The Law of Variable Proportions states that as the quantity of one variable input is increased while holding other inputs fixed, total product will initially rise at an increasing rate, then at a decreasing rate, and eventually at a negative rate. It operates in the short-run when some factors can vary and others are fixed. The law is demonstrated through a schedule that shows as labor is incrementally increased from 1 to 6 units, total product first increases, then increases at a lower rate, and eventually decreases, moving from phases of increasing, diminishing, and negative returns.
Equilibrium of firm and Industry under Perfect CompetitionBikash Kumar
Macro Economics
For downloading this contact- bikashkumar.bk100@gmail.com
Prepared by Students of University of Rajshahi
Md. Sultan Mahmud
Md. Shaon Mollah
Md. Mamun Miah
Md. Abid Hasan
Shimul Kumar Mondal
This document discusses production functions and their key concepts. It defines a production function as expressing the relationship between physical inputs and physical output of a firm for a given technology. It describes factors of production as land, labor, capital and entrepreneurship. It also discusses the difference between short-run and long-run production functions, fixed and variable factors, laws of variable proportions and returns to scale.
This document discusses production functions and returns to scale. It defines production functions and different types including short run and long run production functions. It then explains key features like substitutability, complementarity and specificity of factors. Next it covers returns to scale, defining it as the change in output when all inputs change proportionately. It details increasing, constant and decreasing returns to scale, providing examples. Causes of each type of return are also outlined.
The document discusses the business cycle, which refers to periods of economic expansion and contraction over time. A business cycle consists of expansions, recessions/general contractions, and revivals. Expansions are periods of increased production, prices, and employment. Recessions involve declining output, prices, and rising unemployment. Contractions occur when the economy experiences a steep decline. Revivals mark the beginning of the next expansion phase. The phases of the business cycle - peak, recession, trough, recovery - are explained in detail. Causes of recessions and theories to explain business cycles like Keynesian and real business cycle theories are also summarized.
This document discusses indifference curve analysis, which is used to analyze consumer behavior. It defines indifference curves as curves that connect combinations of goods that provide equal satisfaction to the consumer. It also discusses the assumptions of indifference curve analysis, including rationality and ordinal utility. The document outlines concepts like marginal rate of substitution, budget constraints, and the conditions for consumer equilibrium where the indifference curve is tangent to the budget line. It examines how changes in income or prices can shift budget lines and impact equilibrium. Overall, the document provides an overview of key concepts in indifference curve analysis.
1. Returns to scale refers to the change in total output resulting from a proportional change in all inputs.
2. There are three types of returns to scale: increasing, constant, and diminishing.
3. Increasing returns to scale occur when a 1% increase in all inputs leads to a more than 1% increase in output. Constant returns mean a proportional change in output, while diminishing returns mean output increases by less than the input increase.
The document discusses production functions and their classification. It defines a production function as showing the maximum output that can be produced from alternative input combinations. Production functions are classified as short-run or long-run depending on whether one input is fixed. The short-run production function describes output with one fixed input, like capital, while the long-run allows variation in both inputs. Total, average and marginal products are also discussed and their relationships explained.
The Law of Variable Proportions states that as the quantity of one variable input is increased while holding other inputs fixed, total product will initially rise at an increasing rate, then at a decreasing rate, and eventually at a negative rate. It operates in the short-run when some factors can vary and others are fixed. The law is demonstrated through a schedule that shows as labor is incrementally increased from 1 to 6 units, total product first increases, then increases at a lower rate, and eventually decreases, moving from phases of increasing, diminishing, and negative returns.
Equilibrium of firm and Industry under Perfect CompetitionBikash Kumar
Macro Economics
For downloading this contact- bikashkumar.bk100@gmail.com
Prepared by Students of University of Rajshahi
Md. Sultan Mahmud
Md. Shaon Mollah
Md. Mamun Miah
Md. Abid Hasan
Shimul Kumar Mondal
This document discusses production functions and their key concepts. It defines a production function as expressing the relationship between physical inputs and physical output of a firm for a given technology. It describes factors of production as land, labor, capital and entrepreneurship. It also discusses the difference between short-run and long-run production functions, fixed and variable factors, laws of variable proportions and returns to scale.
This document discusses production functions and returns to scale. It defines production functions and different types including short run and long run production functions. It then explains key features like substitutability, complementarity and specificity of factors. Next it covers returns to scale, defining it as the change in output when all inputs change proportionately. It details increasing, constant and decreasing returns to scale, providing examples. Causes of each type of return are also outlined.
The document discusses the business cycle, which refers to periods of economic expansion and contraction over time. A business cycle consists of expansions, recessions/general contractions, and revivals. Expansions are periods of increased production, prices, and employment. Recessions involve declining output, prices, and rising unemployment. Contractions occur when the economy experiences a steep decline. Revivals mark the beginning of the next expansion phase. The phases of the business cycle - peak, recession, trough, recovery - are explained in detail. Causes of recessions and theories to explain business cycles like Keynesian and real business cycle theories are also summarized.
