The geological fieldwork conducted in Chobhar, Nepal aimed to provide practical geological knowledge to crisis management students. Key activities included observing landforms, structures, and rock types; gaining information from topographical maps; measuring geological orientations; and locating one's position on a map. The fieldwork helped students understand geological processes of the past that influenced landform development and how this knowledge can inform crisis management and planning.
This document discusses the Precambrian geology of the Southern Granulite Terrain of India. It describes the terrain as being composed of several blocks separated by shear zones, which experienced high-grade metamorphism and multiple periods of folding and faulting. The metamorphic history involved ultra-high temperature conditions in some areas, as evidenced by mineral assemblages. The document also outlines two competing tectonic models to explain the evolution of the related Pandyan Mobile Belt: a subduction-collision model and an accretion model.
The document discusses the geology of the Singhbhum Craton located in northern Odisha and Jharkhand, India. It is known for its rich iron and copper deposits. The craton contains several rock groups from the Archean to Paleoproterozoic periods that record its tectonic evolution. The oldest rocks are the Older Metamorphic Group composed of schists and gneisses. Overlying are the iron-rich rocks of the Iron Ore Group. Later intrusions included the Singhbhum Granite batholith and sediments make up the Singhbhum, Dhanjori, and Gangpur Groups. The stratigraphy and structure of the craton provide evidence of its early
Boundary problems between :-
Precambrian/Cambrian
Permian/Triassic
Cretaceous/Tertiary
Neogene/Quaternary
Stratigraphic boundaries are determined by one or more of geological events such as volcanic activity, sedimentation, tectonism, paleo-environments & evolution of life.
Faunal records have played major role in determining the boundaries of the Phanerozoic units.
The other geological events are dated on the evidence of fossil records.
Paired metamorphic belts occur where zones of high-pressure low-temperature metamorphism are parallel to zones of low-pressure high-temperature metamorphism. They were first recognized in Japan and form due to subduction of oceanic crust beneath continental crust. Paired metamorphic belts support the theory of plate tectonics, as the contrasting pressure-temperature conditions in the two parallel belts can be explained by ocean-continent convergence. Examples of paired metamorphic belts are found throughout the basement rocks of the former Gondwanaland supercontinent.
Sequence stratigraphy and its applicationsPramoda Raj
Sequence stratigraphy is the study of rock strata in terms of depositional sequences that are genetically related and bounded by unconformities or correlative conformities. It was pioneered by James Hutton in 1788 and further developed by researchers like Sloss and Vail to understand global eustatic sea level changes and their control on sediment deposition. Key concepts include systems tracts like transgressive, highstand, and parasequences which are building blocks of sequences. Sequence stratigraphy is useful for basin analysis, hydrocarbon exploration, and understanding past sea level fluctuations. Case studies have applied it to outcrops and subsurface sediments.
The document summarizes a seminar on carbonatites. Carbonatites are igneous rocks composed of more than 50% carbonate minerals such as calcite or dolomite. They can be intrusive or extrusive. Carbonatites form from low degrees of partial melting in the mantle and have unusual geochemistry dominated by incompatible elements. They are often associated with alkaline complexes and may contain economic concentrations of rare earth elements, niobium, and fluorite. The document outlines the mineralogy, texture, classification, geochemistry, theories of origin, world occurrences, and economic importance of carbonatites.
The document discusses the Western Dharwar Craton located in peninsular India. It is bounded by mobile belts and contains various rock groups like the Sargur, Bababudan, and Chitradurga groups. The oldest rocks are the Gorur gneisses dated to 3500-3600 million years ago. Younger granites and schist belts containing ultramafic and mafic rocks cut across the craton. The economic deposits in the area include magnesite, iron, chromium, vanadium, and copper-nickel ores. The craton shows increasing metamorphic grade from greenschist in the north to amphibolite and granulite facies in the south.
This geological field work report summarizes Haroon Ahmed's study of the Kohistan and Gilgit Baltistan area in northern Pakistan. The report describes the major geological features of the area, including the Indian plate, Kohistan island arc, and Eurasian plate. Key observations from the field work include descriptions of various rock types like granites, schists, and metavolcanics. The report also documents structural features like folds, faults, and the suture zones representing the collision of tectonic plates that formed the complex geology of the region.
This document discusses the Precambrian geology of the Southern Granulite Terrain of India. It describes the terrain as being composed of several blocks separated by shear zones, which experienced high-grade metamorphism and multiple periods of folding and faulting. The metamorphic history involved ultra-high temperature conditions in some areas, as evidenced by mineral assemblages. The document also outlines two competing tectonic models to explain the evolution of the related Pandyan Mobile Belt: a subduction-collision model and an accretion model.
The document discusses the geology of the Singhbhum Craton located in northern Odisha and Jharkhand, India. It is known for its rich iron and copper deposits. The craton contains several rock groups from the Archean to Paleoproterozoic periods that record its tectonic evolution. The oldest rocks are the Older Metamorphic Group composed of schists and gneisses. Overlying are the iron-rich rocks of the Iron Ore Group. Later intrusions included the Singhbhum Granite batholith and sediments make up the Singhbhum, Dhanjori, and Gangpur Groups. The stratigraphy and structure of the craton provide evidence of its early
Boundary problems between :-
Precambrian/Cambrian
Permian/Triassic
Cretaceous/Tertiary
Neogene/Quaternary
Stratigraphic boundaries are determined by one or more of geological events such as volcanic activity, sedimentation, tectonism, paleo-environments & evolution of life.
Faunal records have played major role in determining the boundaries of the Phanerozoic units.
The other geological events are dated on the evidence of fossil records.
Paired metamorphic belts occur where zones of high-pressure low-temperature metamorphism are parallel to zones of low-pressure high-temperature metamorphism. They were first recognized in Japan and form due to subduction of oceanic crust beneath continental crust. Paired metamorphic belts support the theory of plate tectonics, as the contrasting pressure-temperature conditions in the two parallel belts can be explained by ocean-continent convergence. Examples of paired metamorphic belts are found throughout the basement rocks of the former Gondwanaland supercontinent.
Sequence stratigraphy and its applicationsPramoda Raj
Sequence stratigraphy is the study of rock strata in terms of depositional sequences that are genetically related and bounded by unconformities or correlative conformities. It was pioneered by James Hutton in 1788 and further developed by researchers like Sloss and Vail to understand global eustatic sea level changes and their control on sediment deposition. Key concepts include systems tracts like transgressive, highstand, and parasequences which are building blocks of sequences. Sequence stratigraphy is useful for basin analysis, hydrocarbon exploration, and understanding past sea level fluctuations. Case studies have applied it to outcrops and subsurface sediments.
The document summarizes a seminar on carbonatites. Carbonatites are igneous rocks composed of more than 50% carbonate minerals such as calcite or dolomite. They can be intrusive or extrusive. Carbonatites form from low degrees of partial melting in the mantle and have unusual geochemistry dominated by incompatible elements. They are often associated with alkaline complexes and may contain economic concentrations of rare earth elements, niobium, and fluorite. The document outlines the mineralogy, texture, classification, geochemistry, theories of origin, world occurrences, and economic importance of carbonatites.
The document discusses the Western Dharwar Craton located in peninsular India. It is bounded by mobile belts and contains various rock groups like the Sargur, Bababudan, and Chitradurga groups. The oldest rocks are the Gorur gneisses dated to 3500-3600 million years ago. Younger granites and schist belts containing ultramafic and mafic rocks cut across the craton. The economic deposits in the area include magnesite, iron, chromium, vanadium, and copper-nickel ores. The craton shows increasing metamorphic grade from greenschist in the north to amphibolite and granulite facies in the south.
