a high-frequency magnetic regulator stage. This merged two-stage topology enables high efficiency, power density, and power factor for applications up to 30W requiring wide input voltage regulation, such as LED drivers. The approach is demonstrated through implementations of a 25-200V dc-dc converter achieving 88-96% efficiency at 30W, and an ac-dc converter with 88% efficiency and 0.93 power factor at 8.4W from an AC line.
Due to increasing complexity, space and cost of communication network, the Electric Power Network has been considered a great option for the solution of all problems. Power line communications (PLC) term stands for the technologies for the data communication over the electrical power supply network. Existing power system is not designed for having data transfer. In this paper we have developed a simulation model of power-line for low voltage distribution network in home. Impulse response of the channel is generated in order to characterize the behavior of power line channel for high speed data communication purpose. To represent Multi-branch network mathematically, ABCD matrix parameters are used. Load mismatching is experimented on three parameters multiple loading, multi branch and different cable length and analysis is presented of its effect on impulse response. All the simulation work has been done using MATLAB.
This document discusses transformer switching operations using vacuum circuit breakers (VCBs) and the potential for overvoltage transients. It investigates how LC filters connected at the low voltage side of a transformer in a photovoltaic power plant can affect switching operations and influence transient overvoltages. Simulation results showed that a LC filter rated at 200 μH and 25 μF could successfully mitigate overvoltage transients from transformer de-energization by reducing the rate of rise of the transient recovery voltage. The paper concludes LC filters connected at the low voltage side may be a potential solution for mitigating switching overvoltage transients.
1. The document discusses short channel effects in MOSFETs that occur when the channel length becomes small compared to other dimensions. This includes effects like hot carrier injection, dielectric breakdown, and threshold voltage shift.
2. Short channel effects arise due to improper scaling of the source potential and non-scalable properties like junction depth and built-in potentials. They can degrade device characteristics such as output impedance, mobility, and threshold voltage.
3. Specific short channel effects discussed include hot electron injection, dielectric breakdown, drain-induced barrier lowering, mobility degradation, and threshold voltage variation with channel length. Models for threshold voltage shift due to short channel effects are presented.
This document analyzes the use of a Darlington pair circuit as an element in a distributed amplifier configuration. A Darlington pair improves performance over a single transistor by combining two transistors in a cascade configuration. However, Darlington pairs have poor performance at high frequencies. This document presents using a Darlington pair as the gain element in a distributed amplifier. Distributed amplifiers provide gain through multiple parallel paths and can achieve higher gain and bandwidth than conventional amplifiers. The analysis shows that using a Darlington pair in a distributed amplifier configuration improves the gain and bandwidth compared to a conventional Darlington pair alone. Both simulation and theoretical analysis indicate the configuration can achieve high gain across a wide bandwidth, making it suitable for broadband wireless applications.
This presentation discusses MOSFET scaling and its challenges. It begins by covering Moore's Law, which states that the number of transistors on a chip doubles every 18 months. As sizes shrink due to scaling, short channel effects like drain-induced barrier lowering and hot carrier effects emerge. The presentation covers two types of scaling: constant field scaling, which keeps electric fields constant but increases power density; and constant voltage scaling, which is preferred as it avoids increased power density but reduces threshold voltage. Narrow width effects also occur when channel widths shrink and depletion regions overlap. Overall, the presentation provides an overview of MOSFET scaling techniques and the short channel effects that emerge as sizes shrink.
Effects of Scaling on MOS Device Performanceiosrjce
This paper presents effects on MOS transistor performance due to scaling of its dimensions. Scaling
theory deals with the change in the device characteristics with the decrease in the dimensions of a MOS
transistor. MOS transistors are continuously scaled down due to the desire for high density and high
functionality VLSI chips. The driving forces behind these developments are increasing the demand for portable
systems requiring high throughput and high integration capacity. Effects of scaling on the performance
characteristics of a MOS device are analyzed in this paper
This document discusses the absorption processes and calculation of absorption coefficients in bulk semiconductors and quantum wells. It describes how electromagnetic waves interact with materials through reflection and absorption. For bulk semiconductors, it outlines band-to-band, band-to-exciton, band-to-impurity, and free carrier absorption processes. For quantum wells, it discusses intra-band and inter-band absorption processes. It then provides the mathematical derivation of absorption coefficients for both bulk semiconductors and quantum wells based on transition probability calculations.
Two-Stage Power Conversion Architecture Suitable for Wide Range Input VoltageProjectsatbangalore
This paper proposes a two-stage power conversion architecture suitable for wide input voltage ranges. The architecture combines a soft-charging switched-capacitor pre-regulator stage to compress a wide input voltage range into a narrower intermediate range, with a high-frequency magnetic regulator stage. This merged two-stage topology enables high efficiency, power density, and power factor for applications up to 30W requiring wide input voltage regulation, such as LED drivers. The approach is demonstrated through implementations of a 25-200V dc-dc converter achieving 88-96% efficiency at 30W, and an ac-dc converter with 88% efficiency and 0.93 power factor at 8.4W from an AC line.
Due to increasing complexity, space and cost of communication network, the Electric Power Network has been considered a great option for the solution of all problems. Power line communications (PLC) term stands for the technologies for the data communication over the electrical power supply network. Existing power system is not designed for having data transfer. In this paper we have developed a simulation model of power-line for low voltage distribution network in home. Impulse response of the channel is generated in order to characterize the behavior of power line channel for high speed data communication purpose. To represent Multi-branch network mathematically, ABCD matrix parameters are used. Load mismatching is experimented on three parameters multiple loading, multi branch and different cable length and analysis is presented of its effect on impulse response. All the simulation work has been done using MATLAB.
This document discusses transformer switching operations using vacuum circuit breakers (VCBs) and the potential for overvoltage transients. It investigates how LC filters connected at the low voltage side of a transformer in a photovoltaic power plant can affect switching operations and influence transient overvoltages. Simulation results showed that a LC filter rated at 200 μH and 25 μF could successfully mitigate overvoltage transients from transformer de-energization by reducing the rate of rise of the transient recovery voltage. The paper concludes LC filters connected at the low voltage side may be a potential solution for mitigating switching overvoltage transients.
1. The document discusses short channel effects in MOSFETs that occur when the channel length becomes small compared to other dimensions. This includes effects like hot carrier injection, dielectric breakdown, and threshold voltage shift.
2. Short channel effects arise due to improper scaling of the source potential and non-scalable properties like junction depth and built-in potentials. They can degrade device characteristics such as output impedance, mobility, and threshold voltage.
3. Specific short channel effects discussed include hot electron injection, dielectric breakdown, drain-induced barrier lowering, mobility degradation, and threshold voltage variation with channel length. Models for threshold voltage shift due to short channel effects are presented.
This document analyzes the use of a Darlington pair circuit as an element in a distributed amplifier configuration. A Darlington pair improves performance over a single transistor by combining two transistors in a cascade configuration. However, Darlington pairs have poor performance at high frequencies. This document presents using a Darlington pair as the gain element in a distributed amplifier. Distributed amplifiers provide gain through multiple parallel paths and can achieve higher gain and bandwidth than conventional amplifiers. The analysis shows that using a Darlington pair in a distributed amplifier configuration improves the gain and bandwidth compared to a conventional Darlington pair alone. Both simulation and theoretical analysis indicate the configuration can achieve high gain across a wide bandwidth, making it suitable for broadband wireless applications.
This document summarizes a research paper that designed, modeled, and characterized an integrated cascode cell for compact Ku-band power amplifiers.
The integrated cascode cell was designed to decrease the size of individual power cells while maintaining performance. It combines two transistors in a cascode configuration, effectively doubling the output power and gain compared to a single transistor. Modeling of the cell was performed using a distributed approach.
Measurements showed good agreement with the model. Using the new integrated cascode cells, the researcher was able to design a 2W Ku-band power amplifier MMIC that occupied 40% less area than previous designs using single transistors, demonstrating the effectiveness of the integrated cascode cell topology.
IJERA (International journal of Engineering Research and Applications) is International online, ... peer reviewed journal. For more detail or submit your article, please visit www.ijera.com
The document discusses different types of switched networks, including circuit-switched networks, datagram networks, and virtual-circuit networks. It provides examples of how each type can be used and their characteristics. The document also describes the structure of switches used in different network types, including crossbar switches, multistage switches, time-slot interchange switches, and banyan switches. Key aspects like resource reservation, routing, addressing, and delays are compared between the different network types.
A circuit-switched network consists of switches connected by physical links, where each link is divided into channels. A connection uses a dedicated path and channel. In circuit switching, resources are reserved during setup and remain dedicated until teardown. In a packet-switched network, packets are sent without resource reservation and resources are allocated on demand. A virtual-circuit network has characteristics of both, where packets traveling between the same source and destination follow the same dedicated path but resources are allocated on demand.
Front end buck rectifier with reduced filter size and single-loop controlAsoka Technologies
This paper presents a transformerless solution for front-end rectification, which is particularly suitable for traction applications, requiring high voltages to be stepped down to appropriate dc voltage. The proposed topology is based on pulse widthmodulation buck rectifier (current source inverter topology) and is capable of rectification and stepping down of single-phase ac supply, in a single stage. A new control scheme is proposed to achieve constant dc output voltage and sinusoidal source current, irrespective of large ripples in the dc inductor current. The proposed scheme is configured in single-loop voltage control mode. The relevant small-signal model is derived from the large-signal model using multi order decomposition. An elaborate procedure of dc filter design is discussed, for circuit operation with minimum energy storage. All analytical results are validated by numerical simulation for sinusoidal and distorted source voltage. Experimental verification is achieved through a 1.2-kW grid-connected laboratory prototype.