This document discusses indifference curve analysis, which is used to analyze consumer behavior. It defines indifference curves as curves that connect combinations of goods that provide equal satisfaction to the consumer. It also discusses the assumptions of indifference curve analysis, including rationality and ordinal utility. The document outlines concepts like marginal rate of substitution, budget constraints, and the conditions for consumer equilibrium where the indifference curve is tangent to the budget line. It examines how changes in income or prices can shift budget lines and impact equilibrium. Overall, the document provides an overview of key concepts in indifference curve analysis.
1. Returns to scale refers to the change in total output resulting from a proportional change in all inputs.
2. There are three types of returns to scale: increasing, constant, and diminishing.
3. Increasing returns to scale occur when a 1% increase in all inputs leads to a more than 1% increase in output. Constant returns mean a proportional change in output, while diminishing returns mean output increases by less than the input increase.
The document discusses production functions and their classification. It defines a production function as showing the maximum output that can be produced from alternative input combinations. Production functions are classified as short-run or long-run depending on whether one input is fixed. The short-run production function describes output with one fixed input, like capital, while the long-run allows variation in both inputs. Total, average and marginal products are also discussed and their relationships explained.
This document discusses monopoly and price determination under monopoly. It defines monopoly as a market situation with a single seller and no close substitutes. A monopoly firm is a price maker that can influence the price of its product. The document examines how a monopoly firm determines price and equilibrium in the short and long run through total revenue and cost analysis and marginal revenue and marginal cost analysis. It maximizes profits by producing where marginal cost equals marginal revenue.
The document outlines the phases of the business cycle, including expansion (recovery, boom, peak) and contraction (recession, depression, trough). Expansion involves increased economic activity and consumer confidence, while contraction is a period of decreasing activity and confidence. Key phases include recovery as activity begins to rise from a trough, boom as rapid growth occurs, peak when activity levels off, recession as activity declines, depression as the decline worsens, and trough when activity hits bottom. Factors shaping the business cycle include volatility of investment, momentum, and technological innovations.
The document discusses the law of variable proportions, which examines how output changes when the quantity of one input (the variable factor) is increased while keeping other inputs fixed. It defines the law, lists its assumptions, and explains it using a tabular example of increasing a fixed amount of land with varying labor. Total product, marginal product, and average product are calculated at each stage. Graphically, there are three stages: increasing returns, diminishing returns, and negative returns. Causes of each stage are also provided, such as underutilization of fixed factors in the first stage and imperfect substitutability of factors in later stages.
1. The document discusses general equilibrium theory (GET) and defines general equilibrium as a state where all markets and decision-making units are in simultaneous equilibrium.
2. It presents a simple two-sector general equilibrium model of an economy with two consumers, two goods, and two factors of production. Equations represent consumer demand, factor supply, factor demand, good supply, and market clearing for goods and factors.
3. With the number of equations equal to the number of unknowns, a general equilibrium solution exists in this Walrasian model under certain assumptions. GET provides a framework for understanding the complexity of economic systems through interdependent markets.
1. Utility theory includes the law of diminishing marginal utility and the law of equi-marginal utility. The law of diminishing marginal utility states that the marginal utility of consuming successive units of a good decreases as consumption increases.
2. Marginal utility refers to the satisfaction gained from consuming an additional unit of a good. It decreases with increasing consumption as wants are satisfied. The total utility initially increases with consumption but eventually reaches a point where marginal utility is zero and additional units provide no added satisfaction.
3. An example of diminishing marginal utility is drinking water when thirsty. The first glass provides the most satisfaction while additional glasses provide less satisfaction until the point where more water would provide disutility rather than
The marginal productivity theory of distribution Prabha Panth
The document discusses the neoclassical theory of distribution and the concept of factor payments. It addresses the "adding up" problem of whether total factor payments will equal total product. Wicksteed showed that under constant returns to scale and factors paid their marginal products, total revenue will equal total costs through Euler's theorem. However, this assumes a linear homogeneous production function. Later economists like Samuelson and Hicks found the condition is only met at the minimum point of the long-run average cost curve, where a firm has constant returns to scale.
This document summarizes the law of diminishing marginal utility. It states that as consumption of a good increases incrementally, the satisfaction or utility derived from each additional unit decreases. The law is explained using examples like consuming hamburgers or antibiotics. Diminishing marginal utility forms the basis for concepts like progressive taxation and variety in goods produced. Exceptions include rare collections, money and addictive substances which people continue consuming in increasing amounts despite diminishing marginal utility. The law was first stated by H. Gossen and later restated by Alfred Marshall and has wide applications in economics, production, and household expenditure.
Price and output determination under perfec competitionAnand Saran
Under perfect competition, firms are price takers and cannot influence the market price. The market price is determined by the intersection of total industry demand and supply. In the short run, a firm can be in a situation of normal profit, super normal profit, or loss depending on the relationship between average revenue (AR) and average cost (AC). In the long run, all firms will earn only normal profits as inefficient firms exit the industry. The shutdown point occurs when a firm's average variable cost equals its average revenue.