This geological field work report summarizes Haroon Ahmed's study of the Kohistan and Gilgit Baltistan area in northern Pakistan. The report describes the major geological features of the area, including the Indian plate, Kohistan island arc, and Eurasian plate. Key observations from the field work include descriptions of various rock types like granites, schists, and metavolcanics. The report also documents structural features like folds, faults, and the suture zones representing the collision of tectonic plates that formed the complex geology of the region.
Precambrian cambrian boundary with reference to indiaPramoda Raj
This document summarizes a seminar on the Precambrian period covering its evolution on Earth, important fossils and terrains in India, paleogeography and the breakup of a late Proterozoic supercontinent, stratigraphy of basins in India, and the Precambrian-Cambrian boundary. Key points include: Earth's atmosphere formed via outgassing; stromatolites and microplankton are common Precambrian fossils; a late Proterozoic supercontinent broke up during the period; and the Precambrian-Cambrian boundary marks major biotic changes in Earth's history.
Distribution, stratigraphy and economic importance of cuddapah parag sonwane
The document summarizes the distribution, stratigraphy, and economic importance of the Cuddapah Supergroup in India. It discusses that the Cuddapah Supergroup is an important Proterozoic sedimentary basin located in southern India. The stratigraphy includes lower volcanic rocks and upper non-volcanic rocks separated by an unconformity. It is divided into various formations composed of quartzites, shales, limestones, and other rock types. Though fossils are rare, the basin contains important mineral resources like uranium, barytes, diamonds, and asbestos. The Cuddapah Supergroup provides insights into the geology of India during the Proterozoic Eon.
The document provides information on the Dharwar Craton located in southwest India. It discusses the classification of the craton into the Western Dharwar Craton (WDC) and Eastern Dharwar Craton (EDC). Key differences between the WDC and EDC are noted, including larger greenstone belts in the WDC surrounded by older gneiss, compared to narrower greenstone belts in the EDC intruded by a Dharwar Batholith. The lithology of the cratons is also summarized, including the Sargur Group, Bababudan Group, Chitradurga Group, and younger granites like the Closepet Granite. Regional structures, met
This document summarizes information about the Eastern Dharwar Craton (EDC) region of India. The EDC covers around 450,000 square kilometers and contains several greenstone belts formed from volcanic and sedimentary rocks. It is bounded by mobile belts and separated from the Western Dharwar Craton by the Chitradurga Shear Zone. The EDC contains older gneissic basement rocks overlain by the Warangal Group and greenstone belts of the Dharwar Supergroup, along with the large Closepet Granite intrusion and regions metamorphosed to amphibolite and granulite facies.
The Siwalik Group originated from sediments deposited in the Tethys Sea during the middle Miocene to lower Pleistocene periods. It is distributed across the outer foothills of the Himalayas from Pakistan to Arunachal Pradesh, India. The stratigraphy includes lower, middle, and upper Siwalik subgroups composed of sandstone, shale and conglomerate deposited in fluvial and lacustrine environments. Fossils found in the Siwalik Group provide important evidence for the evolution of mammals in South Asia.
The document summarizes the geology of the Vindhyan Basin located in central India. It describes the basin's stratigraphy, consisting of the lower and upper Vindhyan groups composed of sandstone, shale, and carbonate deposits. Key economic minerals found in the basin include diamonds, pyrite, coal, and limestone. The Vindhyan Supergroup represents one of India's most important Precambrian sedimentary basins.
Geochemical anomalies in drainage sedimentsPramoda Raj
The document discusses geochemical anomalies found in various types of drainage sediments that can be used for mineral exploration, including spring/seepage sediments, active stream sediments, flood plain sediments, lake sediments, and marine sediments. It explains that drainage sediments provide a sampling medium and anomalies may form from elements precipitating or being eroded, transported, and deposited. The document also notes that lake and marine sediments can indicate mineral deposits based on elements incorporated in sediments or precipitates.
This document discusses different types of metasomatism classified based on metasomatic processes and geological position. There are two main types of metasomatic processes - diffusional metasomatism which occurs through diffusion, and infiltrational metasomatism which occurs through the transfer of materials in solution. The geological positions discussed include autometasomatism near magmatic bodies, contact metasomatism at contacts between bodies, and regional metasomatism over large areas. Specific metasomatic rock types are also summarized like fenite, greisens, and skarns, which are important in studying ore deposits.
The document provides an overview of the Paleozoic era, which began approximately 542 million years ago and lasted around 290 million years. Some key points:
- Suitable time for organic evolution of both flora and fauna. Rocks from this era are less deformed, providing good sections for research.
- In India, Paleozoic rocks are mainly found in the Himalayan region and isolated basins in the peninsula. Stratigraphy has been determined along river sections in the Himalayas.
- Life included early plants, foraminifera, corals, brachiopods, pelecypods, gastropods, cephalopods, ostracods
Magmatic deposits are accumulations of magmatic minerals that are closely related to intermediate or deep-seated igneous rocks. They form as parts of the igneous mass or as offset bodies and crystallize from magma. Magmatic deposits are classified as early or late deposits based on whether the ore minerals crystallize earlier or later than the rock silicates. Early deposits form simultaneously with the host rock via simple crystallization or segregation, while late deposits form towards the end of the magmatic period associated with mafic igneous rocks through processes like crystallization differentiation. Examples of important magmatic deposits in India include diamond and corundum deposits, rare metal pegmatites, carbonatites containing rare earth
The document summarizes the Cudappah Supergroup, an important Proterozoic sedimentary basin in India. It describes the basin's lithostratigraphy, which includes groups like the Papaghni, Chitravati, Nallamalai, and Srisailam quartzites. The basin provides economic resources like barytes, chrysotile, asbestos, steatite, diamonds, uranium, and building/ornamental stones. Radiometric dating indicates the basin formed between 1500-1800 million years ago. The Cudappah Supergroup is a significant paleo-Mesoproterozoic basin that records much of India's early geological history.
This technical paper provides an overview of the major sedimentary basins in India that contain hydrocarbon reserves. It divides the basins into four categories based on the status of hydrocarbon exploration and production. The key basins discussed in detail include the Assam Shelf Basin, Cambay Basin, Bombay Offshore Basin, and Krishna-Godavari Basin. For each basin, it summarizes the geological setting, stratigraphy, hydrocarbon source rocks and reservoir rocks. The paper provides a high-level technical summary of India's major sedimentary basins with proven oil and gas reserves.
Role of Trace Elements In Petrogenesis Gokul Anand
Trace elements occur in very low concentrations in rocks and provide important information about magmatic processes. They can be classified as compatible or incompatible based on whether they fit easily into mantle mineral crystal structures. Geochemical analysis of trace elements using techniques like XRF and ICP-MS allows determination of magma source and depth, identification of fractionating phases, and testing of models of magmatic differentiation. Trace elements are especially useful for rare earth elements, which indicate the type of basalt and can identify fractionating phases from REE patterns.
COAL MICROLITHOTYPES AND THEIR USAGE IN INTERPRETING DEPOSITION ENVIRONMENTOlusegun Ayobami Olatinpo
This document discusses coal microlithotypes and how their analysis can be used to interpret depositional environments. It defines microlithotypes as natural rock associations found within coal that are differentiated based on maceral percentages. Specific microlithotypes form from different plant communities and depositional conditions. Analyzing the microlithotype composition of coal samples can provide insights into the swamp environment where peat formed, such as forested, reed, or open water settings. This information is valuable for geological research and coal quality evaluation.
The document summarizes the geology of the Bundelkhand craton located in central India. The craton covers an area of 26,000 square kilometers and contains three main components: enclaves of supracrustal rocks within older gneisses, the Bundelkhand granite and associated quartz reefs and volcanic rocks, and mafic dyke swarms. The craton has undergone tectonic evolution characterized by three primary shear zone orientations: east-west, northeast-southwest, and northwest-southeast.