Analytical modeling of electric field distribution in dual material junctionl...VLSICS Design
In this paper, electric field distribution of the junctionless dual material surrounding gate MOSFETs
(JLDMSG) is developed. Junctionless is a device that has similar characteristics like junction based
devices, but junctionless has a positive flatband voltage with zero electric field. In Surrounding gate
MOSFETs gate material surrounds the channel in all direction , therefore it can overcome the short
channel effects effectively than other devices. In this paper, surface potential and electric field distribution
is modelled. The proposed surface potential model is compared with the existing central potential model. It
is observed that the short channel effects (SCE) is reduced and the performance is better than the existing
method.
Properties of Self-Aligned Short-Channel Graphene Field-Effect Transistors Ba...Abidur Rahman
This document summarizes a study on self-aligned short-channel graphene field-effect transistors using boron-nitride as a dielectric encapsulation and edge contacts. Key findings include:
1) Graphene FETs with channel lengths as short as 65nm exhibited non-saturating characteristics, indicating ballistic conduction.
2) A virtual-source transport model was used to analyze the devices, showing that carrier injection velocity decreases and mobility increases with longer gate lengths as ballistic conduction decreases.
3) The highest measured ballistic velocity and mobility were 9.3×107 cm/s and 13700cm2/Vs, exceeding values reported for other graphene FETs.
4
This document proposes and validates an equivalent circuit model for a wireless power transfer system capable of transferring 220W of power over a 30cm air gap with 95% efficiency. The model represents the transmitter and receiver coils as inductors with low mutual coupling. Analytical expressions for the model are derived and validated using finite element analysis and experimental results. Loss analysis is also performed to investigate skin effect and proximity effect losses at high operating frequencies. A new coil spatial design is proposed to reduce such losses compared to conventional coil designs.
Machine learning based ra ts selection for multi connectivity fo reliability ...Klaus Moessner
1. The document proposes using reinforcement learning to help user equipment (UEs) autonomously select radio access technologies (RATs) and configure multi-connectivity (MC) in a multi-RAT network to improve reliability.
2. By duplicating packets over multiple links via MC, reliability can be enhanced, but configuring MC for too many UEs risks resource shortage. The proposed approach uses Q-learning to help each UE learn the optimal dual-connectivity offset value based on its environment.
3. Simulation results show the reinforcement learning approach helps UEs determine effective MC configuration to improve reliability compared to always using dual-connectivity or single-connectivity, especially with larger numbers of UEs. The approach can achieve
Effect of Passive Damping on the Performance of Buck Converter for Magnet Loadpaperpublications3
Abstract: A DC to DC converter is a lossless dc transformer that supply regulated output voltage under varying load and input voltage condition and also the converter parameter values changes with time and physical quantity like temperature etc. This paper presents the design and simulation of an open loop buck converter for magnet load using Simulink and Sim Power System library of MATLAB.
This paper deals with comparison of responses of PI and Proportional Resonant controlled DC to AC Converter systems. The objective of this work is to regulate the output of Dual Active Bridge DC to DC converter (DABDAC). The input DC is converted into high frequency AC using Half bridge inverter. It is stepped up by using step up transformer and then it is rectified. The DC is converted into Low frequency AC using a Half bridge inverter. The open loop DABDAC system, closed loop PI based DABDAC system an Proportional Resonant Controller (PRC)based DABDAC system are designed, modeled and simulated using MATLAB Simulink. The results of PR controlled system are compared with those of PI controlled system. The results indicate that the proposed PRC-DABDAC has better time domain response than PI controlled DABDAC system. The proposed DABDAC system has advantages like high gain and steady state error in output voltage.
Design and Simulation of a Fractal Micro-TransformerIJERA Editor
This document summarizes the design and simulation of a fractal micro-transformer. The researchers designed an air-core fractal micro-transformer using finite element modeling software. Simulation results showed improved performance parameters compared to macro transformers, including higher voltage gain. Electric displacement and magnetic energy density within the micro-transformer were determined to be 2 x 10-11 C/m2 and 100 J/m3 respectively. Losses within the air-core design were minimal at 3 W/m3. The micro-transformer was concluded to be suitable for integration in MEMS and VLSI applications due to its small size, high impedance, and isolation capabilities.
This document describes a leakage power reduction technique for VLSI circuits. It proposes generating a reverse body bias voltage from a leakage monitoring circuit to minimize standby and active leakage power. The circuit was designed and simulated in Cadence using a 180nm process. Key leakage components like subthreshold leakage and band-to-band tunneling current were analyzed. A test circuit using stacked transistors showed reduced leakage power compared to a basic inverter. Waveforms confirmed lowered leakage currents with the proposed body biasing and stacked transistor approaches. The circuit can be used to automatically bias circuits at the optimal leakage point for different conditions.
It contains POWER MOSFET INTRODUCTION, POWER MOSFET STRUCTURE, types of power MOSFET, symbols, output characteristics , applications etc. https://amzn.to/3x56Qro click here to buy GATE 2022 Electronics & Communication Engineering - 35 Years Topic-wise Previous Solved Papers
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
This paper presents a new simplified cascade multiphase DC-DC buck power converter suitable for low voltage and large current applications. Cascade connection enables very low voltage ratio without using very small duty cycles nor transformers. Large current with very low ripple content is achieved by using the multiphase technique. The proposed converter needs smaller number of components compared to conventional cascade multiphase DC-DC buck power converters. This paper also presents useful analysis of the proposed DC-DC buck power converter with a method to optimize the phase and cascade number. Simulation and experimental results are included to verify the basic performance of the proposed DC-DC buck power converter.
A zero voltage-transition bidirectional dcdc converterLeMeniz Infotech
A zero voltage-transition bidirectional dcdc converter
To Get this projects Call : 9566355386 / 99625 88976
Visit : www.lemenizinfotech.com / www.ieeemaster.com
Mail : projects@lemenizinfotech.com
Enhancing Survivability, Lifetime, and Energy Efficiency of Wireless NetworksIJRES Journal
In this paper, we focus on improving wireless networks survivability in terms of increasing network lifetime and its energy efficiency via clustering the network in an efficient way. Clustering the network is the procedure of partitioning it into groups, where each of them is known as a cluster. Each cluster elects the station with the highest power to be a cluster head. The remaining stations follow the nearest cluster head. Instead of having each station sends its packets to a remote receiver, the cluster head receives packets from all stations within its cluster, aggregates them, and forwards the resulting packets to the remote receiver. The most significant benefit of clustering the network that we focus on is to decrease distances between sending and receiving stations, which in turn reduces the transmission energy. This reduction in the energy yields an increase in the network lifetime and its survivability.
An Improved Hybrid DSTATCOM Topology to Compensate Reactive and Nonlinear LoadsProjectsatbangalore
The document proposes an improved hybrid DSTATCOM topology to address issues with traditional topologies such as high power ratings, large filter sizes, compensation performance, and power losses. The improved topology uses an LCL filter at the front end of the voltage source inverter along with a series capacitor to reduce the required dc-link voltage. This leads to a reduced size, cost, weight, and power rating compared to traditional topologies while still providing effective current compensation. Simulation and experimental results validate that the proposed topology performs better than traditional approaches.
The document discusses empathy and its importance in customer service. It notes that while truly understanding someone takes time, there are signs that can provide insight into how they think. Creating an appropriate environment and using plain language and smiles can help facilitate empathy. The problem statement then shares that the author and their friend opened a cafe and found it challenging to connect with customers at first, but using pictures and smiles in their welcome helped. Through talking to people, they discovered an opportunity to provide more than just coffee by empathizing with customers and understanding their other needs like conversation and a comfortable place to stay. Continued practice empathizing with clients is important for improvement.
The document discusses the state of digital commerce (dCommerce) in Asia. Some key points:
- Asia has strong potential for dCommerce growth given its large population and high rates of internet and mobile penetration. China in particular leads the region in e-commerce sales and online users.
- Popular product categories sold online in Asia include consumer electronics, books, clothing, and household goods. Mobile platforms and payments are major drivers of dCommerce growth.
- Major Chinese e-commerce players include Taobao, Tmall, and JD.com. Social media platforms like WeChat are also increasingly important for digital marketing and mobile commerce.
- Emerging applications include mobile taxi booking services and social communities that connect
The lawyers at Cohen LLP have an extensive track record in corporate and commercial law, mergers and acquisitions, corporate governance, residential real estate, corporate relocations, and Wills and Estates. Contact at (416) 380-7550
This document summarizes a research paper that designed, modeled, and characterized an integrated cascode cell for compact Ku-band power amplifiers.
The integrated cascode cell was designed to decrease the size of individual power cells while maintaining performance. It combines two transistors in a cascode configuration, effectively doubling the output power and gain compared to a single transistor. Modeling of the cell was performed using a distributed approach.
Measurements showed good agreement with the model. Using the new integrated cascode cells, the researcher was able to design a 2W Ku-band power amplifier MMIC that occupied 40% less area than previous designs using single transistors, demonstrating the effectiveness of the integrated cascode cell topology.