This document discusses Gossen's Second Law, also known as the Law of Equi-marginal Utility. The law states that consumers will allocate their limited income across different goods in a way that equalizes the marginal utility per rupee spent. Traditionally, this meant spending to the point where the last rupee spent on each good yields equal satisfaction. Modernly, it means allocating spending such that the marginal utility divided by price is equal for all goods. The law aims to explain how consumers can maximize total utility from a given expenditure.
Unit - 3 Price & Output Determination discusses the key concepts of market structures including perfect competition, monopoly, monopolistic competition, and oligopoly. It examines revenue, profit, and price determination in both the short run and long run for perfect competition and monopoly. Monopolistic competition and oligopolies are also summarized, including how the kinked demand curve model explains price rigidity in oligopolies.
1. A production function shows the maximum output that can be produced from a given set of inputs over a period of time. It can be expressed as an equation, table, or graph.
2. The Cobb-Douglas production function is an important example that was formulated by Paul Douglas and Charles Cobb. It expresses output as a power function of labor and capital inputs.
3. The law of variable proportions states that as one variable input is increased, initially average and marginal products will increase until diminishing returns set in, after which average and marginal products will decrease.
The document discusses isoquant curves and isocost curves.
1. An isoquant curve shows all the combinations of two inputs that can produce the same level of output. It assumes inputs are substitutable to some degree in production.
2. An isocost curve connects all combinations of two inputs that can be purchased with a given budget or expenditure level, based on the prices of the inputs.
3. Firms use isoquant and isocost curves to determine the most cost-effective combination of inputs to achieve a given output level.
National income is the total value of all goods and services produced in a country in a year. It can be measured using various methods such as the production, income, and expenditure methods. The production method sums the value of output from all sectors. The income method sums factor incomes like wages, interest, rent, and profits. The expenditure method sums expenditures on consumption, investment, government spending, and exports/imports. National income statistics are important for measuring economic growth, standards of living, and making country comparisons.
The document discusses the law of returns, which explains how production changes when varying inputs in the short and long run. In the short run, under the law of variable proportions, total output initially increases at an increasing rate as labor is added to fixed capital, then increases at a diminishing rate until maximum output is reached. In the long run, the law of returns to scale describes how output changes proportionally when all inputs change equally - there can be increasing, constant, or diminishing returns to scale.
This document defines and discusses fiscal policy in India. It begins by introducing fiscal policy and its objectives of stabilizing the economy. It then defines fiscal policy as involving government revenue collection through taxation and spending. The objectives and instruments of fiscal policy are outlined, including the budget, taxation, public expenditure, and public debt. Data on India's fiscal deficit is presented, showing it as a percentage of GDP from 2005-2014. The achievements and reforms of India's fiscal policy are highlighted, such as increasing resources and savings. The Fiscal Responsibility and Budget Management Act of 2003 is described as institutionalizing financial discipline and reducing deficits. Current fiscal policy targets reducing the deficit to 3% of GDP by 2017-2018.
Monopolistic Equilibrium in short and long runShakti Yadav
In the short run, a monopolistically competitive firm will produce at the quantity where marginal cost equals marginal revenue to maximize profits. This occurs at a price above average cost, resulting in abnormal profits. In the long run, entry of new firms shifts individual demand curves down and costs curves up, eliminating abnormal profits so firms only earn normal profits where price equals average cost, establishing equilibrium.
This document discusses economies and diseconomies of scale at the firm and industry levels. It defines economies of scale as cost advantages from expansion due to factors like fixed cost spreading. Key internal economies are buying, selling, managerial, financial, and technical economies. Diseconomies arise when firms grow too large and face issues like control and communication problems. External economies include skilled labor pools and specialized suppliers, while disexternalities include congestion and resource competition.
In Macroeconomics Income and Employment are interchangeable terms, since in the short-run National income depends on the total volume of employment or economic activity in the country. As income and employment are synonymous the employment theory is also called income theory.
It should be clear to readers that the classical economists did not formulate any specific theory of employment as such. They only laid down certain postulates which subsequently developed as a theory.
The theory of multiplier and acceleration principle chapter 3Nayan Vaghela
The theory of multiplier and acceleration principle chapter 3, functioning of investment multiplier, the process of income generation through multiplier, acceleration principle, limitations of multiplier and acceleration.
1. Returns to scale refers to how output changes when all factor inputs are increased or decreased by the same proportion. There are three possible phases: increasing returns, constant returns, and diminishing returns.
2. Increasing returns occur when output increases more than proportionately to the increase in inputs. Constant returns occur when output increases proportionately to inputs. Diminishing returns occur when output increases less than proportionately to inputs.
3. The three phases can be illustrated using production tables and diagrams showing the marginal product curve. Increasing returns are shown by an upward sloping curve initially, followed by a horizontal line for constant returns, and then a downward sloping line for diminishing returns.
1. Returns to scale refers to how output changes when all factor inputs are increased or decreased by the same proportion. There are three possible phases: increasing returns, constant returns, and diminishing returns.