INDIAN STRATIGRAPHY COMPLETE PART 1 FOR GATE NET GSI & IAS EXAMSEEMAB AKHTAR
The document summarizes the stratigraphy and geology of various regions in India. It describes five major cratons - Dharwar, Bastar, Singhbhum, Bundelkhand, and Aravali that form the relatively rigid cores surrounded by more ductile mobile belts. It provides details about the lithology, structure, and intrusions of the Dharwar super group as well as summaries of other important geological formations including the Cuddapah super group, Vindhyan super group, Gondwana super group, and Deccan Traps.
CLASSIFICATION OF ORE DEPOSITS
The Mixture of ore minerals are gangue minerals form an Ore deposit. The ore
deposits are generally found enclosed within the country rocks. The ore deposits
are formed in many different ways. Depending upon the process that may
operate to produce them, the ore deposits may be classified as follow:
Magmatic ore deposits.
Sublimation ore deposits.
Pegmatitic ore deposits.
Contact metasomatic ore deposits.
Hydrothermal ore deposits
Cavity filling deposits.
Replacement deposits.
Sedimentation ore deposits.
Evaporation ore deposits.
Residual and mechanical concentration deposits
Metamorphic ore deposits.
MAGMATIC ORE DEPOSITS:
The magmatic ore deposits are the magmatic products which crystallize from
magmas. The magmatic ore deposits are classified as follows:
o Early magmatic deposits
o Late magmatic deposits
Early magmatic deposits:
Early magmatic deposits are formed during the
early stage of the magmatic period. In this case the
ore minerals crystallize earlier than the rock
silicates. The Minerals of Nickel, Chromium, and
Platinum are usually found as early magmatic
deposits. The early magmatic deposits can be sub
divided into two groups:
o Dissemination deposits
o Segregation deposits
Dissemination deposits:
When magma crystallizes
conditions, a granular igneous rock is formed. In
such a rock early formed crystals of
may occur in dissemination.
Segregation deposits:
Magmatic segregation deposits are
formed as a result of gravitative
crystallization differentiation. In
case, the ore mineral which crystallize
early, get ocean-trated on a particular
part of igneous part. The ore deposits
thus formed are known as “Segregation
deposits”.
rly under seated
ore minerals
such
Late Magmatic Deposits:
The ore deposits which are formed to
called late magmatic deposits. The late magmatic deposits contain those ore
minerals which have crystallized at rather low temperature from the residual
magma. The magma which is left after crystallization of early for
is called residual magma. This magma frequently contains many ore minerals. The
late magmatic deposits include most of the magmatic deposits of iron and
titanium ores, these deposits are almost always associated with mafic igneous
rocks.
SUBLIMATION DEPOSITS:
Sublimation is a very minor process of formation of ore deposits. Sublimation
deposits contain only those minerals which have been volatilized by hear and
subsequently redeposit in the same form at low temperature and pressure. The
sublimation deposits are found associated with Volcanoes and Fumaroles. Sulfur
of this origin has been mined in Japan, Italy, and Mexico.
GEOLOGICAL THERMOMETERS
DEFINITION AND CLASSIFICATION
Proper understanding of origin of mineral deposits and their classification requires the knowledge of formation-temperatures of these deposits. Certain minerals, present over there, give information’s with regard to temperatures of their formations and of the enclosing deposits and they are known as geological thermometers. These geological thermometers may be classed chiefly into the following groups based on their preciseness:
1. The thermometers that record fairly accurately the specific temperature condition of formation of deposits.
2. The thermometers that provide an upper or a lower temperature, above or below which the deposits do not form
3. The thermometers that provide a range of temperature within which the deposits form; and
4. The thermometers that serve as rough indications of temperatures of formation of mineral deposits.
The presence of two or more of less precise geological thermometers in a deposit narrows the range of temperature of formation for the deposits
This document discusses heavy minerals found in placer deposits. Placer deposits form from weathering and erosion of heavy minerals that are then transported and concentrated by gravity and deposited in areas like beaches. Common heavy minerals include ilmenite, magnetite, rutile, zircon and monazite. These minerals can be separated and extracted using physical processes that exploit differences in their magnetic, electrostatic and density properties, such as magnetic separation, electrostatic separation and gravity separation using spiral concentrators. Heavy minerals are economically important and indicators of sediment sources.
The document summarizes the exam pattern and syllabus for the UPSC Geologist exam, which consists of two parts. Part 1 is a written exam worth 700 marks covering subjects like geology, hydrology, and English. It involves 3 papers of 200 marks each. Part 2 is an interview worth 200 marks for shortlisted candidates. The syllabus for the written exam includes subjects like geomorphology, structural geology, geotectonics, stratigraphy, and paleontology. Candidates are advised to thoroughly prepare the exam pattern and syllabus in order to improve their chances of success.
Precambrian cambrian boundary with reference to indiaPramoda Raj
This document summarizes a seminar on the Precambrian period covering its evolution on Earth, important fossils and terrains in India, paleogeography and the breakup of a late Proterozoic supercontinent, stratigraphy of basins in India, and the Precambrian-Cambrian boundary. Key points include: Earth's atmosphere formed via outgassing; stromatolites and microplankton are common Precambrian fossils; a late Proterozoic supercontinent broke up during the period; and the Precambrian-Cambrian boundary marks major biotic changes in Earth's history.
Distribution, stratigraphy and economic importance of cuddapah parag sonwane
The document summarizes the distribution, stratigraphy, and economic importance of the Cuddapah Supergroup in India. It discusses that the Cuddapah Supergroup is an important Proterozoic sedimentary basin located in southern India. The stratigraphy includes lower volcanic rocks and upper non-volcanic rocks separated by an unconformity. It is divided into various formations composed of quartzites, shales, limestones, and other rock types. Though fossils are rare, the basin contains important mineral resources like uranium, barytes, diamonds, and asbestos. The Cuddapah Supergroup provides insights into the geology of India during the Proterozoic Eon.
The document provides information on the Dharwar Craton located in southwest India. It discusses the classification of the craton into the Western Dharwar Craton (WDC) and Eastern Dharwar Craton (EDC). Key differences between the WDC and EDC are noted, including larger greenstone belts in the WDC surrounded by older gneiss, compared to narrower greenstone belts in the EDC intruded by a Dharwar Batholith. The lithology of the cratons is also summarized, including the Sargur Group, Bababudan Group, Chitradurga Group, and younger granites like the Closepet Granite. Regional structures, met
This document summarizes information about the Eastern Dharwar Craton (EDC) region of India. The EDC covers around 450,000 square kilometers and contains several greenstone belts formed from volcanic and sedimentary rocks. It is bounded by mobile belts and separated from the Western Dharwar Craton by the Chitradurga Shear Zone. The EDC contains older gneissic basement rocks overlain by the Warangal Group and greenstone belts of the Dharwar Supergroup, along with the large Closepet Granite intrusion and regions metamorphosed to amphibolite and granulite facies.
The Siwalik Group originated from sediments deposited in the Tethys Sea during the middle Miocene to lower Pleistocene periods. It is distributed across the outer foothills of the Himalayas from Pakistan to Arunachal Pradesh, India. The stratigraphy includes lower, middle, and upper Siwalik subgroups composed of sandstone, shale and conglomerate deposited in fluvial and lacustrine environments. Fossils found in the Siwalik Group provide important evidence for the evolution of mammals in South Asia.
The document summarizes the geology of the Vindhyan Basin located in central India. It describes the basin's stratigraphy, consisting of the lower and upper Vindhyan groups composed of sandstone, shale, and carbonate deposits. Key economic minerals found in the basin include diamonds, pyrite, coal, and limestone. The Vindhyan Supergroup represents one of India's most important Precambrian sedimentary basins.