IJERA (International journal of Engineering Research and Applications) is International online, ... peer reviewed journal. For more detail or submit your article, please visit www.ijera.com
The document discusses different types of switched networks, including circuit-switched networks, datagram networks, and virtual-circuit networks. It provides examples of how each type can be used and their characteristics. The document also describes the structure of switches used in different network types, including crossbar switches, multistage switches, time-slot interchange switches, and banyan switches. Key aspects like resource reservation, routing, addressing, and delays are compared between the different network types.
A circuit-switched network consists of switches connected by physical links, where each link is divided into channels. A connection uses a dedicated path and channel. In circuit switching, resources are reserved during setup and remain dedicated until teardown. In a packet-switched network, packets are sent without resource reservation and resources are allocated on demand. A virtual-circuit network has characteristics of both, where packets traveling between the same source and destination follow the same dedicated path but resources are allocated on demand.
Front end buck rectifier with reduced filter size and single-loop controlAsoka Technologies
This paper presents a transformerless solution for front-end rectification, which is particularly suitable for traction applications, requiring high voltages to be stepped down to appropriate dc voltage. The proposed topology is based on pulse widthmodulation buck rectifier (current source inverter topology) and is capable of rectification and stepping down of single-phase ac supply, in a single stage. A new control scheme is proposed to achieve constant dc output voltage and sinusoidal source current, irrespective of large ripples in the dc inductor current. The proposed scheme is configured in single-loop voltage control mode. The relevant small-signal model is derived from the large-signal model using multi order decomposition. An elaborate procedure of dc filter design is discussed, for circuit operation with minimum energy storage. All analytical results are validated by numerical simulation for sinusoidal and distorted source voltage. Experimental verification is achieved through a 1.2-kW grid-connected laboratory prototype.
Analytical modeling of electric field distribution in dual material junctionl...VLSICS Design
In this paper, electric field distribution of the junctionless dual material surrounding gate MOSFETs
(JLDMSG) is developed. Junctionless is a device that has similar characteristics like junction based
devices, but junctionless has a positive flatband voltage with zero electric field. In Surrounding gate
MOSFETs gate material surrounds the channel in all direction , therefore it can overcome the short
channel effects effectively than other devices. In this paper, surface potential and electric field distribution
is modelled. The proposed surface potential model is compared with the existing central potential model. It
is observed that the short channel effects (SCE) is reduced and the performance is better than the existing
method.
Properties of Self-Aligned Short-Channel Graphene Field-Effect Transistors Ba...Abidur Rahman
This document summarizes a study on self-aligned short-channel graphene field-effect transistors using boron-nitride as a dielectric encapsulation and edge contacts. Key findings include:
1) Graphene FETs with channel lengths as short as 65nm exhibited non-saturating characteristics, indicating ballistic conduction.
2) A virtual-source transport model was used to analyze the devices, showing that carrier injection velocity decreases and mobility increases with longer gate lengths as ballistic conduction decreases.
3) The highest measured ballistic velocity and mobility were 9.3×107 cm/s and 13700cm2/Vs, exceeding values reported for other graphene FETs.
4
This document proposes and validates an equivalent circuit model for a wireless power transfer system capable of transferring 220W of power over a 30cm air gap with 95% efficiency. The model represents the transmitter and receiver coils as inductors with low mutual coupling. Analytical expressions for the model are derived and validated using finite element analysis and experimental results. Loss analysis is also performed to investigate skin effect and proximity effect losses at high operating frequencies. A new coil spatial design is proposed to reduce such losses compared to conventional coil designs.
Machine learning based ra ts selection for multi connectivity fo reliability ...Klaus Moessner
1. The document proposes using reinforcement learning to help user equipment (UEs) autonomously select radio access technologies (RATs) and configure multi-connectivity (MC) in a multi-RAT network to improve reliability.
2. By duplicating packets over multiple links via MC, reliability can be enhanced, but configuring MC for too many UEs risks resource shortage. The proposed approach uses Q-learning to help each UE learn the optimal dual-connectivity offset value based on its environment.
3. Simulation results show the reinforcement learning approach helps UEs determine effective MC configuration to improve reliability compared to always using dual-connectivity or single-connectivity, especially with larger numbers of UEs. The approach can achieve
Effect of Passive Damping on the Performance of Buck Converter for Magnet Loadpaperpublications3
Abstract: A DC to DC converter is a lossless dc transformer that supply regulated output voltage under varying load and input voltage condition and also the converter parameter values changes with time and physical quantity like temperature etc. This paper presents the design and simulation of an open loop buck converter for magnet load using Simulink and Sim Power System library of MATLAB.
This paper deals with comparison of responses of PI and Proportional Resonant controlled DC to AC Converter systems. The objective of this work is to regulate the output of Dual Active Bridge DC to DC converter (DABDAC). The input DC is converted into high frequency AC using Half bridge inverter. It is stepped up by using step up transformer and then it is rectified. The DC is converted into Low frequency AC using a Half bridge inverter. The open loop DABDAC system, closed loop PI based DABDAC system an Proportional Resonant Controller (PRC)based DABDAC system are designed, modeled and simulated using MATLAB Simulink. The results of PR controlled system are compared with those of PI controlled system. The results indicate that the proposed PRC-DABDAC has better time domain response than PI controlled DABDAC system. The proposed DABDAC system has advantages like high gain and steady state error in output voltage.
Design and Simulation of a Fractal Micro-TransformerIJERA Editor
This document summarizes the design and simulation of a fractal micro-transformer. The researchers designed an air-core fractal micro-transformer using finite element modeling software. Simulation results showed improved performance parameters compared to macro transformers, including higher voltage gain. Electric displacement and magnetic energy density within the micro-transformer were determined to be 2 x 10-11 C/m2 and 100 J/m3 respectively. Losses within the air-core design were minimal at 3 W/m3. The micro-transformer was concluded to be suitable for integration in MEMS and VLSI applications due to its small size, high impedance, and isolation capabilities.
This document describes a leakage power reduction technique for VLSI circuits. It proposes generating a reverse body bias voltage from a leakage monitoring circuit to minimize standby and active leakage power. The circuit was designed and simulated in Cadence using a 180nm process. Key leakage components like subthreshold leakage and band-to-band tunneling current were analyzed. A test circuit using stacked transistors showed reduced leakage power compared to a basic inverter. Waveforms confirmed lowered leakage currents with the proposed body biasing and stacked transistor approaches. The circuit can be used to automatically bias circuits at the optimal leakage point for different conditions.
It contains POWER MOSFET INTRODUCTION, POWER MOSFET STRUCTURE, types of power MOSFET, symbols, output characteristics , applications etc. https://amzn.to/3x56Qro click here to buy GATE 2022 Electronics & Communication Engineering - 35 Years Topic-wise Previous Solved Papers
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
This paper presents a new simplified cascade multiphase DC-DC buck power converter suitable for low voltage and large current applications. Cascade connection enables very low voltage ratio without using very small duty cycles nor transformers. Large current with very low ripple content is achieved by using the multiphase technique. The proposed converter needs smaller number of components compared to conventional cascade multiphase DC-DC buck power converters. This paper also presents useful analysis of the proposed DC-DC buck power converter with a method to optimize the phase and cascade number. Simulation and experimental results are included to verify the basic performance of the proposed DC-DC buck power converter.
A zero voltage-transition bidirectional dcdc converterLeMeniz Infotech
A zero voltage-transition bidirectional dcdc converter
To Get this projects Call : 9566355386 / 99625 88976
Visit : www.lemenizinfotech.com / www.ieeemaster.com
Mail : projects@lemenizinfotech.com
Enhancing Survivability, Lifetime, and Energy Efficiency of Wireless NetworksIJRES Journal
In this paper, we focus on improving wireless networks survivability in terms of increasing network lifetime and its energy efficiency via clustering the network in an efficient way. Clustering the network is the procedure of partitioning it into groups, where each of them is known as a cluster. Each cluster elects the station with the highest power to be a cluster head. The remaining stations follow the nearest cluster head. Instead of having each station sends its packets to a remote receiver, the cluster head receives packets from all stations within its cluster, aggregates them, and forwards the resulting packets to the remote receiver. The most significant benefit of clustering the network that we focus on is to decrease distances between sending and receiving stations, which in turn reduces the transmission energy. This reduction in the energy yields an increase in the network lifetime and its survivability.
An Improved Hybrid DSTATCOM Topology to Compensate Reactive and Nonlinear LoadsProjectsatbangalore
The document proposes an improved hybrid DSTATCOM topology to address issues with traditional topologies such as high power ratings, large filter sizes, compensation performance, and power losses. The improved topology uses an LCL filter at the front end of the voltage source inverter along with a series capacitor to reduce the required dc-link voltage. This leads to a reduced size, cost, weight, and power rating compared to traditional topologies while still providing effective current compensation. Simulation and experimental results validate that the proposed topology performs better than traditional approaches.
The document discusses empathy and its importance in customer service. It notes that while truly understanding someone takes time, there are signs that can provide insight into how they think. Creating an appropriate environment and using plain language and smiles can help facilitate empathy. The problem statement then shares that the author and their friend opened a cafe and found it challenging to connect with customers at first, but using pictures and smiles in their welcome helped. Through talking to people, they discovered an opportunity to provide more than just coffee by empathizing with customers and understanding their other needs like conversation and a comfortable place to stay. Continued practice empathizing with clients is important for improvement.