2. Increasing returns occur when output increases more than proportionately to the increase in inputs. Constant returns occur when output increases proportionately to inputs. Diminishing returns occur when output increases less than proportionately to inputs.
3. The three phases can be illustrated using production tables and diagrams showing the marginal product curve. Increasing returns are shown by an upward sloping curve initially, followed by a horizontal line for constant returns, and then a downward sloping line for diminishing returns.
This document discusses monopoly and price determination under monopoly. It defines monopoly as a market situation with a single seller and no close substitutes. A monopoly firm is a price maker that can influence the price of its product. The document examines how a monopoly firm determines price and equilibrium in the short and long run through total revenue and cost analysis and marginal revenue and marginal cost analysis. It maximizes profits by producing where marginal cost equals marginal revenue.
The document outlines the phases of the business cycle, including expansion (recovery, boom, peak) and contraction (recession, depression, trough). Expansion involves increased economic activity and consumer confidence, while contraction is a period of decreasing activity and confidence. Key phases include recovery as activity begins to rise from a trough, boom as rapid growth occurs, peak when activity levels off, recession as activity declines, depression as the decline worsens, and trough when activity hits bottom. Factors shaping the business cycle include volatility of investment, momentum, and technological innovations.
The document discusses the law of variable proportions, which examines how output changes when the quantity of one input (the variable factor) is increased while keeping other inputs fixed. It defines the law, lists its assumptions, and explains it using a tabular example of increasing a fixed amount of land with varying labor. Total product, marginal product, and average product are calculated at each stage. Graphically, there are three stages: increasing returns, diminishing returns, and negative returns. Causes of each stage are also provided, such as underutilization of fixed factors in the first stage and imperfect substitutability of factors in later stages.
1. The document discusses general equilibrium theory (GET) and defines general equilibrium as a state where all markets and decision-making units are in simultaneous equilibrium.
2. It presents a simple two-sector general equilibrium model of an economy with two consumers, two goods, and two factors of production. Equations represent consumer demand, factor supply, factor demand, good supply, and market clearing for goods and factors.
3. With the number of equations equal to the number of unknowns, a general equilibrium solution exists in this Walrasian model under certain assumptions. GET provides a framework for understanding the complexity of economic systems through interdependent markets.
1. Utility theory includes the law of diminishing marginal utility and the law of equi-marginal utility. The law of diminishing marginal utility states that the marginal utility of consuming successive units of a good decreases as consumption increases.
2. Marginal utility refers to the satisfaction gained from consuming an additional unit of a good. It decreases with increasing consumption as wants are satisfied. The total utility initially increases with consumption but eventually reaches a point where marginal utility is zero and additional units provide no added satisfaction.
3. An example of diminishing marginal utility is drinking water when thirsty. The first glass provides the most satisfaction while additional glasses provide less satisfaction until the point where more water would provide disutility rather than
The marginal productivity theory of distribution Prabha Panth
The document discusses the neoclassical theory of distribution and the concept of factor payments. It addresses the "adding up" problem of whether total factor payments will equal total product. Wicksteed showed that under constant returns to scale and factors paid their marginal products, total revenue will equal total costs through Euler's theorem. However, this assumes a linear homogeneous production function. Later economists like Samuelson and Hicks found the condition is only met at the minimum point of the long-run average cost curve, where a firm has constant returns to scale.
This document summarizes the law of diminishing marginal utility. It states that as consumption of a good increases incrementally, the satisfaction or utility derived from each additional unit decreases. The law is explained using examples like consuming hamburgers or antibiotics. Diminishing marginal utility forms the basis for concepts like progressive taxation and variety in goods produced. Exceptions include rare collections, money and addictive substances which people continue consuming in increasing amounts despite diminishing marginal utility. The law was first stated by H. Gossen and later restated by Alfred Marshall and has wide applications in economics, production, and household expenditure.
Price and output determination under perfec competitionAnand Saran
Under perfect competition, firms are price takers and cannot influence the market price. The market price is determined by the intersection of total industry demand and supply. In the short run, a firm can be in a situation of normal profit, super normal profit, or loss depending on the relationship between average revenue (AR) and average cost (AC). In the long run, all firms will earn only normal profits as inefficient firms exit the industry. The shutdown point occurs when a firm's average variable cost equals its average revenue.
This document discusses Gossen's Second Law, also known as the Law of Equi-marginal Utility. The law states that consumers will allocate their limited income across different goods in a way that equalizes the marginal utility per rupee spent. Traditionally, this meant spending to the point where the last rupee spent on each good yields equal satisfaction. Modernly, it means allocating spending such that the marginal utility divided by price is equal for all goods. The law aims to explain how consumers can maximize total utility from a given expenditure.
Unit - 3 Price & Output Determination discusses the key concepts of market structures including perfect competition, monopoly, monopolistic competition, and oligopoly. It examines revenue, profit, and price determination in both the short run and long run for perfect competition and monopoly. Monopolistic competition and oligopolies are also summarized, including how the kinked demand curve model explains price rigidity in oligopolies.