Geochemical anomalies in drainage sedimentsPramoda Raj
The document discusses geochemical anomalies found in various types of drainage sediments that can be used for mineral exploration, including spring/seepage sediments, active stream sediments, flood plain sediments, lake sediments, and marine sediments. It explains that drainage sediments provide a sampling medium and anomalies may form from elements precipitating or being eroded, transported, and deposited. The document also notes that lake and marine sediments can indicate mineral deposits based on elements incorporated in sediments or precipitates.
This document discusses different types of metasomatism classified based on metasomatic processes and geological position. There are two main types of metasomatic processes - diffusional metasomatism which occurs through diffusion, and infiltrational metasomatism which occurs through the transfer of materials in solution. The geological positions discussed include autometasomatism near magmatic bodies, contact metasomatism at contacts between bodies, and regional metasomatism over large areas. Specific metasomatic rock types are also summarized like fenite, greisens, and skarns, which are important in studying ore deposits.
The document provides an overview of the Paleozoic era, which began approximately 542 million years ago and lasted around 290 million years. Some key points:
- Suitable time for organic evolution of both flora and fauna. Rocks from this era are less deformed, providing good sections for research.
- In India, Paleozoic rocks are mainly found in the Himalayan region and isolated basins in the peninsula. Stratigraphy has been determined along river sections in the Himalayas.
- Life included early plants, foraminifera, corals, brachiopods, pelecypods, gastropods, cephalopods, ostracods
Magmatic deposits are accumulations of magmatic minerals that are closely related to intermediate or deep-seated igneous rocks. They form as parts of the igneous mass or as offset bodies and crystallize from magma. Magmatic deposits are classified as early or late deposits based on whether the ore minerals crystallize earlier or later than the rock silicates. Early deposits form simultaneously with the host rock via simple crystallization or segregation, while late deposits form towards the end of the magmatic period associated with mafic igneous rocks through processes like crystallization differentiation. Examples of important magmatic deposits in India include diamond and corundum deposits, rare metal pegmatites, carbonatites containing rare earth
The document summarizes the Cudappah Supergroup, an important Proterozoic sedimentary basin in India. It describes the basin's lithostratigraphy, which includes groups like the Papaghni, Chitravati, Nallamalai, and Srisailam quartzites. The basin provides economic resources like barytes, chrysotile, asbestos, steatite, diamonds, uranium, and building/ornamental stones. Radiometric dating indicates the basin formed between 1500-1800 million years ago. The Cudappah Supergroup is a significant paleo-Mesoproterozoic basin that records much of India's early geological history.
This technical paper provides an overview of the major sedimentary basins in India that contain hydrocarbon reserves. It divides the basins into four categories based on the status of hydrocarbon exploration and production. The key basins discussed in detail include the Assam Shelf Basin, Cambay Basin, Bombay Offshore Basin, and Krishna-Godavari Basin. For each basin, it summarizes the geological setting, stratigraphy, hydrocarbon source rocks and reservoir rocks. The paper provides a high-level technical summary of India's major sedimentary basins with proven oil and gas reserves.
Role of Trace Elements In Petrogenesis Gokul Anand
Trace elements occur in very low concentrations in rocks and provide important information about magmatic processes. They can be classified as compatible or incompatible based on whether they fit easily into mantle mineral crystal structures. Geochemical analysis of trace elements using techniques like XRF and ICP-MS allows determination of magma source and depth, identification of fractionating phases, and testing of models of magmatic differentiation. Trace elements are especially useful for rare earth elements, which indicate the type of basalt and can identify fractionating phases from REE patterns.
COAL MICROLITHOTYPES AND THEIR USAGE IN INTERPRETING DEPOSITION ENVIRONMENTOlusegun Ayobami Olatinpo
This document discusses coal microlithotypes and how their analysis can be used to interpret depositional environments. It defines microlithotypes as natural rock associations found within coal that are differentiated based on maceral percentages. Specific microlithotypes form from different plant communities and depositional conditions. Analyzing the microlithotype composition of coal samples can provide insights into the swamp environment where peat formed, such as forested, reed, or open water settings. This information is valuable for geological research and coal quality evaluation.
The document summarizes the geology of the Bundelkhand craton located in central India. The craton covers an area of 26,000 square kilometers and contains three main components: enclaves of supracrustal rocks within older gneisses, the Bundelkhand granite and associated quartz reefs and volcanic rocks, and mafic dyke swarms. The craton has undergone tectonic evolution characterized by three primary shear zone orientations: east-west, northeast-southwest, and northwest-southeast.
INDIAN STRATIGRAPHY COMPLETE PART 1 FOR GATE NET GSI & IAS EXAMSEEMAB AKHTAR
The document summarizes the stratigraphy and geology of various regions in India. It describes five major cratons - Dharwar, Bastar, Singhbhum, Bundelkhand, and Aravali that form the relatively rigid cores surrounded by more ductile mobile belts. It provides details about the lithology, structure, and intrusions of the Dharwar super group as well as summaries of other important geological formations including the Cuddapah super group, Vindhyan super group, Gondwana super group, and Deccan Traps.
CLASSIFICATION OF ORE DEPOSITS
The Mixture of ore minerals are gangue minerals form an Ore deposit. The ore
deposits are generally found enclosed within the country rocks. The ore deposits
are formed in many different ways. Depending upon the process that may
operate to produce them, the ore deposits may be classified as follow:
Magmatic ore deposits.
Sublimation ore deposits.
Pegmatitic ore deposits.
Contact metasomatic ore deposits.
Hydrothermal ore deposits
Cavity filling deposits.
Replacement deposits.
Sedimentation ore deposits.
Evaporation ore deposits.
Residual and mechanical concentration deposits
Metamorphic ore deposits.
MAGMATIC ORE DEPOSITS:
The magmatic ore deposits are the magmatic products which crystallize from
magmas. The magmatic ore deposits are classified as follows:
o Early magmatic deposits
o Late magmatic deposits
Early magmatic deposits:
Early magmatic deposits are formed during the
early stage of the magmatic period. In this case the
ore minerals crystallize earlier than the rock
silicates. The Minerals of Nickel, Chromium, and
Platinum are usually found as early magmatic
deposits. The early magmatic deposits can be sub
divided into two groups:
o Dissemination deposits
o Segregation deposits
Dissemination deposits:
When magma crystallizes
conditions, a granular igneous rock is formed. In
such a rock early formed crystals of
may occur in dissemination.
Segregation deposits:
Magmatic segregation deposits are
formed as a result of gravitative
crystallization differentiation. In
case, the ore mineral which crystallize
early, get ocean-trated on a particular
part of igneous part. The ore deposits
thus formed are known as “Segregation
deposits”.
rly under seated
ore minerals
such
Late Magmatic Deposits:
The ore deposits which are formed to
called late magmatic deposits. The late magmatic deposits contain those ore
minerals which have crystallized at rather low temperature from the residual
magma. The magma which is left after crystallization of early for
is called residual magma. This magma frequently contains many ore minerals. The
late magmatic deposits include most of the magmatic deposits of iron and
titanium ores, these deposits are almost always associated with mafic igneous
rocks.
SUBLIMATION DEPOSITS:
Sublimation is a very minor process of formation of ore deposits. Sublimation
deposits contain only those minerals which have been volatilized by hear and
subsequently redeposit in the same form at low temperature and pressure. The
sublimation deposits are found associated with Volcanoes and Fumaroles. Sulfur
of this origin has been mined in Japan, Italy, and Mexico.