The document discusses the state of digital commerce (dCommerce) in Asia. Some key points:
- Asia has strong potential for dCommerce growth given its large population and high rates of internet and mobile penetration. China in particular leads the region in e-commerce sales and online users.
- Popular product categories sold online in Asia include consumer electronics, books, clothing, and household goods. Mobile platforms and payments are major drivers of dCommerce growth.
- Major Chinese e-commerce players include Taobao, Tmall, and JD.com. Social media platforms like WeChat are also increasingly important for digital marketing and mobile commerce.
- Emerging applications include mobile taxi booking services and social communities that connect
The lawyers at Cohen LLP have an extensive track record in corporate and commercial law, mergers and acquisitions, corporate governance, residential real estate, corporate relocations, and Wills and Estates. Contact at (416) 380-7550
El documento describe el proceso inductivo-deductivo de la ciencia. Los científicos observan los hechos de la realidad y generan hipótesis mediante la inducción; luego deducen teorías y modelos a partir de las hipótesis. Estas teorías se prueban contrastándolas con la realidad, reiniciando el proceso. Sin embargo, los prejuicios personales de los científicos pueden influir en la recolección de datos y la formulación de hipótesis.
La IX Sinfonía de Beethoven será interpretada en la Catedral de Toledo el próximo 28 de marzo por el director Hartmut Haenchen y el coro y orquesta del Teatro Real como parte del concierto QVIXOTE. El enlace a la noticia completa sobre este evento es http://www.abc.es/toledo/ciudad/20150309/abci-sinfonia-beethoven-sonara-catedral-201503091421.html.
Modelling of next zen memory cell using low power consuming high speed nano d...eSAT Journals
Abstract Hybrid SET-CMOS circuits which syndicate the assets of both the SET [Single Electron Transistor] and CMOS depicts highest possibilities to be incorporated in practical implementation for future low power VLSI/ULSI configurations. The proposed work is an attempt based on SET-CMOS hybrid circuit to realize the next gen simple Memory Cell. The authors adhered to MIB model for SET and BSIM4 model for CMOS in realizing the complex cell. The maneuver of the proposed circuit is verified subsequently in standard environment. The outcomes are in good trade off with the conventional statistics of existing memory cell. Keywords: SET, SED, Hybrid CMOS-SET, MIB and Memory Cell
Law Yew Wai worked as a vacation trainee at a law firm from December 1, 2014 to February 28, 2015. Under the supervision of managers, he carried out his work satisfactorily and diligently on various assignments. The director of human resources at the firm confirmed these details in a letter.
El documento describe los diferentes factores bióticos y abióticos que componen un ecosistema, incluyendo animales como mamíferos, aves, reptiles, anfibios y peces, así como plantas, agua, suelo y aire. Explica las características distintivas de cada grupo de animales vertebrados como su cobertura corporal, capacidad de vuelo, reproducción y respiración.
This document describes a hybrid Single Electron Transistor (SET) - Complementary Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor (CMOS) based 4-bit parallel adder/subtractor circuit designed to operate at room temperature with low power consumption. The circuit was simulated using the MIB model for SET operation and BSIM4.6.1 for PMOS operation. Simulation results showed the hybrid circuit provides a noticeable reduction in average power consumption and power-delay product compared to a conventional CMOS-based design. This demonstrates the potential of hybrid SET-CMOS technology for future low-power, high-density integrated circuits.
This document discusses sellers' duties to disclose defects in a property before closing. It outlines the differences between patent and latent defects. For latent material defects, which could endanger occupants or render a property unfit for its intended use, sellers have a duty to disclose if they are aware. The document examines case law around issues like water damage, and when sellers may be liable for failing to disclose issues to buyers. It provides guidance on potential remedies for buyers both before and after closing if defects are discovered.
This document gives basic reasons behind Global warming, its impact on us and how we need to face it. It also covers a small case study of coastal city, Mumbai.
El documento describe el método de aprendizaje colaborativo. Este método promueve el aprendizaje centrado en el estudiante a través del trabajo en pequeños grupos. Se basa en la teoría constructivista donde el conocimiento es descubierto y reconstruido por los estudiantes a través de nuevas experiencias. Para lograr el éxito del aprendizaje colaborativo, se deben considerar cinco factores clave: la interdependencia positiva, la responsabilidad individual, las habilidades sociales, la interacción entre los miembros del grupo
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This document summarizes an empirical study of modeling a 2-bit fast adder circuit using Single Electron Transistors (SETs). SETs are seen as promising candidates to replace CMOS transistors as they are able to transfer information using single electrons. The authors modeled a 2-bit fast adder circuit using SETs and simulated it using SIMON 2.0 software. Their results showed the SET-based adder had power consumption less than 1/10th and speed 200 times faster than a comparable CMOS-based adder. The authors conclude SETs are well-suited for future high-speed computing systems as they can achieve superior performance compared to technologies like CMOS that are approaching their scaling limits.
ULTRA HIGH SPEED FACTORIAL DESIGN IN SUB-NANOMETER TECHNOLOGYcscpconf
This work proposes a high speed and low power factorial design in 22nm technology and also it counts the effect of sub nano-meter constraints on this circuit. A comparative study for this
design has been done for 90nm, 45nm and 22nm technology. The rise in circuit complexity and speed is accompanied by the scaling of MOSFET’s. The transistor saturation current Idsat is an important parameter because the transistor current determines the time needed to charge and discharge the capacitive loads on chip, and thus impacts the product speed more than any other transistor parameter. The efficient implementation of a factorial number is carried out by using
a decremented and multipliers which has been lucidly discussed in this paper. Normally in a factorial module a number is calculated as the iterative multiplication of the given number to
the decremented value of the given number. A Parallel adder based decremented has been proposed for calculating the factorial of any number that also includes 0 and 1. The
performances are calculated by using the existing 90-nm CMOS technology and scaling down the existing technology to 45-nm and 22-nm.
IRJET - Low Power Design for Fast Full AdderIRJET Journal
This document describes the design of a low power, high speed full adder circuit using 45nm CMOS technology. It discusses how reducing the size of transistors from 65nm to 45nm allows for lower power consumption and higher processing speeds. A new hybrid full adder circuit is proposed that uses simultaneous XOR/XNOR gates and transmission gates to minimize delay and reduce dynamic and static power dissipation. Simulation results show the proposed 20T, 17T, 26T and 22T full adder circuits have higher speeds and lower power consumption than previous designs.
MOSFET scaling involves decreasing the transistor length (L) and voltage (VDD) over generations according to scaling factors (a) and (b), respectively. To maintain device operation, the doping concentration must increase by a factor of a. As lengths decrease, tunneling current increases due to highly doped source/drain junctions and thin gate oxides. Using high-k dielectrics allows a physically thicker gate oxide to reduce tunneling. FinFET structures improve channel control and decrease spreading resistance issues compared to planar MOSFETs. Future devices will focus on techniques like SOI and raised source/drains to further scaling limits.
MOSFET scaling involves decreasing the transistor length (L) and voltage (VDD) over generations according to scaling factors (a) and (b), respectively. To maintain device operation, the doping concentration must increase by a factor of a. As lengths decrease, tunneling current increases due to highly doped source/drain junctions and thin gate oxides. Using high-k dielectrics and fully depleted devices like FinFETs can help mitigate these tunneling issues to allow continued scaling. Future devices will focus on improving subthreshold current, spreading resistance, and multi-gate control to enable further miniaturization.
High performance domino full adder design under different body biased technologyIAEME Publication
This document presents the design and analysis of different body-biased domino full adder circuits at 150nm and 45nm technologies. Six different body biasing schemes are proposed and their performance is compared in terms of power consumption, delay, and noise. Simulation results show that connecting the NMOS substrate to its source and the PMOS substrate to the clock (SB6 biasing) provides the best performance with minimum power consumption and delay. This design is shown to be effective across both technology nodes, indicating technology independence. Overall, the document evaluates body biasing techniques for optimizing domino logic circuits at reduced technology scales.
POWER CONSUMPTION AT CIRCUIT OR LOGIC LEVEL IN CIRCUITAnil Yadav
This document discusses sources of power consumption in digital CMOS circuits and techniques for low power VLSI design at the circuit level. It covers the four main sources of power consumption: leakage power, short-circuit power, static power, and switching power. It then discusses various low power design techniques at the circuit level, including transistor and gate sizing, equivalent pin ordering, network restructuring, transistor network partitioning, and low power flip-flop designs. The goal is to optimize power consumption through techniques like minimizing switching activity, reducing capacitive loads, and optimizing transistor sizing.
Design of very large scale analog integrated circuit (analog VLSI) is very much complex and requires
much compromising nature to achieve application specific objective. With maximizing the efforts to reduce
power consumption and to reduce W/L ratio, the analog integrated circuit industry is constantly
developing smaller power supplies. Now days, challenges of analog integrated circuit designer are to
make block of small power supplies with little or no reduction in performance. The CMOS OTA is
designed in 25.5nm CMOS technology with 1.0V power supply to observe the configurations. In design of
CMOS OTA TANNER EDA TOOL is used. Coding and simulation is done in T-Spice and layout is
prepared in L-Edit. D.C analysis, A.C analysis, slew rate and analysis of transient response have been
done in T-Spice. Waveforms are observed in W-Edit.