1. A production function shows the maximum output that can be produced from a given set of inputs over a period of time. It can be expressed as an equation, table, or graph.
2. The Cobb-Douglas production function is an important example that was formulated by Paul Douglas and Charles Cobb. It expresses output as a power function of labor and capital inputs.
3. The law of variable proportions states that as one variable input is increased, initially average and marginal products will increase until diminishing returns set in, after which average and marginal products will decrease.
The document discusses isoquant curves and isocost curves.
1. An isoquant curve shows all the combinations of two inputs that can produce the same level of output. It assumes inputs are substitutable to some degree in production.
2. An isocost curve connects all combinations of two inputs that can be purchased with a given budget or expenditure level, based on the prices of the inputs.
3. Firms use isoquant and isocost curves to determine the most cost-effective combination of inputs to achieve a given output level.
National income is the total value of all goods and services produced in a country in a year. It can be measured using various methods such as the production, income, and expenditure methods. The production method sums the value of output from all sectors. The income method sums factor incomes like wages, interest, rent, and profits. The expenditure method sums expenditures on consumption, investment, government spending, and exports/imports. National income statistics are important for measuring economic growth, standards of living, and making country comparisons.
The document discusses the law of returns, which explains how production changes when varying inputs in the short and long run. In the short run, under the law of variable proportions, total output initially increases at an increasing rate as labor is added to fixed capital, then increases at a diminishing rate until maximum output is reached. In the long run, the law of returns to scale describes how output changes proportionally when all inputs change equally - there can be increasing, constant, or diminishing returns to scale.
This document defines and discusses fiscal policy in India. It begins by introducing fiscal policy and its objectives of stabilizing the economy. It then defines fiscal policy as involving government revenue collection through taxation and spending. The objectives and instruments of fiscal policy are outlined, including the budget, taxation, public expenditure, and public debt. Data on India's fiscal deficit is presented, showing it as a percentage of GDP from 2005-2014. The achievements and reforms of India's fiscal policy are highlighted, such as increasing resources and savings. The Fiscal Responsibility and Budget Management Act of 2003 is described as institutionalizing financial discipline and reducing deficits. Current fiscal policy targets reducing the deficit to 3% of GDP by 2017-2018.
Monopolistic Equilibrium in short and long runShakti Yadav
In the short run, a monopolistically competitive firm will produce at the quantity where marginal cost equals marginal revenue to maximize profits. This occurs at a price above average cost, resulting in abnormal profits. In the long run, entry of new firms shifts individual demand curves down and costs curves up, eliminating abnormal profits so firms only earn normal profits where price equals average cost, establishing equilibrium.
This document discusses economies and diseconomies of scale at the firm and industry levels. It defines economies of scale as cost advantages from expansion due to factors like fixed cost spreading. Key internal economies are buying, selling, managerial, financial, and technical economies. Diseconomies arise when firms grow too large and face issues like control and communication problems. External economies include skilled labor pools and specialized suppliers, while disexternalities include congestion and resource competition.
In Macroeconomics Income and Employment are interchangeable terms, since in the short-run National income depends on the total volume of employment or economic activity in the country. As income and employment are synonymous the employment theory is also called income theory.
It should be clear to readers that the classical economists did not formulate any specific theory of employment as such. They only laid down certain postulates which subsequently developed as a theory.
The theory of multiplier and acceleration principle chapter 3Nayan Vaghela
The theory of multiplier and acceleration principle chapter 3, functioning of investment multiplier, the process of income generation through multiplier, acceleration principle, limitations of multiplier and acceleration.
1. Returns to scale refers to how output changes when all factor inputs are increased or decreased by the same proportion. There are three possible phases: increasing returns, constant returns, and diminishing returns.
2. Increasing returns occur when output increases more than proportionately to the increase in inputs. Constant returns occur when output increases proportionately to inputs. Diminishing returns occur when output increases less than proportionately to inputs.
3. The three phases can be illustrated using production tables and diagrams showing the marginal product curve. Increasing returns are shown by an upward sloping curve initially, followed by a horizontal line for constant returns, and then a downward sloping line for diminishing returns.
1. Returns to scale refers to how output changes when all factor inputs are increased or decreased by the same proportion. There are three possible phases: increasing returns, constant returns, and diminishing returns.
2. Increasing returns occur when output increases more than proportionately to the increase in inputs. Constant returns occur when output increases proportionately to inputs. Diminishing returns occur when output increases less than proportionately to inputs.
3. The three phases can be illustrated using production tables and diagrams showing the marginal product curve. Increasing returns are shown by an upward sloping curve initially, followed by a horizontal line for constant returns, and then a downward sloping line for diminishing returns.
The document discusses production functions and costs. It defines production functions as relating physical output to inputs like labor and capital. Production functions can be expressed as short-run or long-run depending on whether inputs are fixed or variable. The document also discusses laws of returns like increasing, decreasing, and constant returns. Isoquants and isocost curves are presented, where isoquants show input combinations for a given output and isocost curves show input combinations at a given cost.