GEOLOGICAL THERMOMETERS
DEFINITION AND CLASSIFICATION
Proper understanding of origin of mineral deposits and their classification requires the knowledge of formation-temperatures of these deposits. Certain minerals, present over there, give information’s with regard to temperatures of their formations and of the enclosing deposits and they are known as geological thermometers. These geological thermometers may be classed chiefly into the following groups based on their preciseness:
1. The thermometers that record fairly accurately the specific temperature condition of formation of deposits.
2. The thermometers that provide an upper or a lower temperature, above or below which the deposits do not form
3. The thermometers that provide a range of temperature within which the deposits form; and
4. The thermometers that serve as rough indications of temperatures of formation of mineral deposits.
The presence of two or more of less precise geological thermometers in a deposit narrows the range of temperature of formation for the deposits
This document discusses heavy minerals found in placer deposits. Placer deposits form from weathering and erosion of heavy minerals that are then transported and concentrated by gravity and deposited in areas like beaches. Common heavy minerals include ilmenite, magnetite, rutile, zircon and monazite. These minerals can be separated and extracted using physical processes that exploit differences in their magnetic, electrostatic and density properties, such as magnetic separation, electrostatic separation and gravity separation using spiral concentrators. Heavy minerals are economically important and indicators of sediment sources.
The document summarizes the exam pattern and syllabus for the UPSC Geologist exam, which consists of two parts. Part 1 is a written exam worth 700 marks covering subjects like geology, hydrology, and English. It involves 3 papers of 200 marks each. Part 2 is an interview worth 200 marks for shortlisted candidates. The syllabus for the written exam includes subjects like geomorphology, structural geology, geotectonics, stratigraphy, and paleontology. Candidates are advised to thoroughly prepare the exam pattern and syllabus in order to improve their chances of success.
The document summarizes the exam pattern and syllabus for the UPSC Geologist exam. It states that the exam has two parts - Part 1 written examination of 700 marks divided into 3 papers of 200 marks each, and a compulsory General English paper of 100 marks. Part 2 is a viva voce for 200 total marks. The syllabus covers subjects like geology, geophysics, chemistry, hydrology and engineering geology. The papers will assess knowledge of topics like mineralogy, igneous and metamorphic petrology, stratigraphy, palaeontology, geomorphology and structural geology.
Field work in geology courses by different scienceThomIya
The document discusses the importance of field geology and outlines the process of planning and conducting geological field work, which generally proceeds in three stages - the planning stage, the mapping, observing, and collecting stage, and the report preparation stage. It emphasizes the importance of studying outcrops, rock units, and key beds in the field and mapping their distribution and contacts. Careful planning is essential to effectively scope the project and collect the most pertinent data.
Basic concepts of Engineering geology from various books and internet images, which will be helpfull to many civil, petroleum and mining engineering students at basic level.
Earth sciences field work along jointiapur tamabil-jaflong section; sylhetSyadur Rahaman
The document summarizes a field report submitted by Md. Syadur Rahaman on field work conducted along the Jaintiapur-Tamabil-Jaflong section in Sylhet, Bangladesh from 2012-2013. The study area lies between 25°04'N to 25°11'N latitude and 92°E to 92°12'E longitude. The field work aimed to identify the area's geological settings and hazards. Nine lithostratigraphic units from the Eocene to Recent periods were identified through field observations and mapping. The area faces geological, hydrological and meteorological hazards such as earthquakes, flash floods and soil acidity issues due to its location near the Shillong Plateau.
This report details the geological observations and interpretations made during a field investigation of the Kaptai Rangamati road-cut section, located in southeastern Bangladesh. The purpose of this report is to document the exposed rock units, their characteristics, and the geological structures present within the road cut.
roperties of Logical Systems:
Logical systems can have properties of consistency, validity, completeness and soundness.
Consistency: this means that no theorem of the system contradicts another.
Validity: this means that the system’s rules of proof will never allow a false inference from true premises.
Completeness: this means that if a theorem is true, it can be proven.
Soundness: which means that the premises are true and the argument is valid
This document provides information about the Engineering Geology and Seismology course CE-312 at UET Peshawar. It includes the instructor's contact information, course objectives to understand geologic factors that influence civil engineering projects and earthquakes, an overview of the engineering geology and seismology topics covered, recommended textbooks, grading criteria which includes exams, assignments, and a group project, and examples of what can happen when geology is ignored in civil projects or how geology can also be interesting to study.
The document lists the group members and registration numbers for a presentation on geotechnical investigation. It includes an outline of the presentation topics which are an introduction to soil exploration, investigation phases, exploration methods, soil sampling, amount of exploration needed, in-situ tests, planning an investigation, and records/reports. The key topics to be covered are the purpose of soil exploration, direct and indirect exploration methods such as test pits and boreholes, sampling disturbed and undisturbed soil samples, and planning the exploration program.
Syllabus ba/bsc geography of Burdwan UniversityPraji Budu
The document outlines the syllabus for a 3-year B.A./B.Sc. Honours degree course in Geography at the University of Burdwan, effective from the 2011-2012 academic session. It details the course structure, examination pattern, and syllabus content for 8 papers across 3 parts. The papers cover topics in physical geography like geomorphology, climatology and hydrology as well as human geography topics such as economic geography, population studies, and the geography of India. Assessment includes both theoretical and practical papers involving cartographic techniques, data analysis, and fieldwork.
Earth Sciences Fieldwork Along Jaintapur-Tamabil-Jaflong Section; SylhetAriful Islam
The document provides an overview of an earth sciences fieldwork conducted in the Jaintiapur-Tamabil-Jaflong section of Sylhet, Bangladesh. It discusses the location, objectives, methodology, demography, climate, drainage systems, and soil conditions of the study area. The fieldwork aimed to observe the stratigraphic succession, geology, and natural hazards of the region. Methods included interviews, field observations, sample collection, and map-making. The climate is humid subtropical with a wet monsoon season. Major rivers include the Dauki and Shari, which provide drainage.
Geophysical methods in Hydrocarbon ExplorationRaboon Redar
1. The document summarizes various geophysical methods used in hydrocarbon exploration, including gravity, magnetics, electromagnetics, seismic reflection, and others.
2. It provides details on the basic theories, principles, and applications of each method. Gravity relies on density variations, magnetics on magnetic susceptibility.
3. Seismic reflection involves analyzing travel times of reflected seismic waves to image subsurface geology based on elastic properties and density.
Nimisha Verma completed a field visit to study the geology of Bhuj and Kachchh, Gujarat from January 6-15, 2014. The report summarizes the key activities and learnings from the visit. It provides an overview of the geography, geomorphology, climate, and stratigraphy of the Mesozoic and Tertiary rocks in the region. Each day of the visit is summarized, describing the locations visited and geological concepts observed and discussed. The report concludes that field trips play an important role in facilitating understanding of geological concepts and developing skills in observation, data collection, and interpretation.
Minning Application and Remote Sensing Using Aster ImageryHrishikesh Satpute
CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION
2. MINING SCENARIO IN INDIA
3. ALL ABOUT ‘ASTER’
4. APPLICATIONS OF ASTER
5. REMOTE SENSING IN MINING
6. GIS FOR MINERAL EXPLORATION
7. CASE STUDIES & ANALYSIS
The document discusses the principles of surveying. It states that surveying involves determining the relative positions of points on the earth's surface through measurements. It provides two definitions of surveying, then discusses some key principles. Specifically, it states that surveying works from establishing control points across a wide area before collecting minor details, and that any point should be located by measuring from at least two reference points with known positions. The overall purpose is to collect data in the field and prepare maps and plans that can be used for engineering projects.
GEOLOGICAL FIELD REPORT On Latachapli, Lakkhirhat, Nijampur, NishanBaria, Kha...Ayon Saha
The preparation of a geological field report of any place is a valuable contribution of a number of people who are to be acknowledged. I am grateful to Almighty God for the excellent opportunity to visit Kuakata & its surrounding area, arranged by the Department of Geology & Mining, University of Barisal and for finishing the visit successfully.