PARASITIC-AWARE FULL PHYSICAL CHIP DESIGN OF LNA RFIC AT 2.45GHZ USING IBM 13...Ilango Jeyasubramanian
This document summarizes the design of a low noise amplifier (LNA) operating at 2.45GHz. The LNA uses a cascode topology with inductive source degeneration implemented in a 120nm CMOS process. Simulation results show the LNA meets specifications for gain, return loss, output match, noise figure, and linearity over 2.4-2.5GHz. Variability analysis demonstrates performance remains within specifications with +/-10% parameter variations. The compact layout achieves good matching through careful device placement and use of appropriate passive components to minimize parasitics.
Analog and digital circuit design in 65 nm CMOS end of the road.docxZHKhan15
This document summarizes challenges in analog and digital circuit design for 65nm CMOS technology. It discusses how leakage currents, process variability, and interconnect delays increase as technologies scale down, posing new problems. A panel of experts will discuss whether 65nm marks the "end of the road" for continued design benefits from technology scaling or if issues can be addressed.
Design & Performance Analysis of DG-MOSFET for Reduction of Short Channel Eff...IJERA Editor
An aggressive scaling of conventional MOSFETs channel length reduces below 100nm and gate oxide thickness below 3nm to improved performance and packaging density. Due to this scaling short channel effect (SCEs) like threshold voltage, Subthreshold slope, ON current and OFF current plays a major role in determining the performance of scaled devices. The double gate (DG) MOSFETS are electro-statically superior to a single gate (SG) MOSFET and allows for additional gate length scaling. Simulation work on both devices has been carried out and presented in paper. The comparative study had been carried out for threshold voltage (VT), Subthreshold slope (Sub VT), ION and IOFF Current. It is observed that DG MOSFET provide good control on leakage current over conventional Bulk (Single Gate) MOSFET. The VT (Threshold Voltage) is 2.7 times greater than & ION of DG MOSFET is 2.2 times smaller than the conventional Bulk (Single Gate) MOSFET.
IRJET- Simulation of 10nm Double Gate MOSFET using Visual TCAD ToolIRJET Journal
The document summarizes the simulation of a 10nm double gate MOSFET using the Visual TCAD tool. Key points:
1) A 10nm double gate MOSFET structure was designed in Visual TCAD with silicon substrate, aluminum source/drain, and polysilicon gates separated by silicon dioxide.
2) Parameters like gate length, mesh sizes, and doping concentrations were defined for the simulation.
3) Short channel effects like DIBL and subthreshold slope were examined, as continuous scaling has degraded MOSFET characteristics and increased these effects.
4) The double gate structure was proposed to improve gate coupling and reduce short channel effects compared to conventional MOSFETs.
The document discusses CMOS fabrication processes and scaling. It covers the following key points in 3 sentences:
The fabrication process involves using a series of photolithography masks to define layers of the chip, including n-well, polysilicon, diffusion regions, contacts and metal. Scaling can involve either full scaling, which preserves electric fields, or constant voltage scaling, which leaves voltages unchanged but can increase power consumption. The document also discusses MOSFET capacitances including oxide capacitances between gate and other terminals and junction capacitances due to diffusion regions.
The document compares double gate MOSFETs to single gate MOSFETs. Double gate MOSFETs reduce leakage current and delay compared to single gate by controlling the silicon channel more efficiently with two gates. This improves short channel effects and leads to higher currents. Double gate MOSFETs are suitable for low power and high performance applications due to their reduced leakage current and improved device characteristics like reduced short channel effects and improved current driving capability.
Ch7 lecture slides Chenming Hu Device for ICChenming Hu
The document discusses technology scaling of MOSFETs used in integrated circuits. Key points include:
1) Feature sizes are reduced by around 30% with each new technology node to improve cost, speed, and power consumption.
2) Scaling challenges include increased subthreshold leakage current and threshold voltage roll-off.
3) Innovations such as high-k dielectrics, metal gates, strained silicon, and retrograde well doping help address these challenges and allow scaling to continue.
4) Variations in manufacturing must also be considered and techniques like multiple threshold voltages and supply voltages are used.
This document discusses surround gate MOSFETs as an approach to reduce short channel effects in transistors. It begins with an overview of MOSFET operation and Moore's Law. It then discusses the motivation to find alternatives to planar transistors as scaling limits are approached. Short channel effects in bulk MOSFETs are introduced as a major barrier to scaling. The document reviews SOI and multi-gate transistor technologies, such as double gate, tri-gate, and gate-all-around designs, as ways to better control the channel and reduce short channel effects. A new dual-material surround gate structure is proposed and its potential to further suppress short channel effects through gate material engineering is explained. Two-dimensional modeling of the new structure
The document discusses future prospects for Moore's Law and continuing semiconductor scaling. It notes exponential trends in integrating more functions per chip, increased performance, and reduced costs. It then summarizes the state-of-the-art in CMOS technology in 2004 and some of the physical limits facing continued scaling, such as gate delays, switching energy, and manufacturing challenges. Alternative approaches like new materials, transistor structures, and integrated functions are discussed as potential ways to continue extending Moore's Law.
Microelectronic technology
This report briefly discusses the need for Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field Effect Transistors (MOSFETs), their structure and principle of operation. Then it details the fabrication and characterization of the MOSFETs fabricated at the microelectronic lab at University of Malaya
shows the simulation and analysis of a MOSFET device using the MOSFet tool. Several powerful analytic features of this tool are demonstrated, including the following:
calculation of Id-Vg curves
potential contour plots along the device at equilibrium and at the final applied bias
electron density contour plots along the device at equilibrium and at the final applied bias
spatial doping profile along the device
1D spatial potential profile along the device
1) The document discusses linear circuit models used to analyze transistor behavior including small signal models that are frequency independent and frequency dependent. It also covers noise models and passive component models.
2) Key small signal models are presented for different transistor regions of operation including the saturation region. These models approximate transistor behavior as linear changes about an operating point.
3) MOSFET noise is analyzed including thermal noise and 1/f noise. Models are derived to represent noise at low and high frequencies.
A Low Noise Two Stage Operational Amplifier on 45nm CMOS ProcessIRJET Journal
This document describes the design and simulation of a low noise, two stage operational amplifier implemented in 45nm CMOS technology. A two stage op-amp circuit is presented with a differential amplifier as the first stage and a common source amplifier as the second stage. Miller capacitance compensation is used to achieve stability. Simulations show the op-amp achieves a gain of 6.1dB, output voltage of 0.92V, spurious free dynamic range of 8dB at 20MHz, and slew rate of 62.8V/μs with a 1.2V power supply. The op-amp demonstrates good performance for low noise and power applications using 45nm CMOS technology.
CMOS Analog IC design by Dr GS Javed - Refresher Course - Batch 1Javed G S, PhD
Topics covered in the course
1. DC Biasing of the circuits
2. Circuits for reference voltage and current generation
-Voltage Regulator
-BGR
-LDO
-V-to-I
3. Precision Current References
4. Opamp design for Analog to digital converters
- OTA
- Buffer
- Unity Feedback OTA
- Layout design strategies – 2stage opamp + CMFB
5. Sense and Return mechanisms in Feedback circuits
- Current and Voltage circuits
6. Sub-Threshold Conduction
- Low voltage Operation
7. ADC Design and Simulation
-Near Nyquist performance of Opamp for ADC Circuits
-Spectral Analysis and No. of FFT Points for simulation
-Simulation time for performance
-Resistors – their variation and Calibration
-Switch design for S/H
-CDAC
8. On-Chip Inductors
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Sri Guru Hargobind Ji - Bandi Chor Guru.pdfBalvir Singh
Sri Guru Hargobind Ji (19 June 1595 - 3 March 1644) is revered as the Sixth Nanak.
• On 25 May 1606 Guru Arjan nominated his son Sri Hargobind Ji as his successor. Shortly
afterwards, Guru Arjan was arrested, tortured and killed by order of the Mogul Emperor
Jahangir.
• Guru Hargobind's succession ceremony took place on 24 June 1606. He was barely
eleven years old when he became 6th Guru.
• As ordered by Guru Arjan Dev Ji, he put on two swords, one indicated his spiritual
authority (PIRI) and the other, his temporal authority (MIRI). He thus for the first time
initiated military tradition in the Sikh faith to resist religious persecution, protect
people’s freedom and independence to practice religion by choice. He transformed
Sikhs to be Saints and Soldier.
• He had a long tenure as Guru, lasting 37 years, 9 months and 3 days
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2. 2
CONTENTS
1. What is scaling?
2. Why scaling?
3. Figure(s) of Merit (FoM) for scaling
4. International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors
(ITRS)
5. Scaling models
6. Scaling factors for device parameters
7. Implications of scaling on design
8. Limitations of scaling
9. Observations
10.Summary
3. 3
Scaling of MOS Circuits
1.What is Scaling?
Proportional adjustment of the dimensions of an electronic device while
maintaining the electrical properties of the device, results in a device either larger or
smaller than the un-scaled device. Then Which way do we scale the devices for VLSI?
BIG and SLOW … or SMALL and FAST? What do we gain?
2.Why Scaling?...
Scale the devices and wires down, Make the chips ‘fatter’ – functionality, intelligence,
memory – and – faster, Make more chips per wafer – increased yield, Make the end user
Happy by giving more for less and therefore, make MORE MONEY!!