Es 2 k21-18 returns to scale ppt naveen chouhanNaveenChouhan13
Returns to scale refers to the relationship between changes in total input and the resulting changes in total output. There are three types of returns to scale: increasing, constant, and diminishing. Increasing returns occur when a proportional increase in all inputs results in a more than proportional increase in output. Constant returns occur when output increases proportionally to inputs. Diminishing returns occur when output increases by less than the proportional increase in inputs. The law of returns to scale explains how output responds to proportional changes in all inputs in the long run.
Managerial economics and financial analysis that deals with production function,factors that effect production function, limitations of production, methods of improving productivity.
The document discusses the theory of production, cost, and break-even analysis. It begins by defining production as the transformation of inputs into outputs. It then discusses the production function, which represents the relationship between inputs and outputs. The document outlines different types of production functions including the Cobb-Douglas, Leontief, and CES functions. It also covers the laws of variable proportions and returns to scale. Finally, it defines key cost concepts and the cost-output relationship.
The production function explains the relationship between inputs and output in economics. There are four main factors of production: land, labor, capital, and entrepreneurship. These can be fixed or variable factors. The production function formula is Q=f(K,L) where Q is output and K and L represent capital and labor. There are short-run and long-run production functions depending on whether inputs are fixed or variable. The law of variable proportions describes how marginal product decreases as the variable input increases in three stages: increasing, diminishing, and negative returns. Returns to scale refers to the proportional change in output from a proportional change in all inputs and can be increasing, constant, or diminishing.
The document discusses key concepts related to production analysis including inputs, outputs, the production function, factors of production, and the concepts of total product, average product, and marginal product. It explains that production transforms inputs into outputs through processes of changing form, place, or time. The production function deals with the maximum output achievable given limited inputs. Total product is the total output, average product is output per input, and marginal product is the change in output from an additional input.
Production involves transforming inputs into outputs. There are three types of transformation: change in form, place, or time. A production function relates the maximum output to a given quantity of inputs. There are three stages of production based on diminishing returns. In the short run, one factor is fixed while in the long run all factors are variable, leading to different types of returns to scale. Isoquants represent combinations of inputs that produce the same output level, with their properties determining the optimal input mix.
The document discusses key concepts in production theory including:
- Marginal product and diminishing returns, where adding more of a variable input like labor leads to lower increases in total output after a certain point.
- Isoquants and isocosts, which represent combinations of inputs that produce the same output level or can be purchased with a given budget.
- Returns to scale, measuring how output changes relative to proportional changes in all inputs, with cases of increasing, constant, and decreasing returns.
- The production function and its stages of increasing, then diminishing, and eventually negative returns as inputs are added without limit.
This document discusses production analysis and the theory of production costs from the perspective of a firm. It covers key concepts such as:
- The three stages of production as defined by total, average, and marginal product curves. In stage one, average product is increasing. In stage two, average product is decreasing while marginal product turns negative in stage three.
- Laws of variable proportions which state that as a variable input increases, total product initially increases at an increasing rate, then at a decreasing rate, due to diminishing marginal returns.
- Long run production functions which consider all inputs as variable. Returns to scale can be increasing, constant, or diminishing based on how total output responds to a proportional increase
Production function refers to the relationship between inputs used in production and the resulting outputs. It shows the technical relationship between inputs like labor, capital, land, and enterprise and the quantity of output.
There are short run and long run production functions. Short run production functions consider variable inputs while long run considers all inputs as variable.
Total, average, and marginal production are key concepts. Total production is the total output. Average production is output per unit of input. Marginal production is the change in output from a change in input.
There are laws like diminishing returns and returns to scale. Diminishing returns states that adding more of a variable input on fixed inputs initially increases output, then at a decreasing
The document discusses production functions and the law of variable proportions. It defines production functions as relationships between inputs and outputs. Specifically, it discusses Cobb-Douglas production functions, which take the form of a power equation relating capital and labor to output. Isoquants and isocosts are also introduced as showing equal levels of output and cost from different input combinations. The law of variable proportions is summarized as explaining how adding more of a variable input initially increases then decreases marginal returns in the short run when one input is fixed.
Eliott Dear Lawyer is telling the Laws of return as the law of cost. Eliott Dear is a regarded attorney in New York. He has over ten years of involvement with his lawful work.
The document discusses key concepts related to production and returns to scale. It can be summarized as follows:
1. Production involves using factors of production like labor, capital, land, and raw materials to transform inputs into outputs. The relationship between inputs and outputs is represented by production functions.
2. In the short run, at least one factor is fixed while others can vary. This relationship is explained by the law of variable proportions, which outlines three stages of production - increasing, constant, and diminishing returns.