It deals with the physiography, sedimentology geomorphology and its interpretation, correlation with standard geologic succession, environment and economic geology of Latachapli, Lakkhirhat, Nijampur, NishanBaria, Khapra Bhanga, Lebur Ban, Kuakata Sea Beach Kalapara Upazila, Patuakhali District Barisal, Bangladesh along with the interpretation of paleo-environment of depositional history.
Engineering geology involves applying geological principles to engineering projects. It requires studying the geology of an area to ensure geological factors will not negatively impact projects. The document outlines the basic knowledge required for engineering geology, which includes understanding rock and soil types, their properties, and how they are influenced by geologic processes and structures. It also discusses various methods used in geological investigations and their applications to engineering projects.
Course Details of Msc. Engineering Geology & HydrogeologyJeevan Dissanayake
The M.Sc. programme in Engineering Geology and Hydrogeology at the Postgraduate Institute of Science, University of Peradeniya provides theoretical and practical training. The programme aims to develop skills needed for infrastructure development and natural resource management in Sri Lanka. It is a 15-18 month full-time programme consisting of coursework, practical training, and a research project. The programme seeks to give students insight into soil, rock, and water relationships and their applications in fields like civil engineering and natural resource development.
This article briefly discusses on the concept of human security, its dimensions and challenges. The concept of human security is the paradigm shift from state-centered traditional notion of security to individual-centered idea focusing on protection, dignity and sustainable development. In brief it freedom from fear, freedom from want and beyond.
Anthropological study to disaster management is the new and holistic approach. It helps to explore the synergistic relation of anthropology and disaster.
The formation and deformation of earth's crust. The lithosphere is not a homogeneous unit. It is divided in to multiple plates. The internal heat process, the convection process affects the plate tectonics.
Mao tse tung a transformational leader and his guerilla warBhadra Thakuri
Mao Tse Tung as a transformation leader who is credited for the creation of modern PRC from agrarian and semi-feudal China. He deserved charisma, vision, strong conviction as well as commitment. He was the multi-dimensional personality. He served as an revolutionary soldier, teacher, leader and a poet.
Cyber power affects war outcomes in modern eraBhadra Thakuri
Cyber space is being emerging as new domain of warfare. In fifth generation of warfare, it is more likely that the cyber power significantly affects the result of wars.
Philosophical dimensions of research with caseBhadra Thakuri
Sound research stands on the balanced combination of philosophy, methodology and rhetoric. This slide covers the philosophical trinity of research- the epistemology, ontology and the axiology, the body, mind and the soul part of research respectively.
SAP Unveils Generative AI Innovations at Annual Sapphire ConferenceCGB SOLUTIONS
At its annual SAP Sapphire conference, SAP introduced groundbreaking generative AI advancements and strategic partnerships, underscoring its commitment to revolutionizing business operations in the AI era. By integrating Business AI throughout its enterprise cloud portfolio, which supports the world's most critical processes, SAP is fostering a new wave of business insight and creativity.
Dr. Firoozeh Kashani-Sabet is an innovator in Middle Eastern Studies and approaches her work, particularly focused on Iran, with a depth and commitment that has resulted in multiple book publications. She is notable for her work with the University of Pennsylvania, where she serves as the Walter H. Annenberg Professor of History.
BIRDS DIVERSITY OF SOOTEA BISWANATH ASSAM.ppt.pptxgoluk9330
Ahota Beel, nestled in Sootea Biswanath Assam , is celebrated for its extraordinary diversity of bird species. This wetland sanctuary supports a myriad of avian residents and migrants alike. Visitors can admire the elegant flights of migratory species such as the Northern Pintail and Eurasian Wigeon, alongside resident birds including the Asian Openbill and Pheasant-tailed Jacana. With its tranquil scenery and varied habitats, Ahota Beel offers a perfect haven for birdwatchers to appreciate and study the vibrant birdlife that thrives in this natural refuge.
Signatures of wave erosion in Titan’s coastsSérgio Sacani
The shorelines of Titan’s hydrocarbon seas trace flooded erosional landforms such as river valleys; however, it isunclear whether coastal erosion has subsequently altered these shorelines. Spacecraft observations and theo-retical models suggest that wind may cause waves to form on Titan’s seas, potentially driving coastal erosion,but the observational evidence of waves is indirect, and the processes affecting shoreline evolution on Titanremain unknown. No widely accepted framework exists for using shoreline morphology to quantitatively dis-cern coastal erosion mechanisms, even on Earth, where the dominant mechanisms are known. We combinelandscape evolution models with measurements of shoreline shape on Earth to characterize how differentcoastal erosion mechanisms affect shoreline morphology. Applying this framework to Titan, we find that theshorelines of Titan’s seas are most consistent with flooded landscapes that subsequently have been eroded bywaves, rather than a uniform erosional process or no coastal erosion, particularly if wave growth saturates atfetch lengths of tens of kilometers.
Embracing Deep Variability For Reproducibility and Replicability
Abstract: Reproducibility (aka determinism in some cases) constitutes a fundamental aspect in various fields of computer science, such as floating-point computations in numerical analysis and simulation, concurrency models in parallelism, reproducible builds for third parties integration and packaging, and containerization for execution environments. These concepts, while pervasive across diverse concerns, often exhibit intricate inter-dependencies, making it challenging to achieve a comprehensive understanding. In this short and vision paper we delve into the application of software engineering techniques, specifically variability management, to systematically identify and explicit points of variability that may give rise to reproducibility issues (eg language, libraries, compiler, virtual machine, OS, environment variables, etc). The primary objectives are: i) gaining insights into the variability layers and their possible interactions, ii) capturing and documenting configurations for the sake of reproducibility, and iii) exploring diverse configurations to replicate, and hence validate and ensure the robustness of results. By adopting these methodologies, we aim to address the complexities associated with reproducibility and replicability in modern software systems and environments, facilitating a more comprehensive and nuanced perspective on these critical aspects.
https://hal.science/hal-04582287
Compositions of iron-meteorite parent bodies constrainthe structure of the pr...Sérgio Sacani
Magmatic iron-meteorite parent bodies are the earliest planetesimals in the Solar System,and they preserve information about conditions and planet-forming processes in thesolar nebula. In this study, we include comprehensive elemental compositions andfractional-crystallization modeling for iron meteorites from the cores of five differenti-ated asteroids from the inner Solar System. Together with previous results of metalliccores from the outer Solar System, we conclude that asteroidal cores from the outerSolar System have smaller sizes, elevated siderophile-element abundances, and simplercrystallization processes than those from the inner Solar System. These differences arerelated to the formation locations of the parent asteroids because the solar protoplane-tary disk varied in redox conditions, elemental distributions, and dynamics at differentheliocentric distances. Using highly siderophile-element data from iron meteorites, wereconstruct the distribution of calcium-aluminum-rich inclusions (CAIs) across theprotoplanetary disk within the first million years of Solar-System history. CAIs, the firstsolids to condense in the Solar System, formed close to the Sun. They were, however,concentrated within the outer disk and depleted within the inner disk. Future modelsof the structure and evolution of the protoplanetary disk should account for this dis-tribution pattern of CAIs.
Rodents, Birds and locust_Pests of crops.pdfPirithiRaju
Mole rat or Lesser bandicoot rat, Bandicotabengalensis
•Head -round and broad muzzle
•Tail -shorter than head, body
•Prefers damp areas
•Burrows with scooped soil before entrance
•Potential rat, one pair can produce more than 800 offspringsin one year
The use of probiotics and antibiotics in aquaculture production.pptxMAGOTI ERNEST
Aquaculture is one of the fastest growing agriculture sectors in the world, providing food and nutritional security to millions of people. However, disease outbreaks are a constraint to aquaculture production, thereby affecting the socio-economic status of people in many countries. Due to intensive farming practices, infectious diseases are a major problem in finfish and shellfish aquaculture, causing heavy loss to farmers (Austin & Sharifuzzaman, 2022). For instance Bacterial fish diseases are responsible for a huge annual loss estimated at USD 6 billion in 2014, and this figure has increased to 9.58 in 2020 globally.