3.FoM for Scaling
Impact of scaling is characterized in terms of several indicators:
o Minimum feature size
o Number of gates on one chip
o Power dissipation
o Maximum operational frequency
o Die size
o Production cost
Many of the FoMs can be improved by shrinking the dimensions of transistors and
interconnections. Shrinking the separation between features – transistors and wires
Adjusting doping levels and supply voltages.
3.1 Technology Scaling
Goals of scaling the dimensions by 30%:
Reduce gate delay by 30% (increase operating frequency by 43%)
Double transistor density
Reduce energy per transition by 65% (50% power savings @ 43% increase in frequency)
Die size used to increase by 14% per generation
Technology generation spans 2-3 years
4. 4
Figure1 to Figure 5 illustrates the technology scaling in terms of minimum feature size,
transistor count, prapogation delay, power dissipation and density and technology
generations.
1 9 6 0 1 9 7 0 1 9 8 0 1 9 9 0 2 0 0 0 2 0 1 0
1 0
-2
1 0
-1
1 0
0
1 0
1
1 0
2
Y e a r
MinimumFeatureSize(micron)
Figure-1:Technology Scaling (1)
Figure-2:Technology Scaling (2)
5. 5
Propagation Delay
Figure-3:Technology Scaling (3)
(a) Power dissipation vs. year.
95908580
0.01
0.1
1
10
100
Year
PowerDissipation(W)
x4 / 3 years
MPU
DSP
x1.4 / 3 years
Scaling Factor κ
(normalized by 4 µm design rule )
101
1
10
100
1000
∝
κ
3
PowerDensity(mW/mm2)
∝ κ 0.7
(b) Power density vs. scaling factor.
Figure-4:Technology Scaling (4)
7. 7
5.Scaling Models
Full Scaling (Constant Electrical Field)
Ideal model – dimensions and voltage scale together by the same scale factor
Fixed Voltage Scaling
Most common model until recently – only the dimensions scale, voltages remain constant
General Scaling
Most realistic for today’s situation – voltages and dimensions scale with different factors
6.Scaling Factors for Device Parameters
Device scaling modeled in terms of generic scaling factors:
1/α and 1/β
• 1/β: scaling factor for supply voltage VDD and gate oxide thickness D
• 1/α: linear dimensions both horizontal and vertical dimensions
Why is the scaling factor for gate oxide thickness different from other linear horizontal
and vertical dimensions? Consider the cross section of the device as in Figure 6,various
parameters derived are as follows.
Figure-6:Technology generation
8. 8
• Gate area Ag
Where L: Channel length and W: Channel width and both are scaled by 1/α
Thus Ag is scaled up by 1/α2
• Gate capacitance per unit area Co or Cox
Cox = εox/D
Where εox is permittivity of gate oxide(thin-ox)= εinsεo and D is the gate oxide thickness
scaled by 1/β
Thus Cox is scaled up by
• Gate capacitance Cg
Thus Cg is scaled up by β* 1/ α2
=β/ α2
• Parasitic capacitance Cx
Cx is proportional to Ax/d
where d is the depletion width around source or drain and scaled by 1/ α
Ax is the area of the depletion region around source or drain, scaled by (1/ α2
).
Thus Cx is scaled up by {1/(1/α)}* (1/ α2
) =1/ α
• Carrier density in channel Qon
Qon = Co * Vgs
where Qon is the average charge per unit area in the ‘on’ state.
Co is scaled by β and Vgs is scaled by 1/ β
Thus Qon is scaled by 1
• Channel Resistance Ron
Where µ = channel carrier mobility and assumed constant
WLAg *=
β
β
=
1
1
WLCC og **=
µ*
1
*
on
on
QW
L
R =
9. 9
Thus Ron is scaled by 1.
• Gate delay Td
Td is proportional to Ron*Cg
Td is scaled by
• Maximum operating frequency fo
fo is inversely proportional to delay Td and is scaled by
• Saturation current Idss
Both Vgs and Vt are scaled by (1/ β). Therefore, Idss is scaled by
• Current density J
Current density, where A is cross sectional area of the
Channel in the “on” state which is scaled by (1/ α2
).
So, J is scaled by
• Switching energy per gate Eg
•
So Eg is scaled by
22
*
1
α
β
β
α
=
g
DDo
o
C
VC
L
W
f
µ
*=
β
α
α
β
2
2
1
=
( )2
**
2
tgs
o
dss VV
L
WC
I −=
µ
ββ
β
11
* 2
=
A
I
J dss
=
β
α
α
β 2
2
1
1
=
2
2
1
DDgg VCE =
βαβα
β
222
11
* =
10. 10
• Power dissipation per gate Pg
Pg comprises of two components: static component Pgs and dynamic component Pgd:
Where, the static power component is given by:
And the dynamic component by:
Since VDD scales by (1/β) and Ron scales by 1, Pgs scales by (1/β2
).
Since Eg scales by (1/α2
β) and fo by (α2 /β), Pgd also scales by (1/β2
). Therefore, Pg
scales by (1/β2
).
• Power dissipation per unit area Pa
• Power – speed product PT
6.1 Scaling Factors …Summary
Various device parameters for different scaling models are listed in Table 2 below.
Table 2: Device parameters for scaling models
NOTE: for Constant E: β=α; for Constant V: β=1
gdgsg PPP +=
on
DD
gs
R
V
P
2
=
oggd fEP =
2
2
2
2
1
1
β
α
α
β
=
==
g
g
a
A
P
P
βαα
β
β 222
11
* =
== dgT TPP
Parameters Description
General
(Combined V
and
Dimension)
Constant E Constant V
VDD Supply voltage 1/β 1/α 1
L Channel length 1/α 1/α 1/α
W Channel width 1/α 1/α 1/α
D Gate oxide thickness 1/β 1/α 1
Ag Gate area 1/α
2
1/α
2
1/α
2
Co (or Cox)
Gate capacitance per
unit area
β α 1
Cg Gate capacitance β/α2
1/α 1/α
2
Cx Parsitic capacitance 1/α 1/α 1/α
Qon Carrier density 1 1 1
Ron Channel resistance 1 1 1
Idss Saturation current 1/β 1/α 1
11. 11
7.Implications of Scaling
Improved Performance
Improved Cost
Interconnect Woes
Power Woes
Productivity Challenges
Physical Limits
Parameters Description
General
(Combined V
and
Dimension)
Constant E Constant V
Ac
Conductor cross
section area
1/α
2
1/α
2
1/α
2
J Current density α2
/ β α α2
Vg Logic 1 level 1 / β 1 / α 1
Eg Switching energy 1 / α2
β 1 / α3
1/α
2
Pg
Power dissipation per
gate
1 / β
2
1/α
2 1
N Gates per unit area α2
α2
α2
Pa
Power dissipation per
unit area
α2
/ β2
1 α2
Td Gate delay β / α2 1 / α 1/α
2
fo
Max. operating
frequency
α2
/ β α α2
PT Power speed product 1 / α2
β 1 / α3
1/α
2
12. 12
7.1Cost Improvement
– Moore’s Law is still going strong as illustrated in Figure 7.
Figure-7:Technology generation
7.2:Interconnect Woes
• Scaled transistors are steadily improving in delay, but scaled wires are holding
constant or getting worse.
• SIA made a gloomy forecast in 1997
– Delay would reach minimum at 250 – 180 nm, then get
worse because of wires
• But…
• For short wires, such as those inside a logic gate, the wire RC delay is negligible.
• However, the long wires present a considerable challenge.
• Scaled transistors are steadily improving in delay, but scaled wires are holding
constant or getting worse.
• SIA made a gloomy forecast in 1997
– Delay would reach minimum at 250 – 180 nm, then get
worse because of wires
• But…
• For short wires, such as those inside a logic gate, the wire RC delay is negligible.
• However, the long wires present a considerable challenge.
Figure 8 illustrates delay Vs. generation in nm for different materials.
Figure-8:Technology generation
13. 13
7.3 Reachable Radius
• We can’t send a signal across a large fast chip in one cycle anymore
• But the microarchitect can plan around this as shown in Figure 9.
– Just as off-chip memory latencies were tolerated
Figure-9:Technology generation
7.4 Dynamic Power
• Intel VP Patrick Gelsinger (ISSCC 2001)
– If scaling continues at present pace, by 2005, high speed processors would
have power density of nuclear reactor, by 2010, a rocket nozzle, and by
2015, surface of sun.
– “Business as usual will not work in the future.”
• Attention to power is increasing(Figure 10)
Chip size
Scaling of
reachable radius
14. 14
Figure-10:Technology generation
7.5 Static Power
• VDD decreases
– Save dynamic power
– Protect thin gate oxides and short channels
– No point in high value because of velocity saturation.
• Vt must decrease to maintain device performance
• But this causes exponential increase in OFF leakage
A Major future challenge(Figure 11)
Moore(03)
Figure-11:Technology generation
15. 15
7.6 Productivity
• Transistor count is increasing faster than designer productivity (gates / week)
– Bigger design teams
• Up to 500 for a high-end microprocessor
– More expensive design cost
– Pressure to raise productivity
• Rely on synthesis, IP blocks
– Need for good engineering managers
7.7 Physical Limits
o Will Moore’s Law run out of steam?