3. In the long run, all factors are variable. The behavior of output with changes in all inputs is known as returns to scale and can exhibit increasing, constant, or diminishing returns depending
This document discusses the short run production function and the law of variable proportions. It defines the short run as a period where at least one input is fixed. The production function shows the relationship between inputs like labor, capital, land, and outputs. In the short run, outputs increase at an increasing rate initially as variable inputs like labor are added, reaching a point of maximum output, after which outputs increase at a diminishing rate and can become negative. This follows the law of variable proportions, where marginal product initially increases with more variable input, then decreases and can become negative. The document provides an example of increasing wheat output with more labor on a fixed amount of land, and a graph illustrating the three stages of the law of
Unit - IV discusses production functions and the laws of production. It explains that a production function shows the relationship between inputs like labor, capital, land and the output produced. The laws of variable proportions and returns to scale are then covered. The law of variable proportions explains how output changes when one input is varied while others stay fixed. Returns to scale looks at what happens to output when all inputs change proportionately. Economies and diseconomies of scale are also discussed.
The document discusses Philips' brand repositioning strategy around "sense and simplicity". It outlines that Philips' products had become too complex, so the company refocused on simplicity through customer research. Key aspects of the new strategy include advanced yet easy-to-use technologies, a consistent message communicated globally, and products like Senseo coffee makers that embody the brand promise.
Report writing in business communicationjyyothees mv
The document discusses the key elements and structure of a business report, including an executive summary, introduction, main body with numbered sections, conclusions, and recommendations. It provides guidance on writing style for business reports, noting they should be clear, concise, avoid jargon, and focus facts over arguments. The document also reviews common types of business letters and standard business letter formatting.
TYPES OF COMMUNICATION IN BUSINESS COMMUNICATIONjyyothees mv
Types of communication: Verbal – Oral Communication: Advantages and Limitations of Oral Communication, Written Communication – Characteristics, Advantages & Limitations This concept inludes Non-verbal Communication: Sign language – Body language – Kinesics – Proxemics – Time language and Hepatics: Touch language.
The most basic form of communication is a process in which two or more persons attempt to consciously or unconsciously influence each other through the use of symbols or words to satisfy their respective needs.
Organisation policies for smoothing capacity utilisationjyyothees mv
This presentation discusses organizational policies for smoothing capacity utilization. It explains that aggregate planning must define business processes to meet customer needs and expectations, and management must be able to forecast needs for each planning period. The presentation also discusses how managers must identify metrics controlled by employees' actions, and how organizational goals and initiatives must be clearly mapped and responsibilities defined. It notes two types of goal displacement that can occur - when quantifiable measures replace non-quantifiable ones, and when one part of the organization optimizes at the detriment of the whole. Finally, it discusses factors for capacity utilization in a time-focused environment, such as making the right inventory decisions, having efficient feedback, collecting and analyzing data, ensuring sufficient resources and resources in the
ORGANISATION DEVELOPMENT,CONTRIBUTORY STEMS HISTORY,Meaning & definition of Organization Development
History of Organization Development
Contributory stems of Organization Development
Stages on contributory system
The SICA Act establishes mechanisms for identifying and addressing sickness in industrial companies. It places responsibility on company boards to report potential sickness issues to the BIFR. The Act also establishes the AAIFR appellate authority. Measures taken by experts under SICA aim to address industrial sickness through legal, financial and managerial restructuring in sectors where public money is invested. The BIFR was established under SICA to oversee rehabilitation of sick companies through schemes like financial reconstruction, management changes, amalgamation, sale or lease of assets.
The document discusses the business environment and factors of production that include man, money, material, and machines. It outlines the goals of business as profit, market leadership, quality products and services, growth, consumer and employee satisfaction, and service to society. The document also examines different types of markets and components that make up a business's internal and external environment such as customers, suppliers, consumers, buyers, economic, political, technical, socio-cultural, natural, and global factors. Finally, it discusses India's New Industrial Policy of 1991 and the main features of liberalization, privatization, and globalization.
Monetary policy refers to actions taken by central banks to control money supply and credit conditions in order to promote economic growth and stability. The key objectives of monetary policy are full employment, price stability, economic growth, and balance of payments equilibrium. Central banks use both quantitative and qualitative instruments to achieve these objectives. Quantitative instruments include open market operations, bank rate changes, and reserve requirement ratios. Qualitative instruments include credit rationing, margin requirements, and moral suasion. Recent trends in India's monetary policy include keeping the repo rate unchanged at 8% while reducing statutory liquidity ratio requirements.
Monetary policy refers to actions taken by central banks to control money supply and credit conditions in order to promote economic growth and stability. The document outlines the objectives, types and instruments of monetary policy. The key objectives are full employment, price stability, economic growth and a stable exchange rate. Instrument include bank rates, open market operations, reserve requirements, and moral suasion. Recent trends in India include keeping the repo rate at 8% while reducing statutory liquidity ratios. Monetary policy aims to balance targets like inflation control and credit availability to support development.
This document provides an overview of the Sick Industrial Companies (SICA) Act of 1985. The key points are:
1) The SICA Act was enacted to address problems of industrial sickness, especially in crucial sectors where public money was tied up.
2) It establishes special provisions for timely detection of sick companies and speedy restructuring measures determined by an expert body.