Disease control in the aquaculture industry has been achieved using various methods, including traditional means, synthetic chemicals and antibiotics. In the 1970s and 1980s oxolinic acid, oxytetracycline (OTC), furazolidone, potential sulphonamides (sulphadiazine and trimethoprim) and amoxicillin were the most commonly used antibiotics in fish farming (Amenyogbe et al., 2020). However, the indiscriminate use of antibiotics in disease control has led to selective pressure of antibiotic resistance in bacteria, a property that may be readily transferred to other bacteria (Bondad‐Reantaso et al., 2023a). Traditional methods are ineffective against controlling new disease in large aquaculture systems. Therefore, alternative methods need to be developed to maintain a healthy microbial environment in aquaculture systems, thereby maintaining the health of the cultured organisms.
The use of probiotics and antibiotics in aquaculture production.pptx
Geological fieldwork report
1. Geological Excursion and Field Work in Chobhar Area
A Report Submitted to Prof. Dr. Tara Nidhi Bhattarai
Samarpan Academy (Institute of Crisis Management Studies) for the Partial
Fulfillment of the internal evaluation
of the Paper CMS-502 Geological Processes and Natural Hazards
Submitted by:
Bhadra Bahadur Singh Thakuri
Masters in Crisis Management Studies
First Semester
28th
April, 2018 Roll No. 4
2. 2
Acknowledgement
We are privileged with an excellent opportunity to have geological excursion and fieldwork in
Chobhar area on 24th
March 2018. To be a good crisis manager, the fair amount of knowledge
about the geological process and its implication on the crisis is essential. In this regard, I would
like to acknowledge the wisdom of Samarpan Academy (ICMS) for selecting such an interesting
and useful subject (Geological Process & natural Hazards) as a part of course curriculum and in
addition, organizing fieldwork to impart practical knowledge.
I am deeply indebted to Prof. Dr. Tara Nidhi Bhattarai sir, faculty of ICMS for his valuable
insights during theoretical classes followed by his presence, conduct and guidance during
geological excursion and field work with tireless efforts despite his busy schedule. He has been
my source of inspiration. I sincerely thank his generosity and greatness.
Similarly, I would like to thank all of my colleagues of ICMS 5th
Batch for their kind
cooperation and generosity during this fieldwork. I would also like ensure that any deficiencies
in this report remain my own responsibilities.
Bhadra Bahadur Singh Thakuri
28th April 2018
3. 3
Table of Contents
Acknowledgement ii
Chapter-1 Introduction
1.1 Aim and Objectives 1
1.2 Investigation/ Study to meet the objectives 1
1.3 Selection of excursion site 2
1.4 Map of excursion site 2
1.5 Relevant Literature for study context 2
Chapter-2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Observation method 3
2.2 Experiment method 3
2.3 Descriptive method 3
2.4 Equipments and their uses 3
Chapter-3 Results
3.1 Observing the geomorphic features 4
3.2 Gaining information from topographical map 4
3.3 Observing geological structures & processes 5-6
3.4 Identifying rocks and its characteristics 6
3.5 Attitude measurement 7
3.6 Finding own position on map 8
3.7 Time estimation for point to point walk 9
Chapter-4 Discussion 9-10
Chapter-5 Conclusion 10
Reference 11
4. 4
Chapter 1 Introduction
Geology is the fascinating subject (Bhattarai and Rai, 2015, p. 1) in which we learn interesting
and useful facts about mother earth. The best way of study is observing the aspects of geology in
surrounding areas. As a part of a course requirement, we students of ICMS 5th
batch got an
opportunity to have geological excursion and fieldwork in Chobhar area. We were engaged in
various practices in observing, identifying, experimenting and computing on geological features,
structures, information and attitudes in the close guidance of subject matter expert. To document
the learning achievements of fieldwork in systematic order this report has been prepared.
1.1 Aim and Objectives
The aim of the geological excursion and field work is to impart the practical knowledge to the
students about geological processes and its impact on crisis management.
To accomplish the selected aim the specific objectives are as mentioned below;
1.1.1 To observe and identify the geomorphic features in and around the site.
1.1.2 To handle the equipment like service protractor, Brunton compass and geological
hammers for the purpose of geological study and excursion.
1.1.3 To gain managerial information from the topographical map such as surface elevation
with the help of contour lines and measurement of physical structures with the help of map scale.
1.1.4 Observation, identification and analysis of geological structures like pothole, sink hole,
rock joints, joint plane etc.
1.1.5 To observe the weathering and erosion process.
1.1.6 To identify and observe the character of rocks using dilute hydrochloric acid and
geological hammer.
1.1.7 To measure the attitudes like bearing, strike, dip direction and dip amounts.
1.1.8 To find own position on the map by trisection method.
1.1.9 To estimate the reasonable time to walk from one point to another.
1.2 Investigation/ Study to meet the objectives
The small groups of students were engaged in various objective focused practices (which will be
described in later segments of the report) to achieve the above- mentioned learning objectives. In
each practice, the groups were given tasks to solve themselves relating the theoretical learning in
the classes. The group works were checked and corrected. In addition, some tasks were
demonstrated and briefed by the teacher on the spot. Walk through talk through between teacher
and students were done reaching every part of the site. Students were privileged with close
observation of every geological structures guided by subject matter expert (SME). The features
of rocks were examined by using a geological hammer and diluted HCL.
5. 5
1.3 Selection of excursion site
The field site was Chobhar area which is situated at approximately 14 km distance towards South
West from ICMS. The place is rich in geological features and structures. Easily identifiable land
features can be observed on map and ground. The geological works of Bagmati River in relation
to tectonic activity can be studied. The exposed rocks can be examined and measured. The
diverse landscape in and around the area can be studied with the help of contour line on a map
and observe them on the ground. The place is close to Kathmandu valley and accessible by
mechanical transport up to the site. Hence the site is appropriate for one-day turn round field
work in cost effective manner.
1.4 Map of excursion site
The satellite image from Google map and topographical map of field site are shown here.
Fig. 1.1 Satellite image and topographic map of Chobhar area.
1.5 Relevant literature for study context
The book "Fundamentals of Geological Excursion and Field Work" written by Bhattarai, T.N. &
Rai, S.M., (2015) is referred to set the context of the study regarding geological knowledge and
guidelines for excursion/ fieldwork. Furthermore the book of Keller, E.K, (1999) titled
"Introduction to Environmental Geology" and Tarbuck, E.J., Lutgens, F.K., (2005) "Earth: An
Introduction to Physical Geology" are reviewed.
6. 6
Chapter 2 Materials and Methods
Following multiple study methods were adopted to achieve the objectives of the fieldwork.
2.1 Observation method
Students observed geomorphic features like peak, saddle, slope, spur, river terraces etc.
Geological structures like cut bank, deposit bank, rock formation, joint plane, cracks, bedding
plane and so on and the geological process like chemical weathering by acid rain, physical
weathering by tree roots and erosion/ deposition by river were observed.
2.2 Experiment method
The type of rock, it's age, and weathering probability were experimented with the help of a
geological hammer. The soft sound when banging the rock with a hammer and the scratch lines
on rock indicated that the rocks are softer than steel and weathering chance is high. Likewise, the
experiment of dropping dilute HCL on bedding plane producing Fizz justified that the rock
contains calcium carbonate and it is sedimentary rock particularly limestone.