Can’t build transistors smaller than an atom…
o Many reasons have been predicted for end of scaling
Dynamic power
Sub-threshold leakage, tunneling
Short channel effects
Fabrication costs
Electro-migration
Interconnect delay
o Rumors of demise have been exaggerated
8. Limitations of Scaling
Effects, as a result of scaling down- which eventually become severe enough to prevent
further miniaturization.
o Substrate doping
o Depletion width
o Limits of miniaturization
16. 16
o Limits of interconnect and contact resistance
o Limits due to sub threshold currents
o Limits on logic levels and supply voltage due to noise
o Limits due to current density
8.1 Substrate doping
o Substrate doping
o Built-in(junction) potential VB depends on substrate doping level – can be
neglected as long as VB is small compared to VDD.
o As length of a MOS transistor is reduced, the depletion region width –scaled
down to prevent source and drain depletion region from meeting.
o the depletion region width d for the junctions is
o ε si relative permittivity of silicon
o ε 0 permittivity of free space(8.85*10-14
F/cm)
o V effective voltage across the junction Va + Vb
o q electron charge
o NB doping level of substrate
o Va maximum value Vdd-applied voltage
o Vb built in potential and
8.2 Depletion width
• N B is increased to reduce d , but this increases threshold voltage Vt -against
trends for scaling down.
• Maximum value of N B (1.3*1019
cm-3
, at higher values, maximum electric field
applied to gate is insufficient and no channel is formed.
• N B maintained at satisfactory level in the channel region to reduce the above
problem.
• Emax maximum electric field induced in the junction.
1
2 0V
Nq
d
B
si ξξ
=
=
i
D
i
B
B
n
N
n
N
q
KT
V ln
d
V
E
2
max =
α
αln
17. 17
If N B is inreased by α Va =0 Vb increased by ln α and d is decreased by
• Electric field across the depletion region is increased by
1/
• Reach a critical level Ecrit with increasing N B
Where
Figure 12 , Figure 13 and Figure 14 shows the relation between substrate concentration
Vs depletion width , Electric field and transit time.
Figure 15 demonstrates the interconnect length Vs. propagation delay and Figure 16
oxide thickness Vs. thermal noise.
Figure-12:Technology generation
α
αln
=
2
2 .dE
Nq
d crit
B
si
ξ
ξ
)(0
crit
B
si
E
Nq
d
ξξ
=
18. 18
Figure-13:Technology generation
8.3 Limits of miniaturization
• minimum size of transistor; process tech and physics of the device
• Reduction of geometry; alignment accuracy and resolution
• Size of transistor measured in terms of channel length L
L=2d (to prevent push through)
• L determined by NB and Vdd
• Minimum transit time for an electron to travel from source to drain is
• smaximum carrier drift velocity is approx. Vsat,regardless of supply voltage
Evdrift µ=
E
d
V
L
t
drift µ
2
==
19. 19
Figure-14:Technology generation
8.4 Limits of interconnect and contact resistance
• Short distance interconnect- conductor length is scaled by 1/α and resistance is
increased by α
• For constant field scaling, I is scaled by 1/ α so that IR drop remains constant as a
result of scaling.-driving capability/noise margin.
20. 20
Figure-15:Technology generation
8.5 Limits due to subthreshold currents
• Major concern in scaling devices.
• I sub is directly praportinal exp (Vgs – Vt ) q/KT
• As voltages are scaled down, ratio of Vgs-Vt to KT will reduce-so that threshold
current increases.
• Therefore scaling Vgs and Vt together with Vdd .
• Maximum electric field across a depletion region is
8.6 Limits on supply voltage due to noise
Decreased inter-feature spacing and greater switching speed –result in noise problems
{ } dVVE ba /2max +=
21. 21
Figure-16:Technology generation
9. Observations – Device scaling
o Gate capacitance per micron is nearly independent of process
o But ON resistance * micron improves with process
o Gates get faster with scaling (good)
o Dynamic power goes down with scaling (good)
o Current density goes up with scaling (bad)
o Velocity saturation makes lateral scaling unsustainable
9.1 Observations – Interconnect scaling
o Capacitance per micron is remaining constant
o About 0.2 fF/mm
o Roughly 1/10 of gate capacitance
o Local wires are getting faster
o Not quite tracking transistor improvement
o But not a major problem
o Global wires are getting slower
o No longer possible to cross chip in one cycle
10. Summary
• Scaling allows people to build more complex machines
– That run faster too
• It does not to first order change the difficulty of module design
22. 22
– Module wires will get worse, but only slowly
– You don’t think to rethink your wires in your adder, memory
Or even your super-scalar processor core
• It does let you design more modules
• Continued scaling of uniprocessor performance is getting hard
-Machines using global resources run into wire limitations
-Machines will have to become more explicitly parallel
24. 24
CONTENTS
1. System
2. VLSI design flow
3. Structured design approach
4. Architectural issues
5. MOSFET as switch for logic functionality
6. Circuit Families
Restoring Logic: CMOS and its variants - NMOS and Bi CMOS
Other circuit variants
NMOS gates with depletion (zero -threshold) pull up
Bi-CMOS gates
7. Switch logic: Pass Transistor and Transmission gate (TG)
8. Examples of Structured Design
MUX
DMUX
D Latch and Flop
A general logic function block
25. 25
1.What is a System?
A system is a set of interacting or interdependent entities forming and integrate whole.
Common characteristics of a system are
o Systems have structure - defined by parts and their composition
o Systems have behavior – involves inputs, processing and outputs (of material,
information or energy)
o Systems have interconnectivity the various parts of the system functional as well
as structural relationships between each other
1.1Decomposition of a System: A Processor
o
5. VLSI Design Flow
• The electronics industry has achieved a phenomenal growth –mainly due to the
rapid advances in integration technologies, large scale systems design-in short due
to VLSI.
• Number applications of integrated circuits in high-performance computing,
telecommunications, and consumer electronics has been rising steadily.
• Current leading-edge technology trend –expected to continue with very important
implications on VLSI and systems design.
• The design process, at various levels, is evolutionary in nature.
• Y-Chart (first introduced by D. Gajski) as shown in Figure1 illustrates the design
flow for mast logic chips, using design activities.
• Three different axes (domains) which resemble the letter Y.
• Three major domains, namely
Behavioral domain
Structural domain
26. 26
Geometrical domain
• Design flow starts from the algorithm that describes the behavior
of target chip.
Figure 1. Typical VLSI design flow in three domains(Y-chart)
VLSI design flow, taking in to account the various representations, or abstractions of
design are
Behavioural,logic,circuit and mask layout.
Verification of design plays very important role in every step during process.
Two approaches for design flow as shown in Figure 2 are
Top-down
Bottom-up
Top-down design flow- excellent design process control
In reality, both top-down and bottom-up approaches have to be combined.
Figure 3 explains the typical full custom design flow.
29. 29
3 Structured Design Approach
• Design methodologies and structured approaches developed with complex
hardware and software.
• Regardless of the actual size of the project, basic principles of structured design-
improve the prospects of success.
• Classical techniques for reducing the complexity of IC design are:
Hierarchy
Regularity
Modularity
Locality
31. 31
• Design of array structures consisting of identical cells.-such as parallel
multiplication array.
• Exist at all levels of abstraction:
transistor level-uniformly sized.
logic level- identical gate structures
• 2:1 MUX, D-F/F- inverters and tri state buffers
• Library-well defined and well-characterized basic building block.
• Modularity: enables parallelization and allows plug-and-play
• Locality: Internals of each module unimportant to exterior modules and internal
details remain at local level.
Figure 4 and Figure 5 illustrates these design approaches with an example.
4 Architectural issues
• Design time increases exponentially with increased complexity
• Define the requirements
• Partition the overall architecture into subsystems.
• Consider the communication paths
• Draw the floor plan
• Aim for regularity and modularity
• convert each cell into layout
• Carry out DRC check and simulate the performance
5. MOSFET as a Switch
32. 32
• We can view MOS transistors as electrically controlled switches
• Voltage at gate controls path from source to drain
5.1 Parallel connection of Switches..
33. 33
5.2 Series connection of Switches..
5.3 Series and parallel connection of Switches..
(a)
a
b
a
b
g1
g2
0
0
a
b
0
1
a
b
1
0
a
b
1
1
OFF OFF OFF ON
(b)
a
b
a
b
g1
g2
0
0
a
b
0
1
a
b
1
0
a
b
1
1
ON OFF OFF OFF
(c)
a
b
a
b
g1 g2 0 0
OFF ON ON ON
(d) ON ON ON OFF
a
b
0
a
b
1
a
b
11 0 1
a
b
0 0
a
b
0
a
b
1
a
b
11 0 1
a
b
g1 g2
34. 34
6. Circuit Families : Restoring logic
CMOS INVERTER
A Y
0
1
A Y
0
1 0
A Y
0 1
1 0
A Y
A Y
A Y
V DD
A Y
GND
V DD
A= 1 Y= 0
GND
ON
OFF
VDD
A=0 Y=1
GND
OFF
ON
36. 36
A B Y
0 0 1
0 1
1 0
1 1
A B Y
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0
1 1
A B Y
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
NAND gate Design..
A=0
B=0
Y=1
OFF
ON ON
OFF
A=0
B=1
Y=1
OFF
OFF ON
ON
A=1
B=0
Y=1
ON
ON OFF
OFF
39. 39
6.3 CMOS Properties
Pull-up OFF Pull-up ON
Pull-down OFF Z (float) 1
Pull-down ON 0 X (crowbar)
• Complementary CMOS gates always produce 0 or 1
• Ex: NAND gate
• Series nMOS: Y=0 when both inputs are 1
• Thus Y=1 when either input is 0
• Requires parallel pMOS
• Rule of Conduction Complements
pMOS
pull-up
network
output
inputs
nMOS
pull-down
network
40. 40
• Pull-up network is complement of pull-down
• Parallel -> series, series -> parallel
• Output signal strength is independent of input.-level restoring
• Restoring logic. Ouput signal strength is either Voh (output high) or Vol. (output
low).