3) These measures include legal, financial, and managerial restructuring. It also establishes the BIFR and AAIFR quasi-judicial bodies to oversee rehabilitation of sick companies.
it is an usefull information and material for the students who is preparing their studies
it about WTO ,stucture,scope,trade agreements functions etc.,
it is a full information for the students according to thrir examinations point of view about monetary policy and objectives,nature, instruments of monitary policy
This document discusses different types of international trade agreements that India engages in. It describes bilateral trade agreements as agreements between two countries, noting key factors for such deals include non-convertible currencies, centrally controlled economies, and lack of hard currency. Multilateral trade agreements involve multiple countries and have a legal basis, defined nature and objectives, potential cost savings, and an overarching framework. The overall goal of India's trade agreements is to support the country's economic growth and position in global trade.
5 Compelling Reasons to Invest in Cryptocurrency NowDaniel
In recent years, cryptocurrencies have emerged as more than just a niche fascination; they have become a transformative force in global finance and technology. Initially propelled by the enigmatic Bitcoin, cryptocurrencies have evolved into a diverse ecosystem of digital assets with the potential to reshape how we perceive and interact with money.
Introduction to Metro in India by cosmo soil.pptxcosmo-soil
The metro system in India is a vital part of urban mobility, providing eco-friendly, efficient, and affordable transportation. This article explores its history, benefits, and future developments, highlighting how metros enhance quality of life and drive urban development.
Understanding the True Cost of Employment in 32 European CountriesBoundless HQ
All employers know that the cost to employ someone spans far beyond the gross salary. While you may understand the cost involved in your HQ country, getting to grips with that across borders can be a very significant undertaking.
To provide some clarity on this complexity, we hosted a webinar will be led by Dee Coakley, CEO and Co-Founder at Boundless, who brings extensive experience in managing cross-border employment.
During the webinar, we discussed:
1. The key components that contribute to the total cost of employment, from employer insurance to statutory benefits and other deductions
2. Detailed comparisons of employment costs across 32 European countries
3. Insights into how different tax structures affect the take-home pay of employees
4. The "cost-to-pay" ratio, providing a clearer understanding of what employers pay versus what employees receive
This session is designed for HR, Finance and Payroll professionals, looking to navigate the complexities of employment costs across borders.
Understanding the True Cost of Employment in 32 European Countries
Law of returns to scale
1. Law of Returns to Scale
In the long run all factors of production are
variable. No factor is fixed. Accordingly, the
scale of production can be changed by
changing the quantity of all factors of
production.
2. Definition
• “The term returns to scale refers to the
changes in output as all factors change by the
same proportion.” Koutsoyiannis
• “Returns to scale relates to the behaviour of
total output as all inputs are varied and is a
long run concept”.
3. Returns to scale are of the following
three types:
• 1. Increasing Returns to scale.
• 2. Constant Returns to Scale
• 3. Diminishing Returns to Scale
4. • Explanation:
• In the long run, output can be increased by
increasing all factors in the same proportion.
Generally, laws of returns to scale refer to an
increase in output due to increase in all factors
in the same proportion. Such an increase is
called returns to scale.
• Suppose, initially production function is as
follows:
• P = f (L, K)
5. Now, if both the factors of production i.e., labour and capital are increased in same
proportion i.e., x, product function will be rewritten as.
6. • 1. Increasing Returns to Scale:
• Increasing returns to scale or diminishing cost
refers to a situation when all factors of
production are increased, output increases at
a higher rate. It means if all inputs are
doubled, output will also increase at the faster
rate than double. Hence, it is said to be
increasing returns to scale. This increase is
due to many reasons like division external
economies of scale. Increasing returns to scale
can be illustrated with the help of a diagram 8.
•
7. In figure 8, OX axis represents increase in labour and capital
while OY axis shows increase in output. When labour and capital
increases from Q to Q1, output also increases from P to P1 which
is higher than the factors of production i.e. labour and capital.
8. Diminishing Returns to Scale:
Diminishing returns or increasing costs refer to
that production situation, where if all the factors
of production are increased in a given
proportion, output increases in a smaller
proportion. It means, if inputs are doubled,
output will be less than doubled. If 20 percent
increase in labour and capital is followed by 10
percent increase in output, then it is an instance
of diminishing returns to scale.
9. In this diagram 9, diminishing returns to scale has been shown.
On OX axis, labour and capital are given while on OY axis, output.
When factors of production increase from Q to Q1 (more
quantity) but as a result increase in output, i.e. P to P1 is less. We
see that increase in factors of production is more and increase in
production is comparatively less, thus diminishing returns to
scale apply.
10. Constant Returns to Scale:
• Constant returns to scale or constant cost refers to the
production situation in which output increases exactly
in the same proportion in which factors of production
are increased. In simple terms, if factors of production
are doubled output will also be doubled.
• In this case internal and external economies are exactly
equal to internal and external diseconomies. This
situation arises when after reaching a certain level of
production, economies of scale are balanced by
diseconomies of scale. This is known as homogeneous
production function. Cobb-Douglas linear homogenous
production function is a good example of this kind.