2.3 Descriptive method
After observation and experiment, our instructor described how the geological processes took
place in past and present influence in future. The impact geological process on crisis
management was the core issue of description.
2.4 Equipments and their use
The various equipments used during fieldwork are their utility is shown in below table;
S. N. Equipments/ materials Use during fieldwork
1. Topographical Map Orientation, locating positions & gaining information
2. Geological Hammer Testing, extracting and crushing rock/fossil samples
3. Brunton Compass Measuring forward/back bearing, strike, dip direction/amount
5. Dilute HCL in a dropper To experiment the type of rock observing a chemical reaction
6. Protractor To measure and plot the grid bearing on the map
7. Notebook, pencil, map
marker, ruler, measuring
tape
Note taking, map marking, measuring map distances and
features on the ground
8. Camera To take photographs
9. Water bottle, sunglass,
and sports shoes
Personal use during fieldwork
Table 2.1 Equipments used during fieldwork.
7. 7
Chapter 3 Results
Various practices were conducted during fieldwork. The results of the field work are described
below with the help of photographs and tables.
3.1 Observation of geomorphic features
Fig. 3.1 Geomorphic features observed from excursion site.
3.2 Information from a topographical map
Students practiced in gaining following managerial information from the topographical map.
S. N. Descriptions Data Method
1. Elevation at the east side of suspension
bridge near Manjushree park
1280
meter
Following the contour lines on a
map
2. Length of the suspension bridge 75
meter
Converting the length from map
to ground with the help of scale
3. Elevation of river bank beneath the east
end of the bridge
1260
meter
With the help of contour lines
Table 3.1 Information gained from a topographical map.
Peaks
SaddleRidgelineSlope
Spur
River
Terrace 3
River
Terrace 2 River
Terrace 1
Cut Bank
Deposition
Bank
8. 8
3.3 Observing geological structures
Below are the photos of geological structures observed at the site.
Fig. 3.2 Photos of geological processes taken at excursion site.
Joint plane parallel to river course Bridge foundation on rock joints
Potholes made of river water pressure Sink holes due to chemical weathering
Bedding plane & pebble imbricationsBase rock & alluvium deposit by river
9. 9
Fig. 3.3 Photos showing chemical & physical weathering.
3.4 Identifying rocks and its characteristics
The experiment using diluted HCL showed that the rocks are sedimentary (limestone) containing
calcium carbonate. The sound and scratch made by geological hammer indicate that the rocks are
softer than steel and high chances of weathering by geological agents.
Fig. 3.4 Photos showing experiment on rock.
Physical weathering by tree rootsChemical weathering by acid rain
Dropping diluted HCL on the rock HCL reaction with calcium carbonate
10. 10
3.5 Attitude measurement
The attitudes of rocks exposed at different places were measured as given in the table.
Obsn
No.
Structure Strike Dip Direction Dip
amountAzimuth Quadrant Azimuth Quadrant
1. Bedding plane & Bed 1500
-3300
S300
E-
N300
W
2400
S600
W 500
2. Bedding plane & Bed 1480
-3280
S320
E-
N320
W
2380
S580
W 550
3. Bedding plane & Bed 1450
-3250
S350
E-
N350
W
2350
S550
W 350
Table 3.2 Attitude measurement of the rocks.
Fig. 3.5 Photos showing measurement of attitude
Measuring strike on rock B.P. Measuring dip direction on B.P.
Measuring dip amount on bed Plotting grid bearing on map
11. 11
3.6 Finding own position on the map
Observer's position was located on the map by tri-section method. For this three easily
identifiable features on map and ground were taken for reference points. With the help of
Brunton compass, the forward and backward bearing of each feature were read. Adjusting the
declination, the magnetic bearing were converted into grid bearing and plotted on a map with the
help of protractor. The point where the lines reading back bearing of three features contact each
other that is the own position on the map. Below table shows the azimuth bearings of each
reference points.
S. N. Feature Forward Bearing Back Bearing
1. Peak (ht. 1980 m) 2260
0460
2. Last end of Spur (Point C) 1820
0020
3. Hill (Point D) 1460
3260
Table 3.3 Azimuth bearing of the features
Fig. 3.4 Locating own position on the map.
Determining own position on map by tri-section method
41
12. 12
3.7 Time estimation to walk from point A to C
Depending upon the scale of the map, the aerial distance from point A to C is 4.3 km whereas the
ground distance following the road/track is approximately 10 km. The average walking rate of a
healthy human is 5 km/hr hence it takes 2 hours to travel the distance from point A to B.
Chapter 4 Discussion
4.1 Practice 1: Observing geomorphic features. The existing geomorphic features around
the area were formed and deformed due to plate tectonics over geological time. The Bagmati
River is older than the surrounding hills. Due to the tectonic upliftment, the river flow was
obstructed, deposition took place and the giant lake was formed in Kathmandu valley in
geological past. The river is constant erosion agent. Later on, when the uplift stopped or
subsidence took place, the river erosion became much faster and the lake converted to the valley
with drainage. We also observed the multiple terraces formed at the depositional bank of the
river. There is newly existing terrace towards river side of deposition bank.
4.2 Practice 2: Gaining information from the map. A crisis manager can gain
information from the map without going to the field using map reading skill. It helps to assess
crisis situation and make plan e.g. the width of Chobhar George is 80 meter and the information
is that the flood in Bagmati River is carrying 100 meter long trees. We can estimate the possible
crisis of river block.
4.3 Practice 3: Observing geological structure and processes. Various geological
structures like bedding plane, joints, joint plane, pothole, sinkhole and processes like chemical
weathering due to acid rain over limestone and physical weathering due to tree roots were
observed. The alluvium deposit and pebble imbrications in circular & semi-circular shape in far
above bank indicates that once river was at that level. The river flows parallel to the joint plane.
The bridge foundation over the rocks having inclined joints needs rock bolting. Knowing the
structures and processes at the site, a crisis manager can have a good decision regarding
construction, development projects and agricultural activities.
4.4 Practice 4: Identifying rocks & testing its features. The common rocks available in
the area, its hardness, weathering condition and mineral composition were studied which helped
to know the rock formation process and geological location and its best use for human beings.
4.5 Practice 5: Attitude measurement. It's relations between directional features and
horizontal plane measured as a strike, dip direction and dip amount. These attitudes help to get
13. 13
the orientation of any feature containing rock/ mineral and estimate the area of interest for
mining.
4.6 Practice 6: Finding own position and estimating time to walk. To gain information
from map and formulate plan, it is necessary to find out the own position on map. It helps to be
oriented with map and ground as well. Similarly, the distance calculation helps to make plans
and decision to reach from own location to destination point.
Chapter 5 Conclusion
The fieldwork conducted at the geologically rich site remained utmost interesting and useful. We
are benefitted with practical knowledge regarding geological processes and materials on earth
surface as well as in its interior. As students of crisis management, it is necessary to incorporate
the consequences of geological processes in decision making and management. We must be
aware how the events and process in past and present affect the future. Our efforts should be
directed towards the judicious use of resources ensuring sustainable development.
14. 14
References
Bhattarai, T.N., Rai, S.M., 2015. Fundamental of Geological Excursion and Field Work, Second.
ed. Creative Work Nepal, Kathmandu.
Keller, E.K., 1999. Introduction to Environmental Geology. Prentice-Hall, New Jersey.
Tarbuck, E.J., Lutgens, F.K., 2005. Earth: An Introduction to Physical Geology, 8th ed. Prentice-
Hall, New Jersey.
Prepared By:
Bhadra Bahadur Singh Thakuri
5th
Batch
ICMS First Semester
Roll No. 4
28th
March, 2018
Members in team work