• Ratio less logic :output signal strength is independent of pMOS device size to
nMOS size ratio.
• significant current only during the transition from one state to another and - hence
power is conserved..
• Rise and fall transition times are of the same order,
• Very high levels of integration,
• High performance.
6.4 Complex gates..
43. 43
6.5 Complex gates AOI..
(AND-AND-OR-INVERT, AOI22)Y A B C D= +
A
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
A B C D
A B
C D
B
D
Y
A
C
A
C
A
B
C
D
B
D
Y
(a)
(c)
(e)
(b)
(d)
(f)
( )Y A B C D= + +
A B
Y
C
D
DC
B
A
A
B
C
D
Y
A
B
C
Y
A
B
C
C
A B
A
B
C
D
A
C
B
D
2
2
1
4
44
2
2 2
2
4
4 4
4
gA
= 6/3
gB = 6/3
gC = 5/3
p = 7/3
gA
= 6/3
gB = 6/3
gC = 6/3
p = 12/3
gD = 6/3
YA
A Y
gA
= 3/3
p = 3/3
2
1
YY
unit inverter AOI21 AOI22
A
C
D
E
Y
B
Y
B C
A
D
E
A
B
C
D E
gA
= 5/3
gB = 8/3
gC = 8/3
gD = 8/3
2
2 2
22
6
6
6 6
3
p = 16/3
gE
= 8/3
Complex AOI
Y A B C= + Y A B C D= + ( )Y A B C D E= + +Y A=
44. 44
6.6 Circuit Families : Restoring logic CMOS Inverter- Stick diagram
6.7 Restoring logic CMOS Variants: nMOS Inverter-stick diagram
• Basic inverter circuit: load replaced by depletion mode transistor
• With no current drawn from output, the current Ids for both transistor must
be same.
• For the depletion mode transistor, gate is connected to the source so it is
always on and only the characteristic curve Vgs=0 is relevant.
45. 45
• Depletion mode is called pull-up and the enhancement mode device pull-
down.
• Obtain the transfer characteristics.
• As Vin exceeds the p.d. threshold voltage current begins to flow, Vout thus
decreases and further increase will cause p.d transistor to come out of
saturation and become resistive.
• p.u transistor is initially resistive as the p.d is turned on.
• Point at which Vout = Vin is denoted as Vinv
• Can be shifted by variation of the ratio of pull-up to pull-down resistances
–Zp.u / Zp.d
• Z- ratio of channel length to width for each transistor
For 8:1 nMOS Inverter
Z p.u. = L p.u. / W p.u =8
R p.u = Z p.u. * Rs =80K
similarly
R p.d = Z p.d * Rs =10K
Power dissipation(on) Pd = V2
/Rp.u + Rp.d =0.28mV
Input capacitance = 1 Cg
For 4:1 nMOS Inverter
Z p.u. = L p.u. / W p.u =4
R p.u = Z p.u. * Rs =40K
similarly
R p.d = Z p.d * Rs =5K
Power dissipation(on) Pd = V2
/Rp.u + Rp.d =0.56mV
Input capacitance = 2Cg
46. 46
6.8Restoring logic CMOS Variants: BiCMOS Inverter-stick diagram
• A known deficiency of MOS technology is its limited load driving capabilities
(due to limited current sourcing and sinking abilities of pMOS and nMOS
transistors. )
• Output logic levels good-close to rail voltages
• High input impedance
• Low output impedance
• High drive capability but occupies a relatively small area.
• High noise margin
• Bipolar transistors have
• higher gain
• better noise characteristics
• better high frequency characteristics
• BiCMOS gates can be an efficient way of speeding up VLSI circuits
• CMOS fabrication process can be extended for BiCMOS
• Example Applications
CMOS- Logic
BiCMOS- I/O and driver circuits
ECL- critical high speed parts of the system
48. 48
6.11 Restoring logic CMOS Variants: BiCMOS NAND gate
• For nMOS Nand-gate, the ratio between pull-up and sum of all pull-downs must
be 4:1.
• nMOS Nand-gate area requirements are considerably greater than corresponding
nMOS inverter
• nMOS Nand-gate delay is equal to number of input times inverter delay.
• Hence nMOS Nand-gates are used very rarely
• CMOS Nand-gate has no such restrictions
• BiCMOS gate is more complex and has larger fan-out.
7.Circuit Families :Switch logic: Pass Transistor
49. 49
7.1 Switch logic: Pass Transistor
g
s d
g = 0
s d
g = 1
s d
0 strong 0
Input Output
1 degraded 1
g
s d
g = 0
s d
g = 1
0 degraded 0
Input Output
g = 1
g = 1
g = 0
g = 0
50. 50
7.1 Switch logic: Pass Transistor-nMOS in series
7.2 :Switch logic: Transmission gates
VDD
VDD
Vs
=VDD
-Vtn
VSS
Vs
=|Vtp
|
VDD
VDD
-Vtn VDD-Vtn
VDD
-Vtn
VDD
VDD
VDD
VDD
VDD
VDD
-Vtn
VDD
-2Vtn
51. 51
g=0, gb=1
a b
g=1, gb=0
a b
0 strong0
Input Output
1 strong1
g
gb
a b
a b
g
gb
a b
g
gb
a b
g
gb
g=1, gb=0
g=1, gb=0
52. 52
8 Structured Design-Tristate
• Tristate buffer produces Z when not enabled
EN A Y
0 0
0 1
1 0
1 1
Tristate buffer produces Z when not enabled
EN A Y
0 0 Z
0 1 Z
1 0 0
1 1 1
8.1 Structured Design-Nonrestoring Tristate
A Y
E N
A Y
E N
E N
A Y
EN
EN
53. 53
8.3 Structured Design-Tristate Inverter
• Tristate inverter produces restored output
– Violates conduction complement rule
– Because we want a Z output
A
Y
EN
EN
A
Y
EN
A
Y
EN=0
Y='Z'
Y
EN=1
Y=A
A
EN
54. 54
8.4 Structured Design-Multiplexers
• 2:1 multiplexer chooses between two inputs
8. 5 Structured Design-Mux Design.. Gate-Level
• How many transistors are needed?
• How many transistors are needed? 20
S D1 D0 Y
0 X 0 0
0 X 1 1
1 0 X 0
1 1 X 1
S D1 D0 Y
0 X 0
0 X 1
1 0 X
1 1 X
0
1
S
D0
D1
Y
1 0 (toomanytransistors)Y SD SD= +
4
D1
D0
S Y
2D1
55. 55
8.6 Structured Design-Mux Design-Transmission Gate
• Nonrestoring mux uses two transmission gates
– Only 4 transistors
Inverting Mux
• Inverting multiplexer
– Use compound AOI22
– Or pair of tristate inverters
• Noninverting multiplexer adds an inverter
S
S
D0
D1
YS
S
D0 D1
Y
S
D0
D1
Y
0
1
S
Y
D0
D1
S
S
S
S
S
S
56. 56
8.7 Design-4:1 Multiplexer
• 4:1 mux chooses one of 4 inputs using two selects
Two levels of 2:1 muxes
Or four tristates
9 Structured Design-D Latch
• When CLK = 1, latch is transparent
– D flows through to Q like a buffer
• When CLK = 0, the latch is opaque
– Q holds its old value independent of D
• a.k.a. transparent latch or level-sensitive latch
-a latch is level sensitive
– a register is edge-triggered
– A flip-flop is a bi-stable element
–
S0
D0
D1
0
1
0
1
0
1
Y
S1
D2
D3
D0
D1
D2
D3
Y
S1S0 S1S0 S1S0 S1S0
CLK
D Q
Latch
D
CLK
Q
57. 57
–
9.1 D Latch Design
• Multiplexer chooses D or old Q
9.2 D Latch Operation
1
0
D
CLK
Q
CLK
CLKCLK
CLK
DQ Q
Q
CLK = 1
D Q
Q
CLK = 0
D Q
Q
58. 58
Structured Design-Latch Design
• Inverting buffer
Restoring
No backdriving
Fixes either
Output noise sensitivity
Or diffusion input
Inverted output
9.3 Structured Design-D Flip-flop
• When CLK rises, D is copied to Q
• At all other times, Q holds its value
• a.k.a. positive edge-triggered flip-flop, master-slave flip-flop
• Structured Design-D Flip-flop Design
• Built from master and slave D latches
D
φ
φ
X
Q
D Q
φ
φ
Flop
CLK
D Q
D
CLK
Q
QM
CLK
CLKCLK
CLK
Q
CLK
CLK
CLK
CLK
D
Latch
Latch
D Q
QM
CLK
CLK
59. 59
9.4 D Flip-flop Operation
9.5 Race Condition
• Back-to-back flops can malfunction from clock skew
– Second flip-flop fires late
– Sees first flip-flop change and captures its result
– Called hold-time failure or race condition
CLK = 1
D
CLK = 0
Q
D
QM
QM
Q
D
CLK
Q
CLK1
D
Q1
Flop
Flop
CLK2
Q2
CLK1
CLK2
Q1
Q2